View source for Brahm

'''Brahm''' or '''Brahman''' is "the unchanging reality amidst and beyond the world", which "cannot be exactly defined". It has been described in [[Sanskrit]] as ''[[Satcitananda|Sat-cit-ānanda]]''<ref>It means being-[[consciousness]]-bliss.</ref> and as the highest reality, the final element in a dialectical process which cannot be eliminated [http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/sublate Merriam Webster Dictionary] or annihilated (German: "aufheben").}}{{refn|group=note|It is also defined as:
* The unchanging, [[Infinity|infinite]], [[Immanence|immanent]], and [[transcendence (religion)|transcendent]] [[reality]] which is the Divine Ground of all [[matter]], [[energy]], [[time]], [[space]], [[being]], and everything beyond in this [[Universe]]; that is the one supreme, universal spirit.<ref>{{cite book | last = Brodd | first = Jefferey | authorlink = | coauthors = | title = World Religions | publisher = Saint Mary's Press | year = 2003 | location = Winona, MN | pages = | url = | doi = | id = | isbn = 978-0-88489-725-5 }}</ref>
* The one supreme, all pervading Spirit that is the origin and support of the [[Phenomenon|phenomenal]] universe.<ref>John Bowker (ed.)(2012), ''The Oxford Dictionary of World Religions'', Oxford University Press.[http://www.oxfordreference.com/view/10.1093/acref/9780192800947.001.0001/acref-9780192800947-e-1183]</ref>

Brahman is conceived as [[Ātman (Hinduism)|Atman]], [[Personal god|personal]], [[Absolute (philosophy)|impersonal]], without qualities}} or [[Para Brahman]],or in various combinations of these qualities depending on the [[Hindu Philosophy|philosophical school]]. According to [[Advaita]], a liberated human being (''[[jivanmukta]]'') has realised Brahman as his or her own [[Ātman (Hinduism)|true self]].

The [[Isha Upaniṣad]] says: <blockquote>Auṃ – That supreme ''Brahman'' is infinite, and this conditioned ''Brahman'' is infinite. The infinite proceeds from infinite. If you subtract the infinite from the infinite, the infinite remains alone.</blockquote>

==Etymology==
[[Sanskrit]] ''Brahman'' (an ''n''-stem, nominative ''{{IAST|bráhmā}}'') from a [[root (linguistics)|root]] ''{{IAST|bṛh}}-'' "to swell, expand, grow, enlarge"  is a neutral noun to be distinguished from the masculine ''{{IAST|[[brahmán]]}}''—denoting a person associated with Brahman, and from [[Brahmā]], the creator God of the [[Hindu]] Trinity, the [[Trimurti]]. Brahman is thus a gender-neutral concept that implies greater personality than masculine or feminine conceptions of the deity. Brahman is referred to as the supreme self.

==Semantics and pronunciation==
{{unreferenced section|date=May 2012}}
: ''Here the underlined vowels carry the [[Vedic accent|Vedic Sanskrit ''udātta'' short pitch accent]]. It is usual to use an acute accent symbol for this purpose.''<ref>It denotes on the first syllable.</ref>

In [[Vedic Sanskrit]]:-
*''Br<u>a</u>hm<u>a</u>'' (ब्रह्म) (nominative singular), ''br<u>a</u>hm<u>a</u>n'' (ब्रह्मन्) (stem) (neuter<ref name="neuter">Not Masculine or Feminine  (see [[Grammatical gender]]).</ref> [[gender]]) means the Great Cosmic Spirit, from root ''brh<u>a</u>''
*''Br<u>a</u>hmānd<u>a</u>'' (ब्रह्माण्ड) (nominative singular), from stems ''brh<u>a</u>'' (to expand) + ''and<u>a</u>'' (egg), means universe as an expansion of a [[World egg|cosmic egg]] (''[[Hiranyagarbha]]'') or the macrocosm. [[Brahmānda Purāṇa]] discusses [[cosmogenesis]]. [[Bhāgavata Purāṇa]] also discusses [[cosmogony]] and fundamental principles of material nature in detail.<ref>http://srimadbhagavatam.com/sb Bhaktivedanta VedaBase: Śrīmad Bhāgavatam</ref>

In later Sanskrit usage:-
*''Br<u>a</u>hm<u>a</u>'' (ब्रह्म) (nominative singular), ''brahman'' (stem) (neuter<ref name="neuter" /> [[gender]]) means the concept of the transcendent and immanent ultimate reality of the One Godhead or Supreme Cosmic Spirit in Hinduism; the concept is central to [[Hindu]] philosophy, especially [[Vedanta]]; this is discussed below. Also note that the word Brahman in this sense is exceptionally treated as masculine (see the ''Merrill-Webster [[Sanskrit]] Dictionary''). It is called "the Brahman" in [[English language|English]]. ''Brahm'' is another variant of ''Brahman''.
*''Br<u>a</u>hmā'' (ब्रह्मा) (nominative singlular), ''Brahman'' (ब्रह्मन्) (stem) ([[masculine]] [[gender]]), means the deity or [[Deva (Hinduism)|deva]] [[Brahma (god)|Prajāpati Brahmā]]. He is one of the members of the [[Trimurti|Hindu trinity]] and associated with creation, but does not have a cult in present day India. This is because [[Brahmā]], the creator-god, is long-lived but not eternal i.e. [[Brahmā]] gets absorbed back into [[Puruṣa]] at the end of an aeon and is born again at the beginning of a new [[Kalpa (aeon)|kalpa]].

One must not confuse these with:
*A ''brāhm<u>a</u>ņ<u>a</u>'' (ब्राह्मण) (masculine, pronounced {{IPA-sa|ˈbraːhməɳə|}}),<ref>It literally means "pertaining to prayer".</ref> is a prose commentary on the [[Veda|Vedic mantras]]—an integral part of the Vedic literature.
*A ''brāhm<u>a</u>ņ<u>a</u>'' (ब्राह्मण) (masculine, same pronunciation as above), means priest; in this usage the word is usually rendered in English as "[[Brahmin]]". This usage is also found in the [[Atharva Veda]]. In neuter plural form, Brahmāņi. See [[Vedic priest]].
*''[[Iśvara]]'', (lit., Supreme Lord), in [[Advaita]], is identified as a partial worldly manifestation, with limited attributes, of the ultimate reality, the attribute-less Brahman. In [[Viśiṣtadvaita]] and [[Dvaita]], however, Iśvara<ref>He is the Supreme Controller.</ref> has infinite attributes and the source of the impersonal Brahman.
*''[[Deva (Hinduism)|Deva]]s'', the expansions of Brahman/God into various forms, each with a certain quality. In the Vedic religion, there were 33 devas, which later became exaggerated to 330 million devas. In fact, devas are themselves regarded as more mundane manifestations of the One and the Supreme Brahman (See [[Para Brahman]]). The Sanskrit word for "ten million" also means group, and 330 million devas originally meant 33 types of divine manifestations.

==Understanding Brahman==

===Vedic===
In the early [[Historical Vedic religion|Vedic religion]] ''Brahman'' 
was the name given to the power that made [[Yagya|the sacrifice]] 
effective, namely the spiritual power of the sacred utterances 
pronounced by the vedic priests who were by virtue of this known as 
''brahmins''.{{sfn|Rodrigues|2006|p=59}} Connected with the Vedantic 
Hinduism, ''Brahman'' signified the power to grow, the expansive and 
self-altering process of ritual and sacrifice, often visually realized 
in the sputtering of flames as they received the all important [[ghee]] 
(clarified butter) and rose in concert with the [[mantra]]s of the 
[[Vedas]].<ref>{{cite book|last=Singh|first=N.K.|title=Global 
Encyclopaedia of Indian Philosophy|year=2010|publisher=Global Vision 
Publishing House|location=New 
Delhi|isbn=978-8182202948|page=147}}</ref>

The [[Vedas]] say that by Brahman, the initial manifestation of the 
material universe and all therein arose: 
{{quote|Great indeed are the [[Deva (Hinduism)|deva]]s who have sprung 
out of Brahman."&nbsp;— [[Atharva Veda]]}}

===Upaniṣads===
The [[History of Hinduism#Ancient India|later Vedic religion]] produced the [[Upaniṣads]], a series of profound philosophical reflections in which Brahman is now considered to be the one Absolute Reality behind changing appearances. It is the universal substrate from which material things originate and to which they return after their dissolution.

The sages of the [[Upaniṣads]] made their pronouncements on the basis of [[dhyāna in Hinduism|meditative experience]] and [[jnāna|direct knowledge]].{{citation needed|date=December 2013}} The earlier Upaniṣads were written during a time of intensely fertile philosophical and religious revival in which the old dogmas were being questioned while experiential knowledge and logic were being emphasized. It is at this point that the [[polytheism]] that characterizes the [[Ṛgveda|vedic hymns]] gives way to a search for what is common in the seemingly [[Pluralism (philosophy)|pluralistic]] [[universe]]. The [[monism|unitive concepts]] that arise from this tendency are those of ''[[dharma]]'' and ''brahman''.

The Upaniṣads recount the teachings of gurus to pupils ([[Brahmacarya]]s) who are seeking knowledge of Brahman. This knowledge of brahman is not mere epistemic knowledge (knowing ''about'' something) but a direct, unambiguous knowing that is liberating in its experience. This culture of acquiring personal knowledge and its concomitant [[mokṣa|liberation]], separate from direct [[Veda|Vedic]] influence, is now referred to as [[Śramana|śramanic culture]] and has constituted an important influence on the development of mainstream Hinduism.

====Descriptions of Brahman====
The description of Brahman from [[Māndukya Upaniṣad]]:
<blockquote>
सर्वं ह्येतद् ब्रह्मायमात्मा ब्रह्म सोयमात्मा चतुष्पात्
<br>sarvam hyetad brahmāyamātmā [[brahma]] soyamātmā chatushpāt'''
– [[Mandukya Upanishad]], verse-2
</blockquote>

*Translation:-
<blockquote>
sarvam (सर्वम्)- whole/all/everything; hi (हि)- really/surely/indeed; etad (एतद्)- this here/this; [[brahma]] (ब्रह्म)- Brahma/Brahman; ayam (अयम्)- this/here; [[Ātmā|ātmā]](आत्मा)- [[atma]]/atman; sah(सः)- he; ayam (अयम्)- this/here; chatus(चतुस्)- four/quadruple; pāt(पात्)- step/foot/quarter
</blockquote>

*With the [[sandhi]] expanded:-
<blockquote>
सर्वम् हि एतद् ब्रह्म अयम् आत्मा ब्रह्म सः अयम् आत्मा चतुस पात्
<br>sarvam hi etad brahma ayam ātmā brahm sah ayam ātmā chatus paat
</blockquote>

*Simple meaning:-
<blockquote>
All indeed is this Brahman; He is Atman; He has four quarters.
</blockquote>

====The Great Sayings====
Several ''mahā-vākyas'' or "Great Sayings"  from the Upaniṣads indicate what the principle of Brahman is:<ref name="EoH 270">{{cite book|last=Jones|first=Constance|title=Encyclopedia of Hinduism|year=2007|publisher=Infobase Publishing|location=New York|isbn=0816073368|pages=270}}</ref>
{| class="wikitable sortable"
|-
! text!! source  !! literal translation !! [[Vaiṣnava]] Interpretation{{according to whom|date=October 2013}}
|-
| ''brahma satyam jagan mithya'' ||[[Asangoham]]<ref>Asangoham</ref> || "Brahman is real, the world is unreal" ||
|-
| ''ekam evadvitiyam brahma''  ||[[Chāndogya Upaniṣad]]<ref>Chāndogya Upaniṣad 6.2.1</ref>|| "Brahman is one, without a second" ||
|-
| ''prajnānam brahma''||[[Aitareya Upaniṣad]]<ref>Aitareya Upaniṣad 3.3</ref>  || "Brahman is knowledge" || Brahman knows everything
|-
| ''ayam ātmā brahma'' || [[Bṛhadaranyaka Upaniṣad]]<ref>Bṛhadaranyaka Upaniṣad 4.4.5</ref> || "The Self is Brahman" || The soul is of the same eternal, spiritual and transcendental nature as Brahman
|-
| ''aham brahmāsmi'' || Bṛhadaranyaka [[Upaniṣad]]<ref>Bṛhadaranyaka Upaniṣad 1.4.10</ref>  || "I am Brahman"   || I am as eternal as Brahman
|-
| ''[[tat tvam asi]]'' ||Chāndogya [[Upaniṣad]]<ref>Chāndogya [[Upaniṣad]] 6.8.7 et seq.</ref>  || "Thou art that" ("You are Brahman") || "You are the servant of the Supreme"<ref>Madhavacarya, Mayavada sata dushani, text 6</ref>
|-
| ''sarvam khalvidam brahma'' ||Chāndogya Upaniṣad<ref>Chāndogya [[Upaniṣad]]14.1</ref> || "All is truly Brahman" || Brahman is everything, and all we see are His different energies&nbsp;— material or spiritual
|-
| ''sachchidā[[nanda]] brahma''|| <ref>''Nrisimhauttaratāpini'', cited in Swami Nikhilananda, ''The Upaniṣads: A new Translation'' Vol. I.</ref><ref>In the Bhagavad Gītā, [[Kṛṣṇa]] also describes the nature of Brahman. For example, he says "And I am the basis of the impersonal Brahman, which is immortal, imperishable and eternal and is the constitutional position of ultimate happiness" (brahmano hi pratishthaham...) [http://bhagavadgitaasitis.com/14/27/en1 B-Gita (As-it-Is) 14.27] Translation by [[A. C. Bhaktivedanta Swami Prabhupada]]</ref> || "Brahman or Brahma is existence, [[consciousness]], and bliss". || Brahman, has [[sat]]-[[cit]]-[[ananda]]-vigraha&nbsp;— eternal spiritual body which is full of bliss, and He is Supreme Person (conscious Absolute Person/Truth)
|}

====Brahman and Atma====
Some [[Upaniṣad]]ic statements identify the [[Ātman (Hinduism)|Ātmā]], the Self, with Brahman. While [[Advaita]] philosophy considers Brahman to be without form, qualities, or attributes, [[Visishtadvaita]] and [[Dvaita]] philosophies understand Brahman as one with infinite auspicious qualities. In [[Advaita]], the ultimate reality is expressed as [[Nirguna Brahman]]. Nirguna means formless, attribute-less and indescribable. Advaita explains all personal forms of ''God'' including [[Viṣṇu]] and [[Śiva]] with a metaphor: ''The [[Saguna brahman|personal God]] is [[Nirguna brahman|impersonal reality]] reflected upon the mirror of [[Avidya (Hinduism)|ignorance]] and [[Māyā (Hinduism)|illusion]].'' In [[Visishtadvaita]] and [[Dvaita]], God is [[Saguna Brahman]] with infinite attributes and is the source of the impersonal [[Nirguna Brahman]], and God's energy is regarded as [[Māyā (Hinduism)|Māyā]].

====Mokṣa====
{{Main|Mokṣa}}

While Brahman lies behind the sum total of the objective universe, the human mind boggles at any attempt to explain it with only the tools provided by reason. Gitā explains the concept of ([[Bhagavad Gitā]]<ref>Bhagavad Gitā 5.21</ref>"beyond the senses, beyond the mind, beyond intelligence, beyond imagination."

Yajur[[Veda]] ''Māndakopaniṣad''<ref>Māndakopaniṣad 3.2.4</ref> reads: ''This Self  is not attained by one devoid of strength, nor through delusion, nor through knowledge non-+associated with [[monasticism]]. But the Self of that knower, who strives through these means, enters into the abode that is Brahman.''

Yajur[[Veda]]<ref>''Māndakopaniṣad'' 3.2.6</ref> reads: ''Those to whom the entity presented by the Vedantic knowledge has become fully ascertained and who endeavor assiduously with the help of the [[Yoga]] of [[monasticism]], become pure in mind. At the supreme moment of final departure all of them become identified with the supreme Immortality in the worlds that are Brahman and they become freed from the cycle of Birth and Death.''

===Vedānta===
{{Main|Vedānta}}

The later Vedantic philosophers teach that the liberated being, upon realizing his or her true nature, reaches the state of [[saccidānanda|existence, awareness and bliss]]; as such, when asked to describe Brahman anthropomorphically, philosophers use the term [[saccidānanda]] even though Brahman is beyond the grasps of words. The term saccidānanda is regarded as the only possible, yet inadequate and inaccurate, term which can be used to explain Brahman.

It is said that Brahman cannot be known by empirical means&nbsp; that is to say, as an object within our consciousness&nbsp; because Brahman is our very consciousness. Therefore it may be said that [[mokṣa]], [[yoga]], [[samādhi]], [[nirvāṇa]], etc. do not merely mean to know Brahman, but rather to realize one's "brahman-hood", to actually realize that one is and always was Brahman. Indeed, closely related to the Self-concept of Brahman is the idea that it is synonymous with ''jiva-[[ātmā]]'', or individual selves, our [[Atman (Hinduism)|ātman]] (or Self) being readily identifiable with the greater reality (''[[paramātma]]'') of Brahman.

Generally, [[Vedānta]] rejects the notion of an evolving Brahman since Brahman contains within it the potentiality and archetypes behind all possible manifest phenomenal forms. The [[Vedas]], though they are in some respects historically conditioned, are considered by Hindus to convey a knowledge{{refn|group=note|Veda means 'knowledge' and not merely epistemic knowledge but knowledge of the eternal truth that one's ultimate nature is pure consciousness and independent of material form (cf. [[Gnosis]])}} eternal, timeless and always contemporaneous with Brahman. This knowledge is considered to have been handed down by realized [[yogin]]s to students many generations before the [[Vedas]] were committed to writing. Written texts of the Vedas are a relatively recent phenomenon. Different schools try to establish the primacy or supremacy of the personal or impersonal nature of Brahman. [[Advaita]] argues the latter and [[dvaita]] the former.

====Advaita Vedānta====
{{Main|Advaita Vedānta}}

[[Advaita Vedānta]] espouses [[non-dualism]]. Thus, ''Brahman'' is the origin and end of all things, material or otherwise.  ''Brahman'' is the root source of everything that exists, and is the only thing that exists according to [[Adi Shankara|Shankara]]. He states that Brahman is unknowable (as an object of knowledge), indescribable and, all inclusively, non-dual. The goal of Vedanta is to realize that one's Self (''[[Atman (Hinduism)|Atman]]'') is a product of our ego and false-identification; in reality, ''Brahman'' is all that exists. This leads to the statement that we are ultimately Brahman. Depending upon the interpretation, the Hindu pantheon of gods is said, in the ''Vedas'' and ''Upaniṣads'', to be only higher manifestations or metaphors, of ''Brahman''. For this reason, "''ekam [[sat]]''" ("Truth is one"), and all is ''Brahman''. This explains the Hindu view that "Truth is one, though the sages give it different names."<ref>Ṛgveda 1.164.46</ref>

The universe does not simply come from Brahman, it ''is'' Brahman. According to [[Ādi Śankara]], a proponent of [[Advaita Vedanta]], knowledge of brahman springs from inquiry into the real word as well as the world of the Upanishads. [[Ādi Śankarācharya]] is also of the view that the knowledge of brahman that [[Śruti]] provides cannot be obtained in any other means besides inquiry.<ref>Anantanand Rambachan, ''The limits of scripture: Vivekananda's reinterpretation of the Vedas.'' University of Hawaii Press, 1994, pages 125, 124: [http://books.google.com/books?id=b9EJBQG3zqUC&pg=PA124&dq=brahma+as+opposed+to+brahman&lr=#PPA124,M1].</ref>

In [[Advaita Vedanta]], Brahman is without attributes and strictly impersonal. According to Advaita Vedanta, consciousness is not a property of Brahman but its very nature. In this respect Advaita Vedanta differs from other Vedanta schools.<ref>[Sangeetha Menon (2007), ''Advaita Vedānta''. Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy]</ref>

Since the Advaitins regard Brahman to be the ultimate reality, in comparison to it, the distinctness and [[dualism]]/[[pluralism (philosophy)|pluralism]] of the material universe are products of [[Māyā (Hinduism)|illusion]] and [[Avidyā (Hinduism)|ignorance]]. Nonetheless, individual Advaitins have slightly differing views regarding the existence of God in relation to Brahman. Some believe that there is one [[Saguna Brahman|God]] however this God is transcended by the [[Nirguṇa Brahman|impersonal Brahman]]; this form of [[Advaita Vedanta]] is a [[Transtheism|transtheistic]] form of [[non-dualism]]. Others, still, consider [[god]]s to be metaphors of the different aspects of the [[universe]], which is ultimately Brahman; in this sense, [[Advaita Vedanta]] is a [[nondualism|nondualistic]] form of [[atheism|atheistic]] [[pantheism]].

Following are relevant verses from [[Bhagavad-Gitā]] which establish the Advaita position:
<blockquote>Similar to a person who is not attached to external pleasures but enjoys happiness in the Atman (soul), the person who perceives Brahman in everything feels everlasting joy.<ref>([[Bhagavad Gitā]] 5.21)</ref></blockquote>

<blockquote>The [[Yajna|act of offering]] is Brahman; that which is offered is Brahman; the sacred fire is Brahman; the one who makes the offering is Brahman; Brahman is thus attained by those who, in their actions, are absorbed in contemplation of Brahman.([[Bhagavad Gitā]] 4.24)</blockquote>

====Viṣiṣtadvaita Vedānta====
{{unreferenced section|date=May 2012}}
Brahman of [[Viṣiṣtadvaita]] is synonymous with [[Nārāyaṇa]], who is the transcendent and immanent reality. Brahman or Nārāyaṇa is [[Saguna Brahman]] with infinite auspicious qualities and not the Advaita concept of attribute-less [[Nirguna Brahman]]. "Sarvam khalvidam brahma, tajjalaniti santa upasita": According to [[Ramanuja]], considering the appearance of the word "[[tajjalan]] iti" (Roots: tat + ja = born + la = dissolved), this statement from the [[Chandogya Upanishad]] does not simply mean that the universe is Brahman, but that it is pervaded by, born from and dissolves into Brahman. An analogy: fish is born in water, lives in water, and is ultimately dissolved into water; yet the fish is not water.

The concept of Brahman in Viṣiṣtadvaita is explained as an inseparable triad of Ishwara-Chit-Achit. [[Ishvara]], the Supreme Self ([[Paramātman]]) is the indwelling spirit (Antaryāmi) in all. Both the Chit<ref>It means sentient.</ref> and Achit<ref>It means insentient.</ref> entities are pervaded and permeated by [[Ishvara]]. Brahman is the material and efficient cause of the universe. The concept of Brahman in [[Viṣiṣtadvaita]] can be seen as a hybrid of Advaita and [[Dvaita]] positions. Like all other [[Vaiṣnava]] schools of thought, Viṣiṣtadvaita is also [[panentheistic]] unlike the [[pantheism]] of Advaita. It also proposes a qualified '''attributive [[monism]]''' approach as opposed to the absolute [[monism]] of Advaita.

Brahman is, Antaryami, the [[real self]] of all beings. Everything other than Brahman form the Śarira<ref>It means body.</ref> of Brahman. The inseparable relation between the body and the soul is similar to that of substance and attribute which are inseparable. So Brahman is the prakari and the universe is the prakara, mode of Brahman. Hence anything that describes a sentient or insentient being has its connotation only with Brahman, the real and ultimate self. The relationship between Ishvara-Chit-Achit can be further understood as follows:

1. The [[Śarira (Vedānta)|Śarira]]-Śariri Concept
The key concept of Viṣiṣtadvaita is the Śarira-Śariri Bhaava, the body-soul relationship between the universe and [[Iśvara]]. There are three realities, namely, [[Iśvara]],<ref>It refers to the Lord.</ref>  Jiva,<ref>It means individual souls.</ref> and Jagat.<ref>It means insentient matter.</ref> They are not separate entities but together they form an organic whole. This is similar to the concept of body-soul relationship, but on a cosmic scale. Thus, [[Iśvara]] has the Chit and Achit entities for His body and being the Supreme Self, exercises complete control over it.

2. Substance-Attribute Concept

In [[Viṣiṣtadvaita]], [[Iśvara]] is the original substance, of which [[Jiva]] and [[Prakriti]] are attributes. An attribute cannot have an existence independent of an underlying substance. The substance-attribute concept establishes an uninterrupted, non-reciprocal relationship between [[Iśvara]] and the two modes.

Followers of Viṣiṣtadvaita refute Advaita thought that if it is indeed true that the one undivided Brahman, whose very nature is pure spirit, is the foundation of [[Maya (Hinduism)|Maya]] and also embodies the liberating force of knowledge, then it is illogical to say that the very same Brahman falls under the influence of the illusory power of [[Maya (Hinduism)|Maya]] and gets covered by ignorance. Thus establishing that [[Jiva]] and [[Iśvara]] are indeed separate entities. Since both their identities and capabilities are different, the [[Jiva]] and the Lord are essentially distinct. In other words, if Brahman is indivisible, changeless, and supreme, then a force of [[Maya (Hinduism)|Maya]] cannot appear within Brahman, modify it, and put it into ignorance.

[[Bhakti Yoga]] is the sole means of liberation in [[Viṣiṣtadvaita]]. Through [[Bhakti]] (devotion), a [[Jiva]] ascends to the realm of the Lord to serve Him. [[Karma Yoga]] and [[Jnana Yoga]] are natural outcomes of [[Bhakti]], total surrender, as the devotee acquires the knowledge that the Lord is the inner self. A devotee realizes his own state as dependent on, and supported by and being led by the Lord, who is the Master. One is to lead a life as an instrument of the Lord, offering all his thought, word, and deed to the feet of the Lord. One is to see the Lord in everything and everything in Him. This is the unity in diversity achieved through devotion.

In [[Bhagavad-Gitā]], [[Kṛṣṇa]] is [[Iśvara]] and denotes [[Saguna Brahman]], and the term Brahman means [[Nirguṇa Brahman]]:
{{quote|I (Iśvara) am the basis of the impersonal Brahman, which is immortal, imperishable and eternal and is the constitutional position of ultimate happiness.<ref>Bhagavad Gitā 14.27</ref>

{{quote|I (Iśvara) am transcendental, beyond both kshara<ref>It means the fallible, perishable world.</ref> and akshara.<ref>It means the infallible.</ref><ref>([[Bhagavad Gitā]] 15.18)}}</ref>

====Dvaita Vedanta====
Brahman of [[Dvaita]] ('''substantial [[monism]]''') is synonymous with [[Hari]] or [[Viṣṇu]],{{Citation needed|date=February 2010}} who is the most exalted [[Para Brahman]],<ref>It means Supreme Brahman.</ref> superior to liberated souls and even the impersonal Brahman. [[Dvaita]] holds that the individual soul is dependent (paratantra) on God, since it is unable to exist without the energizing support of the universal spirit, just as a tree cannot survive without its sap.

[[Dvaita]] schools argue against the [[Advaita]] concept that upon liberation one realizes Brahman as a formless God is erroneous, quoting from [[Vedanta Sutra]]:
{{quote|The form of Brahman is unmanifest, but even the form of Brahman becomes directly visible to one who worships devoutly (''tat avyaktam aha, api samradhane pratyaksa anumanabhyam'').{{Citation needed|date=February 2007}}<ref>api&nbsp;— but, samradhane&nbsp;— intense [[worship]], [[pratyaksa]]&nbsp;— as directly visible, anumanabhyam&nbsp;— as inferred from scripture</ref><ref>([[Vedanta Sutra]] 3.2.23)}}</ref>

{{quote|Within His divine realm, devotees see other divine manifestations which appear even as physical objects in a city (''antara bhuta gramavat svatmanah'').<ref>([[Vedanta Sutra]] 3.3.36)}}</ref>

Dvaita propounds Tattvavada which means understanding differences between [[Tattva]]s<ref>It refers to the significant properties.</ref> of entities within the universal substrate as follows:

# Jîva-Îshvara-[[bheda]]&nbsp;— difference between the soul and [[Viṣṇu]]
# Jada-Îshvara-[[bheda]]&nbsp;— difference between the insentient and [[Viṣṇu]]
# Mitha-jîva-bheda&nbsp;— difference between any two souls
# Jada-jîva-bheda&nbsp;— difference between insentient and the soul
# Mitha-jada-bheda&nbsp;— difference between any two insentients

===Vaiṣnavism===
{{Main|Vaiṣnavism}}

[[Viṣṇu]] is traditionally derived from the root "Viṣ" which means to enter or pervade, and He is called [[Viṣṇu]] because He pervades the whole universe. [[Brahmanda Purana]] (1.4.25) says that He is called as [[Viṣṇu]] because He has entered into everything in the universe. The most important aspect is that the whole universe is covered by only three steps of [[Viṣṇu]] which is referred to several times in the Vedas.<ref>([[Ṛgveda]] 1.22.17, 1.154. 3, 1.155.4, [[Atharvaveda]] 7.26.5, [[Yajur Veda]] 2.25)</ref> ''In His three steps rests the whole universe''.<ref>([[Ṛgveda]] 1.154.2</ref><ref>[[Yajurveda]] 23.49</ref> All indeed is Brahman, which can thus be identified with [[Viṣṇu]], based on the [[Vedas]].

====Achintya Bheda Abheda====
The [[Acintya Bheda Abheda]] philosophy is similar to [[Dvaitadvaita]] (differential [[monism]]). All [[Vaiṣnava]] schools are [[panentheistic]] and perceive the Advaita concept of identification of Atman with the impersonal Brahman as an intermediate step of self-realization, but not [[Mukti]], or final liberation of complete God-realization through [[Bhakti Yoga]]. Gaudiya Vaiṣnavism, a form of Achintya Bheda [[Abheda]] philosophy, also concludes that Brahman is the Supreme Personality of Godhead. According to them, Brahman is Lord Viṣṇu/Krishna; the universe and all other manifestations of the Supreme are extensions of Him.

In this philosophy, Brahman is not just impersonal, but also personal. That Brahman is Supreme Personality of Godhead, though on first stage of realization by process called [[jnāna]] of Absolute Truth, He is realized usually by advaita-vedantists, followers of [[Adi Śankara|Śankaracarya]]) as impersonal Brahman, then (by Vaiṣnavas) as personal Brahman having eternal [[Vaikunta|Vaikunṭha]], abode also known as Brahmalokah sanatana, then as [[Paramatma]] (by process of [[yoga]]-[[meditation]] on Supersoul, Viṣṇu-God in heart)&nbsp;– Viṣṇu([[Nārāyaṇa]], also in everyone's heart) who has many abodes known as Viṣṇulokas,<ref>It also means Vaikunṭhalokas.</ref> and finally Absolute Truth is realized by [[bhakti]] as [[Bhagavān]], Supreme Personality of Godhead, who is source of both Paramātma and Brahman.<ref>It means personal, impersonal, or both.</ref>

In Gaudiya-vaiṣnavism, philosophers who try to establish that everything is Brahman or [[Māyā<ref>It means illusion.</ref>|Māyā]] are called [[Brahmavāda|Brahmavādis]] or [[Māyāvada|Māyavādis]]. Thought they are still considered to be transcendentalists, but of other group.<ref>These are the so-called followers of Śankaracarya, because he himself, as [[avatāra]] of [[Śiva]] accepted Brahman to be Vishnu, not impersonal brahmajyoti as God.</ref>

The Advaita concept of a [[Jivanmukta]] is mocked as an absurd oxymoron because a person who has surmounted the realm of perception and realized the Absolute<ref>It is referred this way in Advaita holds.</ref> should not continue to exist within and interact with the realm of perception that one has realized as being not real. The suggestion that such bondage to the world of perception continues for a while after the occurrence of God-realization, because of past attachments, is not tenable. Such attachments themselves are artifacts of the perceived world that has supposedly been sublated, and should not continue to besiege the consciousness of the self-realized. A [[Jivanmukta]], or liberated person, should not even be physically present in the material universe. A person who is living in the world cannot be said to be free of sorrow born of material contact, and also cannot be said to experience the joy of liberation. The very act of being in a gross material body is not accepted in as a Jivanmukta i.e. a person liberated from the cycle of birth and death. The soul upon liberation does not lose its identity, which remains different from God, nor does one become equal to God in any respect. A mukta indeed becomes free from all suffering, but one's enjoyment is not of the same caliber as His, nor does a mukta become independent of Him. The permanent differential aspect of [[Ātman (Hinduism)|Atman]]<ref>It means soul.</ref> from the Lord is established from:

''Never was there a time when I<ref>Here I refers to Iśvara.</ref> did not exist, nor you, nor all these kings; nor in the future shall any of us cease to be.''<ref>([[Bhagavad Gitā]] 2.12</ref>

In Dvaita, liberation ([[Mokṣa]]) is achieved by flawless devotion and correct understanding. Devotion to a personal form of God, [[Saguna Brahman]], indicated here is the transcendental form of [[Kṛṣṇa]] or [[Viṣṇu]] (see [[Vaiṣnavism]]). This conclusion is corroborated by the [[Bhagavata Purāṇa]], written by [[Vyāsa]] as his commentary on [[Vedanta Sutra]].

''O my Lord, [[Krishna]], son of Vasudeva, O all-pervading Lord, I offer my respectful obeisances unto You, the Absolute Truth and the primeval cause of all causes of the creation, sustenance and destruction of the manifested universes''. It's original sanskrit verse goes like:
<blockquote>''om namo bhagavate vasudevaya janmady asya yatah 'nvayad itaratas cartheshv abhijnah svarat'').<ref>([[Bhagavata Purāṇa]] 1.1.1</ref></blockquote>

Vyasa employs the words "janma-[[adi]]&nbsp;– creation, sustenance and destruction; asya&nbsp;– of the manifested universes; yatah&nbsp;– from whom;", in the first verse of the [[Bhagavata]] [[Purāṇa]] to establish that [[Kṛṣṇa]] is the Absolute Truth. This is clear testimony of the author's own conclusion that the ultimate goal of all Vedic knowledge is [[Kṛṣṇa]].

===Modern Hinduism===
{{See also|Neo-Vedanta}}

During the 19th century Hindu reform movements arose, creating "neo-Hinduism",{{sfn|Michaels|2004|p=45}} a modern synthetic understanding of classical Hinduism and modern philosophy and spirituality.{{sfn|Michaels|2004|p=45-47}} People representing this Hindu modernism are [[Rāmakriṣna]],{{sfn|Michaels|2004|p=45}} [[Sri Aurobindo]]{{sfn|Michaels|2004|p=45}} and [[Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan|Radakrishnan]].{{sfn|Sinari|2000|p=426-430}} An important influence is the [[Theosophy]] from [[Annie Besant]].{{sfn|Sinari|2000|p=405-407}}

According to [[Rādhākrishnan]], The sages of the [[Upaniṣads]] teach that Brahman is the ultimate essence of material phenomena<ref>It is including the original identity of the human self.</ref> that cannot be seen or heard, but whose nature can be known through the development of self-knowledge (''[[Ātman (Hinduism)|ātma jnāna]]'').<ref>pp.77, Radhakrishnan, S, ''The Principal Upanisads,'' HarperCollins India, 1994</ref>

==Brahman in Buddhism==
:''See also: [[Buddhism]]''
===Brahma as perfection===
It has been hard to determine whether the [[Buddha]]'s philosophy is atheistic, non-theistic or that it indeed does emphasize on the unity with Brahman like mainstream Hinduism does. Examining Buddhist scriptures and deciphering between the words Brahma (e.g., Brahman) and [[Brahmā]]<ref>It means the demigod.</ref> has been hard. Referring to differentiation them, Buddhist scholar B. R. Barua says, "''The cases where the Absolute is clearly meant ought to be carefully distinguished from others where Brahma is referred''".<ref>P. 72 ''Dr. B.R. Barua Birth Centenary Commemoration Volume, 1989'' by Hemendu Bikash Chowdhury, Beni Madhab Barua</ref>

While "Brahmā" in Buddhist scripture, like Vedic scriptures, also refers to the non-eternal demigod, "Brāhma"<ref>It means Brāhman.</ref> is believed by scholars to refer to the eternal perfect being, and the highest stage any person can achieve is labelled as Brahma. For example in addition to [[Buddha]]'s [[Dharma]] being called "Astanga Marga"<ref>It means eight-fold path.</ref> and Dharmayāna, it is also addressed "Brahmayāna" because the aim is to lead one to perfection of Nirvāna. As the ''Samyutta Nikāya'' says,<ref>Samyutta Nikāya V, 5-6</ref> "''This Aryan eight-fold Way may be spoken of as Brahmayāna or as Dhammayāna.''<ref>P. 77 ''Elements of Buddhist iconography'' by [[Ananda]] Kentish Coomaraswamy, Harvard-Yenching Institute</ref> Again the Buddha [[Dharma]] is equated with Brahma when" ...he has become dharma, he has become brahman." It is said that the cultivation of compassion in its purest form is "''called the divine life in this world.<ref>It means Brahman item viharam idhmahu.</ref>.''"<ref>P. 419 ''Encyclopedic Dictionary of [[Buddhism]]'' by Samir Nath</ref> In this context Brahma is interpreted to mean divine. In the ''Suttanipāta'', 656, the Buddha says that he who has won the three-fold lore<ref>It means self-denial, holy life, and control.</ref> and who will never be reborn is Brahma.<ref>P. 121-122 ''The Buddha Image: Its Origin and Development'' By Yuvraj Krishan</ref> [[Buddhism]] is compared to Brahma in other scriptures like the ''Majjhima Nikāya''<ref>Majjhima Nikāya I.60</ref> where the Dharmachakra of ''wheel of law'' is also called the Brahmachakra.<ref>Brahma chakra means ''wheel of Brahma''.</ref><ref>P. 64 ''Indian horizons, Volume 1'' by Indian Council for Cultural Relations</ref> The word Brahmachakra was nothing new and it was first mentioned in the Upanishads and it is believed the Buddha having received Vedic knowledge, used the term.<ref> P. 47 'Buddha and Buddhist Synods in India and Abroad' By Amarnath Thakur </ref> The ''Majjhima-Nikāya'' also says that the Buddha is 'Brahmapātta' or "one who has attained Brahman".<ref>P. 5 ''Sri Venkateswara University Oriental Journal, Volume 18''</ref>, thus outlining that when Buddha became perfected by achieving Nirvāṇa he also became Brahma.

Of Nirvāṇa, the ultimate happiness it is written "''one who has attained Nirvāṇa''" it is said, "''may justifiably employ theological terminology''.<ref>It means dhammena so Brahma-vadam vadeyya."</ref><ref>P. 20 ''The philosophy of religion: a Buddhist perspective'' by Arvind Sharma</ref>

As one attains Nirvāṇa they have the knowledge of enlightenment. So further, in Buddhist scriptures "Brahmajala" refers to the best knowledge achieved.<ref>P. 52 ''The Pacific world: journal of the Institute of Buddhist Studies, Volume 5''</ref>

Later Buddhist scholars connect the state of Nirvāṇa with Brahman. Buddhaghoṣa in his ''Digha''<ref>iii.8</ref> says that the "Tathagāta<ref>It means Buddha.</ref> is dhammakaya brahmakaya dhammabhuta brahmabhuta."<ref>P. 262 Philosophy, grammar, and indology: essays in honor of Professor Gustav Roth</ref> This statement translates as, "''For the Tathāgata is synonymous with dhamma and brahma and he who sees the dhamma sees the Buddha...''"<ref> P. 18 'Tradition and Modernity in Bhakti Movements' by Jayant Lele)</ref> Bhāvāviveka uses the term Brahma-[[Abhyāsa]], meaning "practicing Brahma" which refers to the Buddhist trying to become one with Brahma.<ref>P. 230 ''To See the Buddha: A Philosopher's Quest for the Meaning of Emptiness'' By Malcolm David Eckel</ref>

[[Brahmacharya]] itself is a term used often to denote chastity and the way of the monk, both Śramaṇa and Vedic. Buddha himself declared that the perfected religion he was preaching has always existed as a Brahma-faring path: "Even so have I, monks, seen an ancient way, an ancient road followed by the wholly awakened ones of olden time....Along that have I done, and the matters that I have come to know fully as I was going along it, I have told to the monks, nuns, men and [[women]] lay-followers, even monks, this Brahma-faring [[brahmacharya]] that is prosperous and flourishing, widespread and widely known become popular in short, well made manifest for gods and men."<ref>P. 57 ''Buddhist Art & Antiquities of Himachal Pradesh, Upto 8th Century A.D.'' By Omacanda Hāṇḍā</ref>

Like its sister-religion Jainism, Buddhism emphasizes that while one is in the state of Nirvana, he is said to dwell in Brahman. A perfected human is said to "''dwell in Brāhman''".<ref>"brahmund saddhim samvasati."</ref>

===Rejection of Brahman===
Buddhism rejects the Upaniṣadic doctrine of Brahman/ātman. According to Damien Keown, "the Buddha said he could find no evidence for the existence of either the personal soul<ref>It means ''ātman''.</ref> or its cosmic counterpart (''brāhman'')".<ref>Damien Keown, ''Buddhism'' (NY: Sterling, 2009), p. 70</ref> According to David Webster, the metaphysics of Buddhism entails that desire for Brahman leads to ''[[dukkha]]''.<ref>Dukkha means suffering.</ref>

According to Merv Fowler, some forms of Buddhism have incorporated concepts that resemble that of Brahman. As an example, Fowler cites the early [[Sarvastivāda]] school of Buddhism, which "had come to accept a very pantheistic religious philosophy, and are important because of the impetus they gave to the development of Mahayana Buddhism".<ref>Merv Fowler, ''Buddhism: Beliefs and Practices'' (Brighton: Sussex Academic, 1999), p. 34</ref> According to William Theodore De Bary, in the doctrines of the [[Yogācāra]] school of [[Mahāyāna Buddhism]], "the Body of Essence, the Ultimate Buddha, who pervaded and underlay the whole universe was in fact the World Soul, the Brahman of the Upanishads, in a new form".<ref>William Theodore De Bary, cited in Merv Fowler, ''Buddhism: Beliefs and Practices'' (Brighton: Sussex Academic, 1999), p. 98</ref> According to Fowler, some scholars have identified the Buddhist ''[[nirvāṇa]]'', conceived of as the Ultimate Reality, with the Hindu Brahman/atman; Fowler claims that this view "has gained little support in Buddhist circles."<ref>Merv Fowler, ''Buddhism: Beliefs and Practices'' (Brighton: Sussex Academic, 1999), p. 81</ref> Fowler asserts  that the authors of a number of Mahayana texts took pains to differentiate their ideas from the Upaniṣadic doctrine of Brahman.

The Ultimate Being or State is sometimes called by different names. Whereas It's been referred to as Brahma, it has also been referred to Tat-Puruṣa which means “The ultimate in terms of object is in the sense of being the object of the highest wisdom.“<ref> Contents, ''A direct path to the Buddha within : Gö Lotsāwa's mahā[[mudrā]] interpretation of the Ratnagotravibhāga'' By Klaus-Dieter Mathes</ref> The Sanskrit word means, "original or supreme spirit".<ref> [http://www.spokensanskrit.de/index.php?script=HK&beginning=0+&tinput=+tatpurusa&trans=Translate&direction=SE Tatpurusa] </ref>

==Brahman in Jainism==
Although Jain scriptures normally focus achieving the statehood of the Jina, rather than explain a Supreme Jina to which all [[Jinas]] belong, there latter does find mention. The notion of a Supreme above all is clear in some Jain scriptures. There has been association between Tirthankaras and Brahman within the texts. The twenty-second, Tirthankar, Ajita in the ''Svayambhu Stora'' (sloka 10) is described as "Brahma-nisṭha"<ref>It means engrossed in Brahm (Self.)</ref> and is requested to bestow "Jinasri" on the devotee.<ref>P. 93 ''Jain Journal'', Volume 37, By Jain Bhawan</ref> Later in the same scripture,<ref>sloka 119</ref> Brahma is described of as being the highest principle, "[[ahiṅsā]] bhutanam jagati viditam brahma paramam."<ref> Acharya Samantabhadra was a 3rd century CE Jain saint who wrote "''ahimsa bhutanam jagati viditam brahma paramam''" </ref> There is also Jinesvara Suri's ''Gaharayanakoṣa'' scripture which begins first with a prayer to Jina, and then Brahman.<ref> P. 386 ''Journal of the [[Oriental Institute]], Volume 41'' By [[Oriental Institute]], 1991 </ref>

The name Brahma (not to be confused with Brahmā) has been used in Jainism also in titles conferred on both Jain scholars and [[temples]]. Hasmukhlal Dhirajlal Sankalia suggests that names like Brahmasaranu suggest the person has realized or is after Brahman <ref> ''Studies in the historical & cultural geography and ethnography of Gujarat: (places and peoples in inscriptions of Gujarat: 300 B.C.-1300 A.D.)'' By Hasmukhlal Dhirajlal Sankalia </ref> There were some great scholars who took this title and examples are Brahmachintamani, Brahmagunadasa, Brahmajinadasa,  Brahmajinasagara, Brahmananka, Brahmapunyasagara, and Brahmasantidas. Furthermore, the Parsvadeva Basadi, a temple of Parshvanatha of Tailangere is known as Brahma Jinalaya.

Some scholars make it clear that Brahman is an entity and Supreme Brahman, and even compare it to personifications of God Almighty. The Jain Scholar Yogindu called [[Paramatma]] by many names including Brahman and Jinadeva.<ref> P. 4639 ''Encyclopaedia of Indian Literature: sasay to zorgot'' edited by Mohan Lal </ref> He writes, "Jinadeva is present in all [[temples]] of the body, and man would be fool to seek him in temples." He compares the perfection of Jina to other names that the perfect entity is called. The body, etc., are not the highest self that is here known stainless (nirmala), timeless (niskala), pure, Jina, Siva, [[Visnu]] and peaceful (shanta.) He also says, "If the highest Brahman is not realized through great meditation one has to wander infinitely suffering the miseries of transmigration."

A few scholars have made it a required belief to believe in the Supreme Jina. [[Acarya]] Vijay Bhuvanbhanusuri writes, "If philosophers do not believe in the omniscient Jinendradeva as the reverend Supreme Lord, then there is no Jainatva (Jainhood) in them."

A Jain scripture says one "should centre one's mind, heart and soul in mastering intellectual recognition-perception of the Supreme Self through philosophic erudition and thus ultimately become himself the Lord of Lords namely the dispassionate Jinendradeva."<Ref> P. 64 ''Samadhi shatak: a century of verses on concentration or self-absorption'' By Devanandi </ref>

In the ''[[Mahāpurāṇa]]'' of Jinasena-Gunabhadra, the Jina is called the creator and destroyer of the universe.

The following is an excerpt from a Jain scripture:
:That which is formless is given a form.<ref>It means rupa.</ref> He is the form of the universe, the lord of the world. It is the embodiment ([[murti]]) of enlightenment (kevala-jnana), the one who has conquered all passions, the Jina lord. The embodiment of the Jina shows the teacher of the world as absorbed in the ultimate.<ref>Ultimate means Brahma.</ref><ref> P. 21 ''Framing the Jina: Narratives of Icons and Idols in Jain History'' By John Cort </ref>

Suresvara was the chief disciple of [[Śankara|Adi Śankar Acharya]], and he used the word ātmā to connote the Brahman at times and other times the jivātma.<reF> P. 73 ''Suresvara's Vartika On [[Yajnavalkya]]'S-Maitreyi Dialogue'' edited by Shoun Hino </ref> [[Digambara]] Jain scholar Vijayananda in his ''Astasahasri'' quotes Suresvara's ''Bṛhadaraṇyakopaniṣad-bhāsya-varttika''.<ref> P. 72-73 A History of Early Vedānta Philosophy  By Hajime Nakamura </ref>

Many Jains, especially renowned scholars have denied that Jainism is atheist. Renowned Jain philosopher, [[Vijayasena Suri]] in the court of [[Akbar]] when accused of preaching [[atheism]] declared that Jainism's belief is not atheistic and is similar to the [[Saṅkhya]] of [[Kapila]].<ref>P. 237 ''A History of Gujarat: Mughal period, from 1573 to 1758'' By Mānekshāh Sorābshāh Commissariat</ref> Saṅkhya advocates a Nirguṇa ātman<Ref> P. xvii ''[[Yoga]] Philosophy of Patanjali: Containing his yoga aphorisms with Vyasa's commentary in Sanskrit and a translation with annotations including many suggestions for the practice of yoga'' By [[Patañjali]], Swami Hariharānanda Āraṇya </ref> or a plurality of selves.<ref> P. 379 ''The Principal Upanishads'' by Swami Nikhilananda </ref> Similar to this view, some advocated monism. The Ekavāda or monism is discussed by some Jains. One commentator even refers to the Upaniṣadic idea of Brahman.<ref> P. 64 ''Jain Agamas: an introduction to canonical literature By K. L. Chanchreek'' </ref> It corresponds to the Buddhist idea of Ekaccasassatavada mentioned in ''Brahmajala Sutta''.

==Brahman in Bonism==
:''See also: [[Tonpa Shenrab Miwoche]]

Being Self-realized in Brahm is known as 'Rang rig' and this philosophy was propounded by [[Tonpa Shenrab Miwoche]], and is mentioned in the ''rDzogs Chen''.

<blockquote>
"The reason for this is as follows. One's own awarwness is Brahm, creator of all worlds."</blockquote>

==See also==
*[[Acintya]]
*[[Atman]]
*[[Om|Aum]]
*[[Bardo]]
*[[Bhagavan]]
*[[Ginnungagap]]
*[[Ishvara]]
*[[Jiva]]
*[[Monism]]
*[[Monotheism]]
*[[Mysticism]]
*[[Nirguna Brahman]]
*[[Para Brahman]]
*[[Paramatma]]
*[[Pure land]]
*[[Saguna Brahman]]
*[[Universal mind]]
*[[The All]]
*[[Vedanta]]
*[[Yoga]]

==References==
{{Reflist|33em}}

==Sources==
{{ref-begin}}
* {{Citation | last =Michaels | first =Axel | year =2004 | title =Hinduism. Past and present | place =Princeton, New Jersey | publisher =Princeton University Press}}
* {{Citation | last =Potter | first =Karl H. | year =2008 | title =The Encyclopedia of Indian Philosophies: Advaita Vedānta Up to Śaṃkara and His Pupils | place =Delhi | publisher =Motilal Banarsidass Publishers Private Limited}}
* {{Citation | last =Puligandla | first =Ramakrishna | year =1997 | title =Fundamentals of Indian Philosophy | place =New Delhi | publisher =D.K. Printworld (P) Ltd.}}
* {{Citation | last =Raju | first =P.T. | year =1992 | title =The Philosophical Traditions of India | place =Delhi | publisher =Motilal Banarsidass Publishers Private Limited}}
* {{Citation | last =Rambachan | first =Anatanand | year =1994 | title =The Limits of Scripture: Vivekananda's Reinterpretation of the Vedas | publisher =University of Hawaii Press}}
* {{Citation | last =Rodrigues | first =Hillary | year =2006 | title =Hinduism: The Ebook | publisher =JBE Online Books | url =http://books.google.nl/books?id=nfavDNhIz4EC&printsec=frontcover&hl=nl#v=onepage&q&f=false}}
* {{Citation | last =Sinari | first =Ramakant | year =2000 | title =Advaita and Contemporary Indian Philosophy. In: Chattopadhyana (gen.ed.), "History of Science, Philosophy and Culture in Indian Civilization. Volume II Part 2: Advaita Vedanta" | place =Delhi | publisher =Centre for Studies in Civilizations}}
{{refend}}

==External links==
* [http://ahandfulofleaves.files.wordpress.com/2011/11/a-note-on-atta-in-the-aladaddupama-sutta_norman_ld_1981.pdf A Note on Attā in the Alagaddūpama Sutta]. [[K. R. Norman]]&nbsp;– ''Studies in Indian Philosophy'' LD Series, 84&nbsp;– 1981
* [http://ahandfulofleaves.files.wordpress.com/2011/11/recovering-the-buddhas-message_gombrich_tbf_1988.pdf Recovering the Buddha's Message]. [[Richard Gombrich|R. F. Gombrich]]
*[http://www.hinduwebsite.com/brahmanmain.asp Detailed essays on Brahman] at Hinduwebsite.com
*[http://www.sacred-texts.com/tantra/maha/maha03.htm Worship of the Supreme Brahman] from Mahanirvana [[Tantra]]
*[http://www.lawsofbrahman.com/index.html Essays on Brahman at lawsofbrahman.com]

[[Category:Hindu philosophical concepts]]
[[Category:Conceptions of God]]
[[Category:Singular God]]
[[Category:Names of God in Hinduism]]