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Shatata-Unnati

2026-06-15T08:48:20Z

Himanshu Bhatt: /* Shahu's royal authority to implement reforms */

{{Author|Himanshu Bhatt}}
'Shatata-Unnati' is ''continual change'', 'abhyas' means improvement, 'kram-parivartanam' is ''incremental reformation'', while 'shodhanam' is ''refinement''. All of these terms are descriptive of Hindu society throughout the ages.

Continual social betterment has been one of the defining characteristics of Hindu society. All major cultures have had evils in their histories, including Hindu societies, but the shining examples to enforce positive changes and adaptability to a changing world are the Hinduism, Christianity, and Judaism.

In an era wherein colonial norms meant imprisonment or executions for speaking out against imperial rule, Mahatma Gandhi challenged the ideas of forcing nations to be subservient, fighting oppression by violence, and purging one's own nation of evils (i.e., inequality and superstition.) Today, much of the world still looks to Gandhi's perseverance to bring positive change into society.

Transformation of India's political systems made India into the world's largest democracy, and for accomplishing that, [[Indian Freedom Fighters#INC's Hindu activist roots|Hindu doctrines were rationalize to promote democracy]]. Even in India's political spectrum, Hindu principles were used to make liberalism and communism resonate with people, like Ram Rajya being a communist utopia. Some of the Communist Party of India's [[Indian Freedom Fighters#CPI's Hindu activist roots|founders were idealogues for both communism and Hinduism]], such as Swami Kumaranand, Swami Satyabhakt, and Swami Sahajanand Saraswati, as well as Keezhedathu Damodaran, Radhamohan Gokulji, and Rahul Sankrityayan.

==Comparison in societal reformation (India and Europe)==
:''See also: [[Contribution of Hindu Diaspora]]''
Whereas even in modern times, in most European Christian societies, witch-hunts and slavery were the norm, in Indian Hindu societies, widow-burning was the norm among certain communities (usually northwestern) and caste prejudice was prevalent. Both the Christian and Hindu communities worked to extinguish these and other evils.

Historical societal injustices have been acknowledged and reconciled. Even today, the lasting legacy of important Hindu reformers is visible wherein quotas employment and educational quotas are implemented for social upward mobility to ensure poorer castes and women do not fall behind.

During the colonial era, as human rights improved in Western societies as results from agricultural/economic advancements, Western writers of non-Christian societies took a chauvinistic, parochialist, and Eurocentric approach towards Hindu societies, claiming that they:
#Would never improve in human rights, morality, or rationality
#Are permanently stagnant
#Cannot produce modern or political economic institutions

Critics of the colonial era were proven wrong in these concrete ways:
#Large-scale societal reforms led by Hindu activists themselves improved Hindu societies — i.e., promoting window remarriage and caste integration while also creating quotas for females and historically-disadvantaged castes
#Rapid expansion of education and intellectual mobility — i.e., growth of global Hindu academic presence
#Global economic and corporate leadership — i.e., entrepreneurship and CEOs of major multinational companies like Adobe, Google, and Microsoft
#Democratic political evolution — i.e., maintaining electoral democracies like Hindu-majority nations, providing peaceful transfers of power, and granting significant autonomy to judiciary, press, and civil societies
#Religious and philosophical continuity + adaptation
#Ritual practice has diversified massively by religion and class — i.e., clerics ([[Rta and Spiritual Authority|priests]] and [[ascetics|monks]]) are from many backgrounds
#Reinterpretation of scriptures became internationally influential — i.e., Aldous Huxley loved the perennialism of Upanishads, Erwin Schrödinger the idea of aikatmyam, and Henry David Thoreau that of Ishavasyam
#Non-Hindus from outside of the Indian Subcontinent have converted to Sanatan Dharm and have promoted the religion — James Donald Walters who founded Ananda Sangha, Richard Alpert who founded Hanuman Foundation, John Edwin Favors who founded iFast[https://ifastdc.com/][https://ifastglobal.com/], and Robert Hansen who founded Saiva Siddhanta Church[https://www.himalayanacademy.com/]
#Hindu-based intellectual practices have popularized globally — i.e., [[Ayurveda|Ayurvedic medicine]], divination, political activism, [[Animal rights#Influence upon Westerners|animal rights]], [[Animal_rights#Vegetarianism|vegetarianism]], and [[yoga]]

==Hindu-led social betterment==
What is extraordinary in the case of India is that it was the religious institutions ([[Organizations|Hindu organizations]] and [[Hindu Post-Secondary Institutes|schools]]) that made revolutionary changes, not normally secular or non-Hindu ones. Practicing Hindus saw that superstitious and chauvinistic practices had become institutionalized (caste system and misogyny) within Hindu society, so they formed associations to help, uplift, educate the destitute. They would even go steps further to privilege the marginalized through reservations.

Even women who were more exploratory and not members of specific religions engaged with Hinduism positively. The best example might be Annette Beveridge, an Englishwoman who was the daughter of a Unitarian Christian herself became affiliated with Keshub Chandra Sen in England. She was drawn to his lectures and this fascination with his philosophy inspired her to begin life in India, where she even established<ref>Its expenses were financed by Ananda Mohan Bose and Durga Mohan Das, Dwarkanath Ganguly was its headmaster, and others Brahmos involved with the school were Sibnath Sastri and Monomohun Ghose.</ref> the Hindu Mahila Vidyalaya (''Hindu Women's School''.) Her husband Henry Beveridge was an orientalist (westerners intrigued with Asian cultures) working in India, meaning they were not Westerners critical of Hindu identity. Mrs. Emily Phear was an honorary teacher, and she too was involved in Brahmo Samaji circles for societal development. (Her husband Sir John Budd Phear helped Brahmo Samaj legally.) A non-Hindu that likewise began a girls school (Hindu Female School[https://www.bethunecollegiateschool.com/]) with Brahmos and other Hindus was John Bethune, whose accomplices were Dakshinaranjan Mukherjee, Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar, Ramgopal Ghosh, and Madanmohan Tarkalanka (the last even taught at the school without pay.) Others foreign women in India that engaged positively with Hindu activist organizations were Mary Carpenter[https://southasianbritain.org/people/mary-carpenter/] and Sophia Dobson Collet with Brahmo Samaj, Alma B.R.A. with Arya Samaj, and Mary Hobson with Prarthana Samaj[https://puneprarthanasamaj.org/].

Hindu women that set women's rights activism into motion were Arya Samaj's Lajwanti Sood and Satyavati Devi, and Brahmo Samaj's Kadambini Ganguly and Sarala Devi Chaudhurani. Swarnakumari Devi was both an Arya Samaji and a Brahmo Samaji.
[[image:Dr. Anandi Gopal Joshi.jpg|right|thumb|200px|Dr. Anandi Gopal Joshi in 1886 marking a milestone with 2 other Asian women.]]
What is also worth mentioning is that there were women not members of sociopolitical organizations who pursued and achieved new societal achievements, showing that many Hindu women thought for themselves. Dr. Anandibai Joshi was India's first female doctor to trained in Western medicine. Her education and trip to U.S. was funded by [[Shatata-Unnati#Shahu's royal authority to implement reforms|Chhatrapati Shahu Maharaj]]. Upon return, he even funded her return journey and offer her supervisory role at Kolhapur's largest hospital[https://old.rcsmgmc.ac.in/]. Foundations[https://anandibai.org/resources/], institutions (i.e., Dr. Anandi Gopal Higher Education & Medical Facilities), awards (i.e., IRDS's[https://ngosindia.org/uttar-pradesh-ngos/irds-institute-for-research-documentation-in-social-sciences-lucknow/] Anandibai Joshi Award for Medicine), and scholarships (i.e., Dr. Anandi Gopal Scholarship Scheme) are named after her in commemoration. (Dr. Anandi Gopal Higher Education & Medical Facilities itself is a collaboration between the U.S. university she graduated in (DUCM[https://drexel.edu/medicine/news-events/publications/pulse/spring-2018/]) and SMCW. She let people know that she was not ashamed of being a Hindu. She was often pressured by Christian missionaries to convert[https://knowledge.lancashire.ac.uk/id/eprint/48487/1/bharadwaj-et-al-2023-journey-across-the-world-to-study-medicine-the-anandi-joshi-story.pdf]. Dr. Anandi had written her thesis, "Obstetrics among the Aryan Hindus", containing references from both the traditional Ayurvedic (''Susruta Samhita'' and ''Charaka Samhita'') and modern American medical literatures. (Mentionable is that although her husband Gopalrao Joshi's relentless, public letter-writing campaigns and essays targeted Lokmanya Tilak for being not liberal enough and Justice Ranade for being too liberal Tilak's ''Kesari'' and ''Mahratta'' newspapers glorified Dr. Joshi as a rolemodel for women.)

===Female upliftment===
:''See also: [[Indian Freedom Fighters]] 
;Theosophical Society wing
[[image:Paris Women's Congress.jpg|right|thumb|200px|Dr. Reddy and 3 Indian women at the Paris Women's Congress (1926.)]]
The top 3 champions who politically improved Indian women's rights in the modern era were foreigners — Dr. Annie Besant, Dorothy Jinarajadasa, and Margaret Cousins. They did not tell Indian women to leave Hinduism but rather they themselves became Hindu in practice and Indian in habit. They then sought to restore the Vedic-era of womanhood wherein women had authority (i.e., to become clerics, scholars, and leaders.) Emma Mitchell (American) and Francesca Arundale (English) greatly contributed to building of Hindu educational institutions (i.e., Central Hindu College.)

Dr. Muthulakshmi Reddy is a big name in female rights, and she was influenced by Dr. Besant in her college years (1907-1912) and was guided by Dr. Besant in both her social reform and political work. She worked with Dr. Besant and others to establish the Women's Indian Association (1917.) After Dr. Besant's death, she took over the presidency of the WIA. Gandhi was another major mentor but Reddy never formally joined the INC but sometimes protested colonial injustices (i.e., Gandhi's arrest.)

;Ramakrishna Mission wing
[[image:Nivedita & Vivekanand.jpg|right|thumb|200px|Nivedita with Vivekanand.]]
[[Niveditā, Sister|Sister Nivedita (Margaret Noble)]], a convert from Ireland became a disciple of [[Swami Vivekananda|Swami Vivekanand]] and joined Aurobindo's Dawn Society and had also founded and ran girls' schools in Kolkata (i.e., Ramakrishna Sarada Mission Sister Nivedita Girls' School[https://www.sisterniveditagirlsschool.org/home.html] in Baghbazar) to educate girls who had little to no access to education (i.e., poorest of the poor.) She advocated for women's intellectual and moral development, influenced by Vivekanand's vision of strong Indian womanhood. Her work included lectures, fundraising (India, England, and U.S.), and writings that promoted gender equality in access to knowledge and opportunities. She had worked with Dr. Annie Besant at times. Likewise, Sister Christine, disciple of Vivekanand, is another example of a Westerner who utilized the Ramakrishna Mission and Vivekanand's circles as vehicles for improving female rights in India.

;INC wing
:''See also: [[Indian Freedom Fighters#INC's Hindu activist roots|INC's Hindu activist roots]] 
[[image:Nellie Sen Gupta.jpg|right|thumb|100px|N.S. Gupta.]]
Nellie Sen Gupta[https://www.thedailystar.net/in-focus/news/deshpriya-jatindra-mohan-nellie-sengupta-2036981] (nee Edith Ellen Gray) had married freedom fighter Jatindra Mohan Sen Gupta, and both joined the INC — she also founded Deepali Sangha, a women's organization aimed at promoting social and political awareness, leadership, training, and empowerment among women. Her husband passed away but she was advised to stay in the-then East Pakistan to take care of Hindu rights, which she did. Umadevi (born Wanda Dynowska), a Polish convert to Sanatan Dharm too championed women's rights in India and translated ''[[Bhagavad Gita]]'', ''[[Mahabharata]]'', ''[[Ramayana]]'', and other [[Hindu Scriptures|Hindu and Bauddh literature]] into Polish. Mira Behn (born Madeleine Slade), the daughter of a British Royal Navy admiral, gave up her affluent lifestyle to become Gandhi's servant in India.
[[image:Sarla Behn Chipko Movement.jpg|right|thumb|200px|Sarla Behn's Chipko act[https://www.adda247.com/school/chipko-movement/].]]
Sarla Behn[https://growbilliontrees.com/blogs/knowledge/sarla-behn-tree-nurturing-nature-and-empowering-communities-for-a-sustainable-future?srsltid=AfmBOoq4h0d0skQBNr4w4zOvISuhYz02_EXtPvD3pUoQYjTlcvNHEbQ-#fullcontent] (born Catherine Mary Heilman) from England setup the Lakshmi Ashram Kausani in 1946 within Uttarakhand to uplift women, after having lived in the Sevagram Ashram[https://gandhiashramsevagram.org/] in Maharashtra. The organization educated rural hill girls academically, trained women of self-reliance and industrial skills (i.e., khadi weaving), taught personal care (i.e., literacy, hygiene, anti-liquor campaigns), and promoted [[Environmentalism|ecological awareness]] (Chipko Movement.) It also worked with the INC to encourage nationalist fervour. Lakshmi Ashram individual units were known as Mahila Mandals. This ashram attracted foreign residents intrigued with Sanatan Dharm even after independence, like David Hopkins, who relocated to there in the 1990's.
[[image:Durgabai Deshmukh.jpg|right|thumb|100px|Dr. D.D.]]
Dr. Durgabai Deshmukh, pupil of Gandhi and freedom fighter in the colonial era, established the Central Social Welfare Board (1953.) She later became president of the All India Women's Conference (1931.) Taraben Premchand is an important mention, as she was an important member of this organization, as well as the Jain Mahila Parishad[https://www.dbjainsabha.com], Jyoti Sangh[https://jyotisangh.org/about-us/] (local women's advancement group in Gujarat), and Shraddhanand Ashram[https://shraddhanandmahilashram.org/].

Madeleine Rolland was Women's International League for Peace and Freedom's[https://www.wilpf.org/] French section and never settled in India. However, upon engaging with Hindu culture in the 1920's, she translated Ananda Coomaraswamy's ''[[Nataraja Dasakam|The Dance of Shiva]]'' into French, introducing Hinduism to the-then residents of France. She also translated Rabindranath Tagore's writings of Sanatan themes and universal humanism, helping popularize them in Europe. She welcomed Gandhi on his visit to Marseille, France. [[image:Kanuparti Varalakshmamma.jpg|right|thumb|100px|'Sarada'.]]
Kanuparti Varalakshmamma (alias 'Sarada'), a devout Gandhian, used Hindu themes like providing ethical refences (i.e., Savitri, Sita) to depict women's morality, dignity, and conduct. She often engaged with the idea of a grihalakshmi (idea woman of the household.) She also founded the Stree Hitaishini Mandali for uplifting women. She used ''Andhra Patrika'', a newspaper created by a promoter of the ''Bhagavad Gita'', Kasinathuni Nageswara Rao, to preach her ideas.
[[image:Vijaya Lakshmi Pandit.jpg|right|thumb|100px|'Vijaya Lakshmi Pandit'.]]
It is also noteworthy that the 1st female head of government in the world was a [[Bauddh Dharm|Bauddh]] (Sirimavo Bandaranaike of Sri Lanka, non-INC member), and 2nd was a Hindu (Indira Gandhi, INC member.) Also Vijaya Lakshmi Pandit[https://news.un.org/en/story/2024/03/1147327] (born Swaroop Rani Nehru) played a significant role in global representation of women, particularly in the United Nations. She was the first woman to serve as the President of the UN General Assembly (1953-1954), a position she held to advocate for decolonization and the independence of countries in Asia and Africa. She was also the first Indian woman to hold a cabinet rank in a provincial government. Hansa Mehta[https://india.un.org/en/311450-hansa-mehta%E2%80%99s-life-story-continues-inspire] had an impact on the UN's constitution wording wherein "''all human beings''" instead of "all men" in the Universal Declaration of Human Rights. (She was also one of only 2 women delegates working alongside Eleanor Roosevelt in the UN Human Rights Commission 1946-48.)
[[image:Nilla Cram Cook.jpg|right|thumb|100px|'Nilla Nagini Devi'.]]
Nilla Cram Cook, an American who settled at Gandhi's ashrams, had [[Conversion|converted to Hinduism]] in the 1930's but identified with the '[[Samyag Darshan#Samadarshan|sarva dharma sambhava]]' ideal, so considered herself a [[Bhakta|devotee]] of not only [[Krishna]] but of Jesus too, and so she later also translated the Quran and engaged with Islamic practices in a syncretic way with her Hindu and Christian customs. Her final literary work was ''The Way of the Swam: Poems of Kashmir'' (1958), which was mostly focused around the [[Saiva|Shaiv]] mystic poetess Lal Ded[https://hindupost.in/society-culture/lal-ded-her-life-and-works/#][https://homegrown.co.in/homegrown-voices/the-poetry-of-lal-ded-mysticism-resistance-the-female-voice-in-14th-century-kashmir] and others from Kashmir syncretic Sanatan-[[Bauddh Dharm|Bauddh]]-[[Sufism with Vaishnavism|Sufi]] tradition. She dedicated the book to Pandit. She didn't work on women's upliftment directly but did participate with Gandhi's Harijan Sevak Sangh. She had also written about Sarojini Naidu (1st Indian woman-president of the INC.)

;Other associations
[[image:Maharani Chimnabai Gaekwad II.jpg|right|thumb|100px|Maharani Chimnabai.]]
[[image:Sethu Parvathi Bayi.jpg|right|thumb|100px|Junior Queen Bayi.]]
The National Council of Women in India[https://www.ncwi.in/], founded 1925, was also a monumental organization to make progress for women — it mainly focused on female literacy, vocational training, public participation, and legal reform. It was primarily the initiative of Lady Meherbai Tata, a Mazdaean icon, and its first president was Maharani Chimnabai Gaekwad II, born Gajrabai Ghatge, a princess of Dewas (M.P.) She supported societal progress of women that did not compromise on Hindu identity (i.e., traditional customs like wearing sari and sindhoor or like celebrating Raksha Bandhan), which is how she framed her ''The Position of Women in Indian Life'' book. She financed schools for girls, as well as Hindu charities and temples. The Gaekwad family also funded libraries and women's institutions and social reform initiatives. She discussed the eradication or the purdah, child marriage, women's restrictions (i.e., obtaining education and employment), and other obstacles towards advancement. Following her presidentship, Sethu Parvathi Bayi took over. She was from the royal family of Travancore (Kerala), and her family was deeply connected to the Padmanabhaswamy Temple[https://spst.in/][https://www.padmanabhaswamytemple.com/]. She financed Hindu institutions as well. It is notable that Sucharu Deo, daughter of Brahmo leader K.C. Sen was a prominent member and she had also helped build the Maharani Girls' High School[https://school.banglarshiksha.gov.in/ws/website/index/19013701705] in Darjeeling (W.B.) together with her sister (Suniti) and Hemlata Sarkar, daughter of Brahmo leader Sibnath Sastri.

From Hindu-based institutions like sociopolitical organizations and schools came a number of philanthropic associations.
;Most influential persons for women's upliftment
{| class="wikitable sortable"
|-
! Area of Contribution
! Meaning
! Steps Taken
! Activists
! Organizations
! Founder's Affiliation(s)
|-
|Political rights and visibility
|1. Women appearing in public political spaces 2. Women being recognized as leaders (not just participants) 3. Changing social norms about women's public roles 4. Symbolic representation
|Helped institutionalize women's leadership through bodies like Women's Indian Association
|Dr. Annie Besant (women's political rights + organizational leadership), Kamaladevi Chattopadhyay (political participation, economic empowerment, cooperatives), Margaret Cousins[https://www.womensmuseumofireland.ie/exhibits/margaret-elizabeth-cousins] (Suffarage, WIA), Sarojini Naidu (mass mobilization of women in politics)
|
|
|-
|Modern institutional equality
|
|Helped institutionalize institutional equality through contributing policy influence (Hansa Mehta) and constitutional rights (Dr. Durgabai Deshmukh)
|Dr. Durgabai Deshmukh (welfare systems), Hansa Mehta
|
|
|-
|Foundational legal reform
|
|
|Raja Ram Mohan Roy (abolition of sati), Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar (widow remarriage)
|
|
|-
|Education
|
|
|Raja Ram Mohan Roy, Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar
|
|
|-
|}

====Hindu influence internationally====
Even outside of India during the 20th century, women's rights were not perfect, and so many women incorporated Hindu symbolism (i.e., worship) and concepts towards promoting societies where women would have equal rights.
[[image:M.J. Gage.jpg|right|thumb|200px|Matilda Joslyn Gage.]]
[[image: Charlotte Despard.jpg|right|thumb|200px|Charlotte Despard, an Anglo-Irish suffragist who supported Indian independence.]]
As [[Worship of God as Mother|worship of God as a female or mother]] has been common in Sanatan Dharm since its foundation, that made validating female upliftment in India quicker. Even in Western nations, prominent women's rights organizations implemented imagery of goddesses from pertinent ancient cultures, like U.K.'s Women's Freedom League and National Union of Women's Suffrage Societies, and the global International Woman Suffrage Alliance, to legitimize female equality and women being in positions of power. Some American and European feminists and women's rights activists, like Matilda Joslyn Gage<ref>"''While the sale of daughters was practiced in England for seven hundred years after the introduction of Christianity, we note that by the ancient law of India, a father was forbidden to sell his daughter in marriage, or receive the smallest present therefor.''" - P. 79-82 ''Woman, Church and State'' (1893) By Matilda Joslyn Gage</ref> (U.S. suffragist) and Helena Petrovna Blavatsky<ref>"''The pre- and post-Vedic woman was as free as man; and no impure terrestrial thought was ever mixed with the religious symbology of the early Aryans.''" 
"''This is proven by the fact that in the Vedic period their women were not placed apart from men in penetralia, or ‘Zenanas.’ Their seclusion began when the Mahomedans … had conquered the land and gradually enforced their ways and customs upon the Hindus.''" 
- P. 379-380 ''The Secret Doctrine: Volume I'' By Helena Blavatsky </ref> (European feminist), even used the examples of [[Worship of God as Mother|Hindu goddess-worship]] and Hindu queens to support their examples. And though Blavatsky did not officially align with any single religion to encourage recruitment for her Theosophical Society, she referenced Sanatan and Bauddh scriptures (Upanishads, and then Gita, then Bauddh shastras) more than others. (M.J. Gage[https://www.smithsonianmag.com/history/the-feminist-inspired-witches-of-oz-180985334/] in her ''Woman, Church, and State'' even highlighted Hindu texts to counter the male-centric theology of the West and referenced ''[[Bhagavad Gita]]'' to validate the concept of a female [[divinity]].) Even feminists of the colonial era like Victoria Woodhull that was skeptical of organized religion, respected "''Christna and Buddha''" (Krishna and Gautama.) Mary Lowe Dickinson at the World's Parliament Circles (1893) was so impressed by [[Swami Vivekananda|Swami Vivekanand]]'s speech, that she developed a fascination with female divinity of Hinduism, and in her editorials and public circles, argued that Hinduism's recognition of a feminine aspect within the divine was spiritually superior to the rigidly patriarchal, all-male Trinity of mainstream American Christianity. Emily Pitts Stevens and Charlotte LeMoyne Wills (wrote about the genderless [[Brahm]]) became disciples of Vivekanand. Laura de Force Gordon wrote about the immortal soul and continuous cycle of life. Alice Moore McComas wrote about the interconnectedness (aikatmyam) of all things. In U.K., Charlotte Despard's specific pamphlets linked [[karma]] to political activism. Margaret Louise Sanger was influenced by Vivekanand and Rabindranath Tagore. Sarah Bull<ref> P. 483 ''Western Admirers of Ramakrishna and His Disciples'' By Gopal Stavig, Swami Shuddhidananda </ref>, who particularly focused on women's education and reform was connected to both Vivekanand and Sister Nivedita. Josephine MacLeod was a major promoter of Vivekanand in the West and was involved in transatlantic reform-intellectual networks. Viktoria Ocampo of Argentina was deeply influenced by Tagore, even hosting him in Argentina and promoting his ideas widely. Gabriela Mistral of Chile was too, and she applied Tagore's ideas to women's education, child welfare, and cultural reform. Mabel Dodge Luhan was fascinated with Sanatan philosophy and influenced by Vivekanand. Mentionable is Emma Calve of France, who wasn't a political feminist leader but influential in women's intellectual-cultural circles, and she was deeply influenced by Vivekanand.
[[image:Carol Patrice Christ.jpg|right|thumb|200px|Carol Patrice Christ.]]
After suffragists had attained complete institutional equality, they them progressed to the next stage of female liberation by ensuring that their own spiritual faith wasn't male-chauvinistic or making them subordinates of males. Feminists were inspired by goddess deity of Hinduism to then promote it within generic spirituality. Valerie Saiving, Isaac Bonewits and Naomi Goldenberg founded in the 1970's, Thealogy, a feminine-specific theology. Carol Patrice Christ launched the Goddess Movement, which provided 4 aspects of Goddess symbolism as reasons to needing a goddess in women's lives; 1) the Goddess as affirmation of female power, 2) the female body, 3) the female will, and 4) women's bond and heritage. She specifically used the Shakti concept to prove that a major global religion (Hinduism) explicitly defined the [[Brahmanda|material universe]]/nature/change ([[Darshana#Sankhya|Prakriti]]) as an inherently active, female, and sacred force. She was an ecofeminist, as were Charlene Spretnak and Miriam Simos were ecofeminists too. Merlin Stone wrote ''Ancient Mirrors of Womanhood: Our Goddess and Heroine Heritage'' (1979) and in a chapter analyzes goddesses like [[Durga]], [[Kali]], [[Lakshmi Puja|Lakshmi]], Parvati, and Saraswati. Devout Christian women feminists too drew on Hindu practices and ideas to support women's advocacy, and they include Ivone Gebara, Pearl Sydenstricker Buck, and Sally McFague.

'Matriarchal religion' is a philosophy stating that societies were Goddess worshippers with females having the same status and rights as men before male gods began being worshipped, and the latter led to patriarchy. Goddesses being worshipped contiguously in Hindu societies for thousands of years was the backing this thought utilized, in addition to feminist archaeology (i.e., ancient idols and temples of goddesses uncovered.)

==Start of modern reforms==
In modern India, most positive social changes within Indian Hindu societies came not first as enforcement or pressure from European rulers but from advocacy of forward-thinking Hindus. Raja Ram Mohan Roy had led the campaign to purge Hindu societies of Sati and caste prejudices. Roy worked with British imperial authority, specifically Lord William Bentinck to have sati outlawed. Roy himself was a religious leader that reiterated Upanishads for their principles.

Other institutions of positive social changes were mainly Hindu ones or were governed by Hindu religious leaders, not secular ones.

The Indian National Social Conference of 1887 was organized by Justice Ranade, Rai Raghunath Rao, Narendra Nath Sen Gupta, and Janki Nath Ghoshal. Ranade was founder of the Prarthana Samaj, a religious group.

Arya Samajis, Brahmo Samajis, and Prarthana Samajis were the most vocal and active forces advocating: 
#Widow Remarriage (i.e., Widow Remarriage Act 1856—initiative of Brahmo Samaj)
#Women's right to divorce (i.e., Native Marriage Act 1872—initiative of Brahmo Samaj) 
#Property rights for women 
#Opposition to child marriages (i.e., Age of Consent Act 1891—initiative of Brahmo Samaj and Prarthana Samaj, Child Marriage Restraint Act 1929—initiative of Arya Samaj) 
#Universal accessible education (built schools, including colleges and gurukuls) 
#Caste-based reservations
[[image:Justice Ranade.jpg|right|thumb|200px|Mahadev Govind Ranade (alias 'Justice Ranade'.)]]
[[image:Jagannath Shankarshet.jpg|right|thumb|200px|Jagannath Shankarshet (alias 'Architect of Modern Mumbai'.)]]
The Indian Factories Act 1881's ratification was a landmark in workers' rights and the credit goes mainly to Sorabjee Shapoorjee Bengalee, and then Prarthana Samaj. He did work alongside the Prarthana Samaj to lobby the British authority through the First Factory Commission in 1875 (made to investigate the brutal conditions of Indian labour.) Prarthana Samaj's ''Subodh Patrika'' newspaper specifically critiqued mill owners. Rahnumai Mazdayasnan Sabha, its newspaper ''Rast Goftar'', and Bengalee himself referenced labour reformers Sasipada Banerji and Protap Chunder Mozumdar, and used the former's methods of worker upliftment as a blueprint for their own legislative arguments. Collaboration between the Sabha and Prarthana Samaj began with the latter's creation of the Theistic Association, on which the Parsi Naoroji Furdonji was its 1st Chairman. Ranade and Bhandarkar drove the Association from discussing only theism to improving society through finding solutions of work hardships. The Night School Initiative was launched, helping workers receive adequate training, particularly in labourer-heavy neighborhoods Byculla, Dongri, Khetwadi, and Thakurdwar. (From 1886-1890 alone, over 2,750 industrial workers successfully studied through this initiative.) Protap Chunder Mozoomdar, a Brahmo, began eight night schools in 1872 within Mumbai when he relocated to the city.<ref> P. 47 ''Peaceful Industrial Relations, Their Science and Technique'' (1957) By R. J. Soman </ref> Brahmos then established night schools within Kolkata by 1878.

Brahmo Samaj's K.C. Sen’s first visit to Mumbai in March-April 1864 engaged him with Bengalee, Furdonji, Ranade, and Bhandarkar (all then members of Young India.) They all discussed ways to develop India. They also shared strategies on how to bypass orthodox religious resistance—Furdonji within Zoroastrianism and Sen within Sanatan Dharm. Bengalee's First Labor Bill (1878) laid the groundwork for the later Indian Factories Act.

Prior to all of this, Jagannath Shankarshet[https://www.vishwakonkani.org/hall-of-fame/hon-jagannath-shankar-sheth/] spent the 1850s petitioning the British Parliament for local governance. As a result, it codified the Indian Councils Act of 1861, thus creating the Bombay Legislative Council as a political body to better govern the-then Bombay Presidency. Shankarshet was the main founder of Bombay Association. In its first leadership were also Dr. Ramachandra Vitthal Lad (alias 'Dr. Bhau Daji'), a Hindu intellectual who used his Sanskrit knowledge to decipher inscriptions, preserve manuscripts, and help reconstruct the forgotten timelines of ancient Guptas and Western Kshatrapa dynasties. Mentionable is the Parsi Sir Jamsetjee Jeejeebhoy of the group. Shankarshet was a wealthy philanthropist that constructed and financed Sanatan and secular infrastructure, most notably the Bhavani Shankar Mandir[https://www.mcgm.gov.in/irj/go/km/docs/documents/D%20Ward/Heritage-Sites/73_Legacy%20of%20D%20Ward_Article_Bhavani%20Shankar%20Temple.pdf] (Mumbai), Sanskrit Seminary and Sanskrit Library (both in Mumbai too.) Elphinstone Educational Institution[https://elphinstone.ac.in/index.php] and Grant Medical College[https://gmcjjh.edu.in/] were his creations too. (Jeejeebhoy contributed to constructing the Grant Medical College.)

===Shahu's royal authority to implement reforms===
[[image:Shahu adoption.jpg|right|thumb|200px|Prince Yeshwantrao Ghatge being adopted by the royal family of Kohlapur.]]
[[image:Rajarshi.jpg|right|thumb|200px|Rajarshi Chhatrapati Shahu Maharaj.]]
[[image:School foundation.jpg|right|thumb|200px|Foundation of Shri Shahu Chhatrapati Shikshan Sanstha.]]
The greatest champion on all of these sections for reforms was Chhatrapati Shahu Maharaj[https://aissms.org/breaking-barriers-chhatrapati-shahu-maharaj-and-his-enduring-impact-on-progress-and-modernity/] (born Yeshwantrao Ghatge), '[[Rta and Spiritual Authority#Rishis|Rajarshi]]', the ruler of Kohlapur Kingdom who affiliated with organizations but probably the Arya Samaj[https://thearyasamaj.org] more than any other. Shahu definitely was not shy to publicly perform prayers, as he famously attended temples of goddesses Ambabai[https://www.mahalaxmikolhapur.com/home] and Bhavani[https://shrituljabhavani.org/] when having returned from his Europe trip in 1902. Also in 1902, Pratap Singh Maharaj of Idhar (Gujarat) introduced and educated him about the Arya Samaj. He provided patronage to the Arya Samaj.[https://navjyot.net/wp-content/uploads/2022/12/10.pdf]

The king passed many policies for for the upliftment of untouchable, nomadic, non-Brahmin communities and for females.<ref>Act of Free and Compulsory Primary Education (1917), Widow remarriage Act (1917), End of Balutedari (1918), Repeal of Kulkarni Watan (1918), Intercaste and Interreligious Marriages and Sanctioning of Registered Marriage Act (1919), Act relating to protection of Harassment of Women (1919), Divorce act (1919), Order on prohibition of Untouchability practice (1919), Illegitimate Children's Rights and Devadasi Prohibition Act (1920); 
[https://www.indiejournal.in/article/rajarshi-shahu-maharaj-and-his-tryst-with-the-arya-samaj "Rajarshi Shahu Maharaj & his tryst with the Arya Samaj Lessons for our times"] By Devkumar Ahire (Jun 26, 2023 6:42 PM)</ref>

;Prejudiced disgruntled castists promoting anti-Brahman hate, not universalism
While Shahu was affiliated with the Satyashodhak Samaj (SS) because it wanted to uplift the non-dwija castes, he did not feel they had any religious foundations, whereas the Arya Samaj was encompassed both a spiritual and social movement.<ref>"Beyond Reformism: Chhatrapati Shahu and Hinduism Reimagined" By Surajkumar Thube P. 124-144 ''Nidān: International Journal for Indian Studies, Volume 8'', Issue 1 (July 2023)</ref> Also, the SS of Pune was antithetical to social cohesion because it targeted the Brahman caste as an enemy, and while its main founder (Jyotirao Phule) made absurd claims like 'Shiv-Dharma'<ref>"''The real Shiv-Dharma that is ours, we are re-establishing it as Sarvajanik Satya Dharma.''" Chapter 4, ''Sarvajanik Satya Pustak''</ref> or 'Mahadev-Dharma' (worship of [[Shiva|Shiv]] as God and some local gods like Khandoba as avatars) being the true religion of Indians whereas every other Hindu belief and practice was an imposition by 'non-Indian Brahman invaders'. Being a chauvinist, he also criticized freedom fighter martyrs Lakshmi Bai, Nana Sahib, Tantia Tope for being Brahmans. He also wrote positively that freedom fighters lost the 1857 War of Independence against the British colonialists. He was also openly criticized by his own relative Baburao Phule, who accused the former of being a Christian convert who destroyed the Hindu religion.<ref>P. 58-59 ''The Caste Question: Dalits and the Politics of Modern India'' (2009) By Anupama Rao </ref>

Phule though anti-Brahman, was influenced by some Brahmans, such as Balshastri Jambhekar (a Hindu activist) who pushed scientific knowledge and history through Marathi, criticized caste segregation, and attacked other or kinds or orthodoxy like widowhood. He was also influenced by some Hindu activists who were not anti-Brahman (i.e., Karsandas Mulji.)

The organization would receive the most aid from Shahu (financial and social work), Karmvir (social work), and Padval (intellectual) but they themselves always kept a distance from the SS because of its explicitly castist vitriol. People would choose to align or become members of other associations for their inclusivity and harmonious vision for the future.

;Satyashodhak Samaj becoming less anti-Brahman
"''All Hindus are equal. No one is superior, no one is inferior. Let all flesh and blood be one. Four varnas are a real deceit. It's a tool to keep the non-Brahmins in slavery. There is no difference among the Hindus. Hindu is the only varna. If a Hindu eats or marries with another Hindu that's not ''[[adharma]].'' In contrast, what divide Hindus in the name of religion is not a dharma, but a trick by Brahmins. One who calls themselves a Hindu, whether they are Europeans or Africans, they are our coreligionists.''" - P. 39 ''Deshache Dushman'' (1925) By Dinkarrao Javalkar
[[image:Sasipada Banerji.jpg|right|thumb|100px|Sasipada Banerji (alias 'Sevabrata'.)]]
Notable is that Phule's friend Narayan Meghaji Lokhande, a labour organization leader, was close friends with Phule and used Khandoba-worship and the reverence of Sundays for Khandoba in his petition to British authority to achieve Sunday as a holiday for factory labourers. Phule and Lokhande emulated Brahmans, like forming the political lobby group Deenbandhu Sarvajanik Sabha after Ranade's Poona Sarvajanik Sabha and forming the Bombay Mill Hands Association based and its mouthpiece ''Deenbandhu'' on the Working Men's Club (India's 1st labour welfare platform) and its mouthpiece ''Bharat Sramajibi'' (India's 1st labour journal) of Sasipada Banerji (Brahmo Samaji.)

Though Dinkarrao Javalkar portrayed himself as pan-Hindu when discussing the specific topic of Hindu unity, he still prejudicially criticized the Brahman caste in general<ref>"''This day will be counted among the most important days in the history of Hindus. There is no reason for you to fear jail. The Brahmans who eat ghee and roti should have that fear. To make the touchable people behave is in your hands. You are the sons of Hindus. You capture the tank saying 'har har Mahadev' and follow the advice of your leader Dr. Ambedkar Saheb. This is my own position.''" -Dinkarrao Javalkar at satyagraha with Keshavrao Jedhe and Dr. Ambedkar among a Mahar crowd</ref> and targeted some prominent Brahmans like Lokmanya Tilak. (Javalkar and Keshavrao Jedhe also portrayed themselves as pro-woman but derogatory remarks about women from the Brahman and certain other castes<ref>P. 44 ''19th Century Maharashtra: A Reassessment'' (2020) By Shraddha Kumbhojkar </ref> and both appealed to Dr. B.R. Ambedkar in 1927 to exclude Brahmans from the Mahad Satyagraha<ref> P. 27 ''Social Reform Movements in India: A Historical Perspective'' (1991) By V.D. Divekar</ref>.) Jedhe did protest with other activists (including Brahmans like Narhar Vishnu Gadgil, Seshdas Ranade, Shreedhar Mahadev Joshi, and members of Arya Samaj) for the right of Dalits to worship at Pune's Devdeveshwar Mandir[https://devdeveshwarsanthan.org/home.html]. Javalkar did write favourably about some like Ranade, Gopal Ganesh Agarkar, and Krishna Gopal Gokhale but even they were rarely mentioned. He rightfully partook in the Kalaram Mandir[https://www.shrikalaramsansthannasik.org/] Satyagraha in Nasik that protested for Dalits to be able to enter the temple. He was a communist and 10 years after his death, the Peasants and Workers Party (PWP) was formed.

SS branches outside of Pune were less hateful of Brahmans. It is also noteworthy, however, is that Nana Patil, a founder of the PWP, was affiliated with both the Satyashodhak and Prarthana associations [meaning that he, like most other Satyashodhaks didn't believe in Phule's religious ideology.] Some other PWP founders like Jedhe and Madhavrao Bagal were Satyashodhaks, they popularized Shiv Jayanti and Ganesh Chathuri. The latter and his son Vasantrao even wrote devotional pieces inspired from Bhakti Era saints (i.e., [[Tukaram]], [[Eknath]]) and valourizing pieces about Shahu. Tulshidas Jadhav, a Gandian within the PWP, championed the Bhakti Era's Warkari Movement, which was still popular in his time, because it was based on social equality and public seva. Also noteworthy is, that even some prominent members supported the Arya Samaj, like Krishnarao Bhalekar<ref>"''Bhalekar said that while Hinduism needed to be reformed , this reform should be brought about from within . He said he would defend Hinduism if it was under attack from Islam or Christianity.''" - P. 35 ''Non-Brahman Movement in Maharashtra'' (1989) By M.S. Gore </ref> (1 of the founders of SS with Phule) defended Dayanand Saraswati (Arya Samaj’s founder), when the latter’s procession was opposed by some orthodox Hindus in Pune, and Bhalekar organized a speech to be delivered by Saraswati at a dharmshal near a Rokdoba Temple in Pune. SS' Moro Vitthal Walvekar was directly affiliated with the Prarthana Samaj and played a crucial role in its associated media landscape (frequently serving as an editor of ''Subodha Patrika''.)

Bhalekar himself made the claim that the SS is the true follower of Sant Tukaram's [[Bhāgavata-dharma|Bhagwat Dharma]] ([[Krishna|Krishnaite]] [[Vaishnava|Vaishnavism]].) His son was Mukundrao Patil, who made the claim, "''The Satyasodhak Samaj is the true heir of the Hindu religion. Brahmanism is not Hinduism.''"<ref>''Dinmitra'' newspaper (1920s)</ref> Javalkar claimed SS is the true representative of the Hindu religion and that SS members are liberating Hinduism from the supremacy of the Brahmins. Shivram Janma Kamble (a Dalit) stated the SS is a revival movement of the true Hinduism. Kisan Faguji Bansode (a Dalit) argued "Shivdharma" was the true Hindu religion and that the SS advocates that version. Dr. Ramayya Venkayya Ayyavaru in ''Khristi Bandhujanans Vinanti'' or ''A Request to Our Christian Brothers'' (1887) wrote to missionaries that Indians did not need to be baptized and that monotheism has been embedded in Indian culture and that Indians. Previously, he, backed firmly by Narayan Meghaji Lokhande and the urban Mumbai executive committee of the SS, aggressively fought against changing the name of the SS to 'Satya Dharma Samaj'.

There were those in his organization that promoted about how in ancient Sanatan society, there were no caste distinctions and that people were recognized by their merits. Their view was promoted by Tukaram Tatya Padval, who wrote ''Jatibhed Vivekshar'' (1861) after being inspired by Ashwaghosha's ''Vajrasuchi''. Phule republished copies of Padval's books, and the 2 developed a friendship. He did write at that in ancient India, certain sages were had Sudra or Avarna status but rose to the rank of a Brahman through their intellect, and used examples of Valmiki (wrote a ''Ramayan''), Sankhya, and Kabilar rishis. He also published copies of the ''Bhagavad Gita'', ''Yogasutra'', and compilations of the ''Rajayoga'' and ''Sankhya Karika.'' He further compiled the ''Tukarambaba ani Tyanche Shisya Yanchi Abhanga Gatha'' (1889) and ''Eknath Maharajancha Abhangachi Gatha'' (1903.) Padval, however, never became a member of Phule's organization and instead became a member of the Theosophical Society.

;Shahu forming his own Satyashodhak Samaj focused on upliftment (free of anti-Brahman distractions)
As a result of the Satyashodhak Samaj of Pune being too antagonistic of Brahmans, Shahu had instead founded his own branch in 1911 — Shri Shahu Satyashodhak Samaj. By an order, Shahu replaced the Brahman priests in the Patgaon Sansthan (Mauni Maharaj Math[https://durgbharari.in/maunibaba-patgaon/]) and Jyotiba Devasthan[https://shreejyotiba.com/?lang=E][https://maharashtratourism.gov.in/temple/jyotiba/] with Maratha priests. Bhaskarrao Jadhav and Anna Babaji Latthe were leaders of Shahu's Kolhapur Satyashodhak Samaj. Whereas Phule mostly only wrote positively of Shiva and local-born gods, Jadhav in his ''Marathas and their Religion'' wrote positively about Krishna and the ''Bhagavad Gita''. He further worked with Shahu to aid Arya Samaj in its activities and goals (i.e., train non-Brahmans to become priests too.) Noteworthy is that Latthe, who worked personally with Shahu Maharaj, was its first VP and that he worked to dismantle priestly (Jain priests, not usually Brahmans) intermediation within the Jain clergy. (He was a big-time activist for general upliftment and for reform within the Jain community (i.e., wrote ''Jain Dharmacha Parichay''.)

Latthe founded the Dakshin Bharat Jain Sabha[https://dbjainsabha.com/], of which Dr. Bhaurao Patil (from a Jain family) became a member and through he wasn't a member of any SS branch, he did sometimes participate in its activities and himself founded the Rayat Shikshan Sansthan[https://rayatshikshan.edu/], which educated students in a multitude of topics, including Sanskrit. Patil (alias 'Karmvir Anna') was deeply influenced by Mahatma Gandhi and Vitthal Ramji Shinde.

;Shahu distancing himself formally from Satyashodhak Samaj
The SS had earned a bad reputation in Maharashtra with the general public, particularly for the outright anti-Brahman vitriol spewed in the SS's publications and events. Because the goal of Shahu and true reformers was to achieve a harmonious society with all people cooperating, it would not make sense to support an organization that's known for abusing persons (i.e., Brahmans) specifically over their caste identity.

In 1921, Shahu made a public statement in a Baroda newspaper that even though he granted significant support to the non-Brahman movement and introduced measures to eliminate Brahman dominance, he had never been affiliated with Phule's SS, and that he always accepted [[Rta and Spiritual Authority#Rishis|Vedic ritual authority]].

;Granting, accommodating, and expanding Arya Samaj
Shahu attended Arya Samaj sessions like the one at Navsari in 1918 and another at Bhavnagar in 1920<ref>P. 6. ''People's Raj Volume 30'' (1974) By Directorate-General of Information and Public Relations </ref>. He provided funding for Gurukul Boarding House to be built at Kerle, wherein large buildings and well-irrigated lands were granted to the Arya Samaj. Later, the Rajaram Anathalaya orphanage was added to this grant. He also brought educational institutions in his domain under the leadership of Arya Pratinidhi Sabha. Rajaram College's administration was also granted to the Arya Samaj.

;Spiritual Authority as Rajarshi
Shahu Maharaj, being a devout Sanatan wanted to proclaim the rights that warriors of history had and so participated in important ceremonies and worked with priests (i.e., Brahmans) to achieve the rights to learn and perform Vedic ceremonies. He established the Vedokta Committee for Marathas to be able to perform Vedic rites without requiring priests. In 1905, the Karveer Peeth's (or Kolhapur Math's) Shankaracharya declared full rights of Vedokta to Chhatrapati Shahu.

Tatyarao Joshirao was appointed by Shahu Maharaj as new royal purohit, replacing the Rajopadhye (creator of the infamous 'Vedokta Controversy'), who denied the Maharaj to perform Vedic rites. Joshirao was from a family that had traditional ownership of the historic Binkhambi Ganapati Mandir in Kolhapur.

Rajaram Shastri (alias 'Bhagavata'), a Brahman scholar, linguist, and researcher, openly challenged the religious orthodoxy, arguing from scripture that Shahu Maharaj had full rights to the Vedas. Vishnu Topkhane was another Brahman who greatly helped the Chhatrapati with his progressive reforms. Topkhane the educationalist helped the latter establish the Vidyapeeth High School near the Shri Karveer Niwasini Ambabai Mahalakshmi Temple. Freedom fighter Gokhale was someone who worked with Shahu. When the Vedokta Controversy broke out and the conservative press attacked the Maharaja, Gokhale privately and publicly validated Shahu Maharaj's stance, recognizing that social reform was a prerequisite for true political freedom. Ranade, though passed away before much Shahu's reforms began, was admired by the latter for his progressive ideals and actions.

Chhatrapati Shahu founded the Satyashodhak School for spiritual training in 1913, in which seminarians (predominantly from castes such as Marathas, Mahars, and Chambhars) were taught to recite and preach the poems (i.e., abhangs of Tukaram) of sants. He also created the Shivaji Vedic School (aliases 'Shahu Vedic School', 'Shahu Vedic Pathshala', 'Shri Shahu Vaidik Vidyalay') in 1920 and had invited scholars from Varanasi (spiritual capital of Sanatan Dharm) to ensure the highest standard of scriptural and linguistic training. The school trained seminarians (of all castes) to learn Sanskrit and become priests and conduct ceremonies. He further established and financed the office of the Kshatra Jagadguru (''Warrior Universal Teacher''), a pontiff seat open to anyone of any caste. The first Kshatra Jagadguru was Sadashivrao Lakshmanrao Sankpal Patil Benadikar, was an accomplished Sanskrit scholar who received his formal higher education at Rajaram College in Kolhapur. The Kshatra Jagadguru Peeth was the pontiff's seat at Patgaon (in the Bhudargad region of Kolhapur.) Patgaon was chosen because it was the historic site of the Mauni Maharaj Math, a highly respected spiritual center that had historically blessed Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj[https://pilgrimdata.in/temple/mouni-maharaj-math-temple-patgaon-bhudargarh-dist-kolhapur/]. The Kshatra Jagadguru had the Shri Sadashivrao Patil Shikshan Sanstha educationalist association named after him, and it runs schools[https://www.mwssm.org/][https://sspiop.com/] in Maharashtra still. Other organizations too use his name for schools like Sadashivrao Mandlik Mahavidyalaya (Kolhapur) of the ⁠Jay Shivray Education Society.

===Successive associations===
From Hindu-based institutions like sociopolitical organizations and schools came a number of philanthropic associations. Even other humanitarian associations that were not established by Hindu activists, were established by their influence. For example, Krishna Gopal Gokhale had participated in many sessions of the Prarthana Samaj as he was Ranade's pupil, and he later joined the Deccan Education Society, which he left to establish the Servants of India Society. Narayan Malhar Joshi was a member of Gokhale's group and later formed his own Social Service League[https://socialserviceleague.org.in/]. Hriday Nath Kunzru too was part of Gokhale's group and left to establish the Seva Samiti.

{| class="wikitable sortable"
|-
! Organization
! Demographic of Focus
! Region(s)
! Founder
! Founder's Affiliation(s)
! Achievement
|-
|Anath Balikashram Society
|Widows
|Maharashtra
|Dhondo Keshav Karve
|Educated at BHU
|
|-
|Andhra Mahila Sabha
|Females
|Andhra Pradesh
|Durgabai Deshmukh
|
|
|-
|Bharat Stree Mahamandal
|Females
|Bengal, Bihar, Punjab, Sindh, U.P.
|Sarala Devi Chaudhurani
|Arya Samaji, Brahmo Samaji, accepted Bijoy Krishna Chattopadhyaya as her guru
|
|-
|Buddhi Vardhak Sabha
|General public
|Gujarat
|Narmadashankar Labheshankar Dave
|
|Exposed people in positions of power that abused their privileges, build schools for girls
|-
|Central Social Welfare Board
|Females and children
|
|Dr. Durgabai Deshmukh
|
|
|-
|Hindu Widow Marriage Association
|Females
|Maharashtra
|Dhondo Keshav Karve
|Educated at BHU
|
|-
|Hindustani Seva Dal
|Females
|Every province
|Dr. Narayan Subbarao Hardikar
|
|Established the Hindustani Seva Mandal (later became Rashtriya Seva Dal) in 1923, established the Arya Bala Sabha, taught the Gita during his student days in Kolkata, was a fan of Lokmanya Tilak, and had enthusiastically worked with Lala Rai
|-
|Indian Reform Association
|Females
|West Bengal
|Keshub Chandra Sen
|
|Brahmo Samaji, founded ''Sulabh Samachar'' as weekly newspaper of group
|-
|Kasthurbha Gandhi Kanya Gurukulam[http://www.kgkgurukulam.org/]
|Girls
|Tamil Nadu (Vedaranyam)
|Vedaratnam Pillai
|
|Involved in temple-based philanthropy and donated to Sri Ramakrishna Mission too
|-
|Lakshmi Ashram
|Females
|Uttarakhand
|Sarla Behn
|
|Established individual Mahila Mandals throughout Uttarakhand and promoted important skills as well as ecological awareness
|-
|Lokahitawadi Mandal
|General public
|Maharashtra
|Vishnu Vaman Shirwadkar
|
|Wrote about Hindu themes, including persons from scriptures and about Shivaji poetically, philosophically, and nationally
|-
|Maharshi Karve Stree Shikshan Samstha
|Females
|Maharashtra
|Dhondo Keshav Karve
|Educated at BHU
|
|-
|Mahila Vidyalaya (Pune)
|Females
|Maharashtra
|Dhondo Keshav Karve
|Educated at BHU
|
|-
|Nishkam Karma Math
|Females
|Maharashtra
|Dhondo Keshav Karve
|Educated at BHU
|
|-
|Poona Seva Sadan
|Females
|Maharashtra (at its peak, included M.P. and T.N.)
|Ramabai Ranade
|
|
|-
|Samata Sangh
|General public
|Maharashtra
|Dhondo Keshav Karve
|Educated at BHU
|
|-
|Self Employed Women's Association (SEWA)
|Females
|18 states
|Ela Bhatt
|Gandhian Textile Labour Association
|Established: own bank (Shri Mahila Sewa Sahakari Bank, or 'SEWA Cooperative Bank'), SEWA Mahila Housing Trust
|-
|Servants of the People Society
|Females
|Kerala, Maharashtra, M.P., Odisha T.N., Uttarakhand U.P.
|
|
|
|-
|Shraddhanand Ashram[https://shraddhanandmahilashram.org] (alias Hindu Women's Welfare Society)
|Females and boys
|Maharashtra (Mumbai)
|Swami Shraddhanand
|
|Has cared for thousands of destitute women and orphans, and educated them and provided skills development, as well as fostered personal development
|-
|Stree Hitaishini Mandali
|Females
|Andhra Pradesh
|Kanuparti Varalakshmamma
|
|Educated many females
|-
|Widow Marriage Association
|Females
|Maharashtra
|Dhondo Keshav Karve
|Educated at BHU
|
|-
|}

==Inspiration to Madras Presidency==
[[image:M.C. Rajah.jpg|right|thumb|200px|Mylai Chinna Thambi Pillai Rajah (the real 'Periyar'.)]]
While the Arya Samaj, Brahmo Samaj, Prarthana Samaj, and a host of other Hindu-based humanitarian and sociopolitical institutions existed in the-then Madras Presidency of southern India, they inspired local organizations as well. Shahu Maharaj had friends in the-then Justice Party (JP, est. 1916), like Arcot Ramasamy Mudaliar and Panaganti Ramarayaningar. While some ethnic groups, like certain castes even falsely supported the idea of an 'Aryan Invasion Theory' and themselves (Dravidian-languages speakers) as indigenous, they still appreciated Hinduism and did not consider it alien.

The biggest uplifter of the party was M.C. Rajah, who had the highest influence upon the policies that improved the lives of the Dalits in Madras Presidency. The party itself was founded primarily by 3 individuals — Sir Pitti Theagaraya Chetty (political founder who built the political machine), Dr. Taravath Madhavan Nair (ideological co-founder), and Dr. Chintadripet Natesa Mudaliar (cultural/grassroots mobilizer who helped shape cultural legitimacy.) Dr. Nair had said that Hindu society had originally possessed broader equality before caste dominance hardened it. Chetty occasionally used dharm-based ethical framing. He is consistently described as arguing that governance must align with "''dharma and justice''". The Dr. Mudaliar was a devout Shaiva that infused into the party Shaivism as a cultural identity for southerners.
[[image:P.T. Rajan.jpg|right|thumb|200px|P.T. Rajan (centre-right, wearing glasses next to priest), touring with the idol of [[Ayyappan|Ayyappa]] he had made at Swamimalai Temple[https://swamimalaiswaminathar.hrce.tn.gov.in/] and it was placed in the Sabarimala Temple[https://www.sabarimalauptodate.in/].]]
An ideologue of influence to the JP and Self-Respect Movement was Maraimalai Adigal, a Shaiv preacher and writer, who claimed that both the JP and Self-Respect Movement were from his teachings and that militant atheist Erode Venkatappa Ramasami Naicker had hijacked them. JP founder Dr. Nair died in 1919 and Chetty in 1925, so had no interaction Naicker. Ponnambala Thiaga Rajan was an active party member and disagreed with Naicker's ideology, so joined Congress-aligned politics. Mudaliar died in 1935 around the time Naicker entered the JP. Naicker was also a prejudiced castist that criticized but did not contribute to build schools and shelters for women and children, as Rajah[https://www.news18.com/opinion/opinion-m-c-rajah-the-forgotten-hindu-mahasabha-dalit-8937192.html][https://vskbharat.com/m-c-rajah-a-staunch-hindu-leader/?lang=en][https://thecommunemag.com/m-c-rajah-the-hindu-mahasabha-dalit/], a practicing Hindu of the party did. Rajah even once formed a political alliance with the Hindu Mahasabha, was the contributor. Before Rajah, the party's caste disparity was mainly about civil service occupations and education access for underprivileged castes. Rajah was recommended by Ambedkar to convert but Rajah replied there's no religion better than Hinduism.<ref>P. 92 ''The Political Evolution of Muslims in Tamilnadu and Madras, 1930-1947'' By J.B. Prashant More (1997) </ref><ref> In a public meeting of the All India Adi Dravida Mahajana Sabha in Nungambakkam, Chennai he said, "''The president (of this meeting) mentioned that no other community other than us has more right to be called Hindus. Conversion will not bring about any good. By saying so, I am not undermining or wishing away the oppression and ills we have faced. We need to fight for our rights. The speed at which reforms are happening might be slow. But think about our current situation and how much it has improved. I beseech you to please abandon any move that will weaken us. I request the government to bring about the Untouchability Abolition Bill and pass it quickly. The Harijans are proud Hindus. That is the only reason why even after years of oppression by higher castes and a barrage of proselytization efforts by other religions hasn't changed their resolve being Hindus.''" P. 123 ''Evolution of Hindu Nationalism - Icons of HMS, RSS & BJS'' By Sankara Narayanan T (2025)</ref> Adigal's writings had a profound impact on Subramania Ramanathan, the founder of the Self-Respect Movement, and on the Naicker but the latter only wanted pro-Tamil and castist societal changes, not promotion of Shaivism. Naicker would later break away from the party and form his own Dravidar Kazhagam, a title he copied from Adigal's Shaiv association (Podhunilak Kazhagam.) (His own pupil, Conjeevaram Natarajan Annadurai, would eventually disown him after he married his own adopted daughter, and Annadurai would leave his group.)
[[image:Alamelu.jpg|right|thumb|200px|Alamelu Mangai Thayarammal, a Brahmo Samaji, was co-founder of the party among 29 others (all men.)]]
The Hindu sentiment was definitely present in the JP. Many left after Naicker's hijacking. Important members bothered by Naicker's rhetoric apart from Rajan were Ananda Prasad Patro, Arunachalam Thamaraiselvam Panneerselvam, Muthiah Annamalai Chettiar, Ramasamy Kandasamy Shanmukham Chetty, and Subbarayalu Kumaraswami Reddiar. Chettiar even personally regularly donated to temple renovations, endowing temple lands or festivals, supporting pilgrimage facilities, and Hindu-managed schools. Rajan, the last leader of the JP, was the head-of-government of the Presidency, and was a big devotee a [[Ayyappan|Swami Ayyappa]]. Rajan even solemnized a marriage of a German couple converted to Hinduism in Coimbatore (Oct 31, 1962.) He further discouraged conversion of Dalits from Hinduism to another religion<ref>"''If by mass conversion you expect to achieve your object, you will be disappointed, because of a mere change of religion it will not give you all that you want.''" 
P. 147 ''Sir P. T. Rajan's Eighty Second Birthday Souvenir, 1973'' By P.T. Rajan and K. Paramasivam</ref> while encouraging caste-Hindus to better treat Dalits. His family had deep ties to the Meenakshi Amman Temple[https://maduraimeenakshi.hrce.tn.gov.in/] in Madurai, with his son (Palanivel Rajan), serving as a minister, and his daughter-in-law (Rukmani), serving as the first female chairperson of the temple's board of trustees. His predecessor Ramakrishna Ranga Rao denied that the JP was anti-Hindu and declared that it aimed to purify Hindu society from "''absurdities''" and return "''Hinduism greater and more glorious than it was in the past...''"<ref>"''As I understand it, the Self-Respect movement stands for certain great ideals to make Hinduism greater and more glorious than it was in the past, to rid it of all those absurdities which are the accretions of an unfortunate era of the past, and unite us in a solid federation so that all those who profess to follow the Hindu faith may feel that they are brethren following one of the most ancient and glorious religions of the world. No longer should the foreigner point his finger of scorn at this or that particular phase of Hinduism which belies its cosmopolitan tendency by inflicting personal hardship on classes or communities. If a few youths in their exuberant enthusiasm have been carried away beyond the bounds of Hinduism it will not do to fight shy of the new movements, but political wisdom and sagacity lie in taking them into our fold and guiding them aright along the paths of duty and rectitude.''" 
P. 289 ''The Indian Annual Register An Annual Digest of Public Affairs of India Recording the Nation's Activities Each Year in Matters Political, Economic, Industrial, Educational, Social, Etc · Volume 2'' By Nipendra Nath Mitra (1934)</ref> Alamelu Mangai Thayarammal, conferred 'Pandithai' title by Saiva Sabha in Palamcottah, was a JP co-founder [with 29 co-founders being men] who was a Brahmo Samaji, meaning the influence of the Hindu-based organizations wasn't insignificant. Paramasivan Subbarayan Gounder, while not technically a JP member, worked with it closely, and both he and his women's rights activist wife Kailash Radhabai Kulmud were Brahmos. It is also noteworthy that [[Ascetics|ascetic]] Swamiyar Kaivalyar who supported the party without being a member wrote pro-Shaiv material. Cattamanchi Ramalinga Reddy, an ex-member who formed his own party in 1923 was a close friend of Dr. Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan, and he himself engaged with Hindu texts on a literary artistic level. As Hinduism isn't a scripture-dependent religion, some JP members like A.R. Mudaliar heavily criticized certain scriptures but were devout Hindus ([[Vaiśnava|Vaishnav]] in his case.) And while orthodox opposition was present, the majority of Indians, including religious leaders, supported reforms, like when Shankaracharya of Kanchi[https://www.kamakoti.org/] supported the "Hindu Religious Endowments Bill" (1921) even while voicing some concerns in within. Mentionable is that [[Shatata-Unnati#Female upliftment|Dr. Muthulakshmi Reddy]] wasn't part of the JP but it still nominated her in 1926 for the Madras Legislative Council to bring about positive changes.

==Related articles==
*[[Women]]
*[[Women as Rishikas in the Vedas]]
*[[Worship of God as Mother]]

==External resources==
*[https://www.ijhsss.com/files/08.-ABHISEK-KARMAKAR_6813z4a4.pdf "Changing status of women in Indian politics (1917-1947): the role of civil society"], P. 42-45 ''International Journal of Humanities & Social Science Studies'' Volume-I, Issue-II (September 2014) By Abhisek Karmakar
*[https://www.besanthill.org/about/history-heritage/annie-besant/ Besant Hill School of Happy Valley in Ojai, California]
*[https://www.anniebesant.org Annie Besant Women's College in Hyderabad, Telangana]
*[https://www.aryasabha.mu/cultural-programme-arya-mahila-mandal-in-the-context-of-the-200th-birth-anniversary-of-swami-dayananda-saraswati/ Arya Mahila Mandal (Mauritius)]
*[https://www.thearyasamaj.org/ammkarolbagh Arya Mahila Mandal Karol Bagh]
*[https://vatikashaktipeeth.com/seven-agitations/women-awakening.html Vatika Shakti Peeth]

==References==
{{reflist}}

[[Category: History]]
[[Category: Economics]]
[[Category: Societal altruism]]

Shatata-Unnati

2026-06-15T07:22:59Z

Himanshu Bhatt: /* Shahu's royal authority to implement reforms */

{{Author|Himanshu Bhatt}}
'Shatata-Unnati' is ''continual change'', 'abhyas' means improvement, 'kram-parivartanam' is ''incremental reformation'', while 'shodhanam' is ''refinement''. All of these terms are descriptive of Hindu society throughout the ages.

Continual social betterment has been one of the defining characteristics of Hindu society. All major cultures have had evils in their histories, including Hindu societies, but the shining examples to enforce positive changes and adaptability to a changing world are the Hinduism, Christianity, and Judaism.

In an era wherein colonial norms meant imprisonment or executions for speaking out against imperial rule, Mahatma Gandhi challenged the ideas of forcing nations to be subservient, fighting oppression by violence, and purging one's own nation of evils (i.e., inequality and superstition.) Today, much of the world still looks to Gandhi's perseverance to bring positive change into society.

Transformation of India's political systems made India into the world's largest democracy, and for accomplishing that, [[Indian Freedom Fighters#INC's Hindu activist roots|Hindu doctrines were rationalize to promote democracy]]. Even in India's political spectrum, Hindu principles were used to make liberalism and communism resonate with people, like Ram Rajya being a communist utopia. Some of the Communist Party of India's [[Indian Freedom Fighters#CPI's Hindu activist roots|founders were idealogues for both communism and Hinduism]], such as Swami Kumaranand, Swami Satyabhakt, and Swami Sahajanand Saraswati, as well as Keezhedathu Damodaran, Radhamohan Gokulji, and Rahul Sankrityayan.

==Comparison in societal reformation (India and Europe)==
:''See also: [[Contribution of Hindu Diaspora]]''
Whereas even in modern times, in most European Christian societies, witch-hunts and slavery were the norm, in Indian Hindu societies, widow-burning was the norm among certain communities (usually northwestern) and caste prejudice was prevalent. Both the Christian and Hindu communities worked to extinguish these and other evils.

Historical societal injustices have been acknowledged and reconciled. Even today, the lasting legacy of important Hindu reformers is visible wherein quotas employment and educational quotas are implemented for social upward mobility to ensure poorer castes and women do not fall behind.

During the colonial era, as human rights improved in Western societies as results from agricultural/economic advancements, Western writers of non-Christian societies took a chauvinistic, parochialist, and Eurocentric approach towards Hindu societies, claiming that they:
#Would never improve in human rights, morality, or rationality
#Are permanently stagnant
#Cannot produce modern or political economic institutions

Critics of the colonial era were proven wrong in these concrete ways:
#Large-scale societal reforms led by Hindu activists themselves improved Hindu societies — i.e., promoting window remarriage and caste integration while also creating quotas for females and historically-disadvantaged castes
#Rapid expansion of education and intellectual mobility — i.e., growth of global Hindu academic presence
#Global economic and corporate leadership — i.e., entrepreneurship and CEOs of major multinational companies like Adobe, Google, and Microsoft
#Democratic political evolution — i.e., maintaining electoral democracies like Hindu-majority nations, providing peaceful transfers of power, and granting significant autonomy to judiciary, press, and civil societies
#Religious and philosophical continuity + adaptation
#Ritual practice has diversified massively by religion and class — i.e., clerics ([[Rta and Spiritual Authority|priests]] and [[ascetics|monks]]) are from many backgrounds
#Reinterpretation of scriptures became internationally influential — i.e., Aldous Huxley loved the perennialism of Upanishads, Erwin Schrödinger the idea of aikatmyam, and Henry David Thoreau that of Ishavasyam
#Non-Hindus from outside of the Indian Subcontinent have converted to Sanatan Dharm and have promoted the religion — James Donald Walters who founded Ananda Sangha, Richard Alpert who founded Hanuman Foundation, John Edwin Favors who founded iFast[https://ifastdc.com/][https://ifastglobal.com/], and Robert Hansen who founded Saiva Siddhanta Church[https://www.himalayanacademy.com/]
#Hindu-based intellectual practices have popularized globally — i.e., [[Ayurveda|Ayurvedic medicine]], divination, political activism, [[Animal rights#Influence upon Westerners|animal rights]], [[Animal_rights#Vegetarianism|vegetarianism]], and [[yoga]]

==Hindu-led social betterment==
What is extraordinary in the case of India is that it was the religious institutions ([[Organizations|Hindu organizations]] and [[Hindu Post-Secondary Institutes|schools]]) that made revolutionary changes, not normally secular or non-Hindu ones. Practicing Hindus saw that superstitious and chauvinistic practices had become institutionalized (caste system and misogyny) within Hindu society, so they formed associations to help, uplift, educate the destitute. They would even go steps further to privilege the marginalized through reservations.

Even women who were more exploratory and not members of specific religions engaged with Hinduism positively. The best example might be Annette Beveridge, an Englishwoman who was the daughter of a Unitarian Christian herself became affiliated with Keshub Chandra Sen in England. She was drawn to his lectures and this fascination with his philosophy inspired her to begin life in India, where she even established<ref>Its expenses were financed by Ananda Mohan Bose and Durga Mohan Das, Dwarkanath Ganguly was its headmaster, and others Brahmos involved with the school were Sibnath Sastri and Monomohun Ghose.</ref> the Hindu Mahila Vidyalaya (''Hindu Women's School''.) Her husband Henry Beveridge was an orientalist (westerners intrigued with Asian cultures) working in India, meaning they were not Westerners critical of Hindu identity. Mrs. Emily Phear was an honorary teacher, and she too was involved in Brahmo Samaji circles for societal development. (Her husband Sir John Budd Phear helped Brahmo Samaj legally.) A non-Hindu that likewise began a girls school (Hindu Female School[https://www.bethunecollegiateschool.com/]) with Brahmos and other Hindus was John Bethune, whose accomplices were Dakshinaranjan Mukherjee, Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar, Ramgopal Ghosh, and Madanmohan Tarkalanka (the last even taught at the school without pay.) Others foreign women in India that engaged positively with Hindu activist organizations were Mary Carpenter[https://southasianbritain.org/people/mary-carpenter/] and Sophia Dobson Collet with Brahmo Samaj, Alma B.R.A. with Arya Samaj, and Mary Hobson with Prarthana Samaj[https://puneprarthanasamaj.org/].

Hindu women that set women's rights activism into motion were Arya Samaj's Lajwanti Sood and Satyavati Devi, and Brahmo Samaj's Kadambini Ganguly and Sarala Devi Chaudhurani. Swarnakumari Devi was both an Arya Samaji and a Brahmo Samaji.
[[image:Dr. Anandi Gopal Joshi.jpg|right|thumb|200px|Dr. Anandi Gopal Joshi in 1886 marking a milestone with 2 other Asian women.]]
What is also worth mentioning is that there were women not members of sociopolitical organizations who pursued and achieved new societal achievements, showing that many Hindu women thought for themselves. Dr. Anandibai Joshi was India's first female doctor to trained in Western medicine. Her education and trip to U.S. was funded by [[Shatata-Unnati#Shahu's royal authority to implement reforms|Chhatrapati Shahu Maharaj]]. Upon return, he even funded her return journey and offer her supervisory role at Kolhapur's largest hospital[https://old.rcsmgmc.ac.in/]. Foundations[https://anandibai.org/resources/], institutions (i.e., Dr. Anandi Gopal Higher Education & Medical Facilities), awards (i.e., IRDS's[https://ngosindia.org/uttar-pradesh-ngos/irds-institute-for-research-documentation-in-social-sciences-lucknow/] Anandibai Joshi Award for Medicine), and scholarships (i.e., Dr. Anandi Gopal Scholarship Scheme) are named after her in commemoration. (Dr. Anandi Gopal Higher Education & Medical Facilities itself is a collaboration between the U.S. university she graduated in (DUCM[https://drexel.edu/medicine/news-events/publications/pulse/spring-2018/]) and SMCW. She let people know that she was not ashamed of being a Hindu. She was often pressured by Christian missionaries to convert[https://knowledge.lancashire.ac.uk/id/eprint/48487/1/bharadwaj-et-al-2023-journey-across-the-world-to-study-medicine-the-anandi-joshi-story.pdf]. Dr. Anandi had written her thesis, "Obstetrics among the Aryan Hindus", containing references from both the traditional Ayurvedic (''Susruta Samhita'' and ''Charaka Samhita'') and modern American medical literatures. (Mentionable is that although her husband Gopalrao Joshi's relentless, public letter-writing campaigns and essays targeted Lokmanya Tilak for being not liberal enough and Justice Ranade for being too liberal Tilak's ''Kesari'' and ''Mahratta'' newspapers glorified Dr. Joshi as a rolemodel for women.)

===Female upliftment===
:''See also: [[Indian Freedom Fighters]] 
;Theosophical Society wing
[[image:Paris Women's Congress.jpg|right|thumb|200px|Dr. Reddy and 3 Indian women at the Paris Women's Congress (1926.)]]
The top 3 champions who politically improved Indian women's rights in the modern era were foreigners — Dr. Annie Besant, Dorothy Jinarajadasa, and Margaret Cousins. They did not tell Indian women to leave Hinduism but rather they themselves became Hindu in practice and Indian in habit. They then sought to restore the Vedic-era of womanhood wherein women had authority (i.e., to become clerics, scholars, and leaders.) Emma Mitchell (American) and Francesca Arundale (English) greatly contributed to building of Hindu educational institutions (i.e., Central Hindu College.)

Dr. Muthulakshmi Reddy is a big name in female rights, and she was influenced by Dr. Besant in her college years (1907-1912) and was guided by Dr. Besant in both her social reform and political work. She worked with Dr. Besant and others to establish the Women's Indian Association (1917.) After Dr. Besant's death, she took over the presidency of the WIA. Gandhi was another major mentor but Reddy never formally joined the INC but sometimes protested colonial injustices (i.e., Gandhi's arrest.)

;Ramakrishna Mission wing
[[image:Nivedita & Vivekanand.jpg|right|thumb|200px|Nivedita with Vivekanand.]]
[[Niveditā, Sister|Sister Nivedita (Margaret Noble)]], a convert from Ireland became a disciple of [[Swami Vivekananda|Swami Vivekanand]] and joined Aurobindo's Dawn Society and had also founded and ran girls' schools in Kolkata (i.e., Ramakrishna Sarada Mission Sister Nivedita Girls' School[https://www.sisterniveditagirlsschool.org/home.html] in Baghbazar) to educate girls who had little to no access to education (i.e., poorest of the poor.) She advocated for women's intellectual and moral development, influenced by Vivekanand's vision of strong Indian womanhood. Her work included lectures, fundraising (India, England, and U.S.), and writings that promoted gender equality in access to knowledge and opportunities. She had worked with Dr. Annie Besant at times. Likewise, Sister Christine, disciple of Vivekanand, is another example of a Westerner who utilized the Ramakrishna Mission and Vivekanand's circles as vehicles for improving female rights in India.

;INC wing
:''See also: [[Indian Freedom Fighters#INC's Hindu activist roots|INC's Hindu activist roots]] 
[[image:Nellie Sen Gupta.jpg|right|thumb|100px|N.S. Gupta.]]
Nellie Sen Gupta[https://www.thedailystar.net/in-focus/news/deshpriya-jatindra-mohan-nellie-sengupta-2036981] (nee Edith Ellen Gray) had married freedom fighter Jatindra Mohan Sen Gupta, and both joined the INC — she also founded Deepali Sangha, a women's organization aimed at promoting social and political awareness, leadership, training, and empowerment among women. Her husband passed away but she was advised to stay in the-then East Pakistan to take care of Hindu rights, which she did. Umadevi (born Wanda Dynowska), a Polish convert to Sanatan Dharm too championed women's rights in India and translated ''[[Bhagavad Gita]]'', ''[[Mahabharata]]'', ''[[Ramayana]]'', and other [[Hindu Scriptures|Hindu and Bauddh literature]] into Polish. Mira Behn (born Madeleine Slade), the daughter of a British Royal Navy admiral, gave up her affluent lifestyle to become Gandhi's servant in India.
[[image:Sarla Behn Chipko Movement.jpg|right|thumb|200px|Sarla Behn's Chipko act[https://www.adda247.com/school/chipko-movement/].]]
Sarla Behn[https://growbilliontrees.com/blogs/knowledge/sarla-behn-tree-nurturing-nature-and-empowering-communities-for-a-sustainable-future?srsltid=AfmBOoq4h0d0skQBNr4w4zOvISuhYz02_EXtPvD3pUoQYjTlcvNHEbQ-#fullcontent] (born Catherine Mary Heilman) from England setup the Lakshmi Ashram Kausani in 1946 within Uttarakhand to uplift women, after having lived in the Sevagram Ashram[https://gandhiashramsevagram.org/] in Maharashtra. The organization educated rural hill girls academically, trained women of self-reliance and industrial skills (i.e., khadi weaving), taught personal care (i.e., literacy, hygiene, anti-liquor campaigns), and promoted [[Environmentalism|ecological awareness]] (Chipko Movement.) It also worked with the INC to encourage nationalist fervour. Lakshmi Ashram individual units were known as Mahila Mandals. This ashram attracted foreign residents intrigued with Sanatan Dharm even after independence, like David Hopkins, who relocated to there in the 1990's.
[[image:Durgabai Deshmukh.jpg|right|thumb|100px|Dr. D.D.]]
Dr. Durgabai Deshmukh, pupil of Gandhi and freedom fighter in the colonial era, established the Central Social Welfare Board (1953.) She later became president of the All India Women's Conference (1931.) Taraben Premchand is an important mention, as she was an important member of this organization, as well as the Jain Mahila Parishad[https://www.dbjainsabha.com], Jyoti Sangh[https://jyotisangh.org/about-us/] (local women's advancement group in Gujarat), and Shraddhanand Ashram[https://shraddhanandmahilashram.org/].

Madeleine Rolland was Women's International League for Peace and Freedom's[https://www.wilpf.org/] French section and never settled in India. However, upon engaging with Hindu culture in the 1920's, she translated Ananda Coomaraswamy's ''[[Nataraja Dasakam|The Dance of Shiva]]'' into French, introducing Hinduism to the-then residents of France. She also translated Rabindranath Tagore's writings of Sanatan themes and universal humanism, helping popularize them in Europe. She welcomed Gandhi on his visit to Marseille, France. [[image:Kanuparti Varalakshmamma.jpg|right|thumb|100px|'Sarada'.]]
Kanuparti Varalakshmamma (alias 'Sarada'), a devout Gandhian, used Hindu themes like providing ethical refences (i.e., Savitri, Sita) to depict women's morality, dignity, and conduct. She often engaged with the idea of a grihalakshmi (idea woman of the household.) She also founded the Stree Hitaishini Mandali for uplifting women. She used ''Andhra Patrika'', a newspaper created by a promoter of the ''Bhagavad Gita'', Kasinathuni Nageswara Rao, to preach her ideas.
[[image:Vijaya Lakshmi Pandit.jpg|right|thumb|100px|'Vijaya Lakshmi Pandit'.]]
It is also noteworthy that the 1st female head of government in the world was a [[Bauddh Dharm|Bauddh]] (Sirimavo Bandaranaike of Sri Lanka, non-INC member), and 2nd was a Hindu (Indira Gandhi, INC member.) Also Vijaya Lakshmi Pandit[https://news.un.org/en/story/2024/03/1147327] (born Swaroop Rani Nehru) played a significant role in global representation of women, particularly in the United Nations. She was the first woman to serve as the President of the UN General Assembly (1953-1954), a position she held to advocate for decolonization and the independence of countries in Asia and Africa. She was also the first Indian woman to hold a cabinet rank in a provincial government. Hansa Mehta[https://india.un.org/en/311450-hansa-mehta%E2%80%99s-life-story-continues-inspire] had an impact on the UN's constitution wording wherein "''all human beings''" instead of "all men" in the Universal Declaration of Human Rights. (She was also one of only 2 women delegates working alongside Eleanor Roosevelt in the UN Human Rights Commission 1946-48.)
[[image:Nilla Cram Cook.jpg|right|thumb|100px|'Nilla Nagini Devi'.]]
Nilla Cram Cook, an American who settled at Gandhi's ashrams, had [[Conversion|converted to Hinduism]] in the 1930's but identified with the '[[Samyag Darshan#Samadarshan|sarva dharma sambhava]]' ideal, so considered herself a [[Bhakta|devotee]] of not only [[Krishna]] but of Jesus too, and so she later also translated the Quran and engaged with Islamic practices in a syncretic way with her Hindu and Christian customs. Her final literary work was ''The Way of the Swam: Poems of Kashmir'' (1958), which was mostly focused around the [[Saiva|Shaiv]] mystic poetess Lal Ded[https://hindupost.in/society-culture/lal-ded-her-life-and-works/#][https://homegrown.co.in/homegrown-voices/the-poetry-of-lal-ded-mysticism-resistance-the-female-voice-in-14th-century-kashmir] and others from Kashmir syncretic Sanatan-[[Bauddh Dharm|Bauddh]]-[[Sufism with Vaishnavism|Sufi]] tradition. She dedicated the book to Pandit. She didn't work on women's upliftment directly but did participate with Gandhi's Harijan Sevak Sangh. She had also written about Sarojini Naidu (1st Indian woman-president of the INC.)

;Other associations
[[image:Maharani Chimnabai Gaekwad II.jpg|right|thumb|100px|Maharani Chimnabai.]]
[[image:Sethu Parvathi Bayi.jpg|right|thumb|100px|Junior Queen Bayi.]]
The National Council of Women in India[https://www.ncwi.in/], founded 1925, was also a monumental organization to make progress for women — it mainly focused on female literacy, vocational training, public participation, and legal reform. It was primarily the initiative of Lady Meherbai Tata, a Mazdaean icon, and its first president was Maharani Chimnabai Gaekwad II, born Gajrabai Ghatge, a princess of Dewas (M.P.) She supported societal progress of women that did not compromise on Hindu identity (i.e., traditional customs like wearing sari and sindhoor or like celebrating Raksha Bandhan), which is how she framed her ''The Position of Women in Indian Life'' book. She financed schools for girls, as well as Hindu charities and temples. The Gaekwad family also funded libraries and women's institutions and social reform initiatives. She discussed the eradication or the purdah, child marriage, women's restrictions (i.e., obtaining education and employment), and other obstacles towards advancement. Following her presidentship, Sethu Parvathi Bayi took over. She was from the royal family of Travancore (Kerala), and her family was deeply connected to the Padmanabhaswamy Temple[https://spst.in/][https://www.padmanabhaswamytemple.com/]. She financed Hindu institutions as well. It is notable that Sucharu Deo, daughter of Brahmo leader K.C. Sen was a prominent member and she had also helped build the Maharani Girls' High School[https://school.banglarshiksha.gov.in/ws/website/index/19013701705] in Darjeeling (W.B.) together with her sister (Suniti) and Hemlata Sarkar, daughter of Brahmo leader Sibnath Sastri.

From Hindu-based institutions like sociopolitical organizations and schools came a number of philanthropic associations.
;Most influential persons for women's upliftment
{| class="wikitable sortable"
|-
! Area of Contribution
! Meaning
! Steps Taken
! Activists
! Organizations
! Founder's Affiliation(s)
|-
|Political rights and visibility
|1. Women appearing in public political spaces 2. Women being recognized as leaders (not just participants) 3. Changing social norms about women's public roles 4. Symbolic representation
|Helped institutionalize women's leadership through bodies like Women's Indian Association
|Dr. Annie Besant (women's political rights + organizational leadership), Kamaladevi Chattopadhyay (political participation, economic empowerment, cooperatives), Margaret Cousins[https://www.womensmuseumofireland.ie/exhibits/margaret-elizabeth-cousins] (Suffarage, WIA), Sarojini Naidu (mass mobilization of women in politics)
|
|
|-
|Modern institutional equality
|
|Helped institutionalize institutional equality through contributing policy influence (Hansa Mehta) and constitutional rights (Dr. Durgabai Deshmukh)
|Dr. Durgabai Deshmukh (welfare systems), Hansa Mehta
|
|
|-
|Foundational legal reform
|
|
|Raja Ram Mohan Roy (abolition of sati), Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar (widow remarriage)
|
|
|-
|Education
|
|
|Raja Ram Mohan Roy, Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar
|
|
|-
|}

====Hindu influence internationally====
Even outside of India during the 20th century, women's rights were not perfect, and so many women incorporated Hindu symbolism (i.e., worship) and concepts towards promoting societies where women would have equal rights.
[[image:M.J. Gage.jpg|right|thumb|200px|Matilda Joslyn Gage.]]
[[image: Charlotte Despard.jpg|right|thumb|200px|Charlotte Despard, an Anglo-Irish suffragist who supported Indian independence.]]
As [[Worship of God as Mother|worship of God as a female or mother]] has been common in Sanatan Dharm since its foundation, that made validating female upliftment in India quicker. Even in Western nations, prominent women's rights organizations implemented imagery of goddesses from pertinent ancient cultures, like U.K.'s Women's Freedom League and National Union of Women's Suffrage Societies, and the global International Woman Suffrage Alliance, to legitimize female equality and women being in positions of power. Some American and European feminists and women's rights activists, like Matilda Joslyn Gage<ref>"''While the sale of daughters was practiced in England for seven hundred years after the introduction of Christianity, we note that by the ancient law of India, a father was forbidden to sell his daughter in marriage, or receive the smallest present therefor.''" - P. 79-82 ''Woman, Church and State'' (1893) By Matilda Joslyn Gage</ref> (U.S. suffragist) and Helena Petrovna Blavatsky<ref>"''The pre- and post-Vedic woman was as free as man; and no impure terrestrial thought was ever mixed with the religious symbology of the early Aryans.''" 
"''This is proven by the fact that in the Vedic period their women were not placed apart from men in penetralia, or ‘Zenanas.’ Their seclusion began when the Mahomedans … had conquered the land and gradually enforced their ways and customs upon the Hindus.''" 
- P. 379-380 ''The Secret Doctrine: Volume I'' By Helena Blavatsky </ref> (European feminist), even used the examples of [[Worship of God as Mother|Hindu goddess-worship]] and Hindu queens to support their examples. And though Blavatsky did not officially align with any single religion to encourage recruitment for her Theosophical Society, she referenced Sanatan and Bauddh scriptures (Upanishads, and then Gita, then Bauddh shastras) more than others. (M.J. Gage[https://www.smithsonianmag.com/history/the-feminist-inspired-witches-of-oz-180985334/] in her ''Woman, Church, and State'' even highlighted Hindu texts to counter the male-centric theology of the West and referenced ''[[Bhagavad Gita]]'' to validate the concept of a female [[divinity]].) Even feminists of the colonial era like Victoria Woodhull that was skeptical of organized religion, respected "''Christna and Buddha''" (Krishna and Gautama.) Mary Lowe Dickinson at the World's Parliament Circles (1893) was so impressed by [[Swami Vivekananda|Swami Vivekanand]]'s speech, that she developed a fascination with female divinity of Hinduism, and in her editorials and public circles, argued that Hinduism's recognition of a feminine aspect within the divine was spiritually superior to the rigidly patriarchal, all-male Trinity of mainstream American Christianity. Emily Pitts Stevens and Charlotte LeMoyne Wills (wrote about the genderless [[Brahm]]) became disciples of Vivekanand. Laura de Force Gordon wrote about the immortal soul and continuous cycle of life. Alice Moore McComas wrote about the interconnectedness (aikatmyam) of all things. In U.K., Charlotte Despard's specific pamphlets linked [[karma]] to political activism. Margaret Louise Sanger was influenced by Vivekanand and Rabindranath Tagore. Sarah Bull<ref> P. 483 ''Western Admirers of Ramakrishna and His Disciples'' By Gopal Stavig, Swami Shuddhidananda </ref>, who particularly focused on women's education and reform was connected to both Vivekanand and Sister Nivedita. Josephine MacLeod was a major promoter of Vivekanand in the West and was involved in transatlantic reform-intellectual networks. Viktoria Ocampo of Argentina was deeply influenced by Tagore, even hosting him in Argentina and promoting his ideas widely. Gabriela Mistral of Chile was too, and she applied Tagore's ideas to women's education, child welfare, and cultural reform. Mabel Dodge Luhan was fascinated with Sanatan philosophy and influenced by Vivekanand. Mentionable is Emma Calve of France, who wasn't a political feminist leader but influential in women's intellectual-cultural circles, and she was deeply influenced by Vivekanand.
[[image:Carol Patrice Christ.jpg|right|thumb|200px|Carol Patrice Christ.]]
After suffragists had attained complete institutional equality, they them progressed to the next stage of female liberation by ensuring that their own spiritual faith wasn't male-chauvinistic or making them subordinates of males. Feminists were inspired by goddess deity of Hinduism to then promote it within generic spirituality. Valerie Saiving, Isaac Bonewits and Naomi Goldenberg founded in the 1970's, Thealogy, a feminine-specific theology. Carol Patrice Christ launched the Goddess Movement, which provided 4 aspects of Goddess symbolism as reasons to needing a goddess in women's lives; 1) the Goddess as affirmation of female power, 2) the female body, 3) the female will, and 4) women's bond and heritage. She specifically used the Shakti concept to prove that a major global religion (Hinduism) explicitly defined the [[Brahmanda|material universe]]/nature/change ([[Darshana#Sankhya|Prakriti]]) as an inherently active, female, and sacred force. She was an ecofeminist, as were Charlene Spretnak and Miriam Simos were ecofeminists too. Merlin Stone wrote ''Ancient Mirrors of Womanhood: Our Goddess and Heroine Heritage'' (1979) and in a chapter analyzes goddesses like [[Durga]], [[Kali]], [[Lakshmi Puja|Lakshmi]], Parvati, and Saraswati. Devout Christian women feminists too drew on Hindu practices and ideas to support women's advocacy, and they include Ivone Gebara, Pearl Sydenstricker Buck, and Sally McFague.

'Matriarchal religion' is a philosophy stating that societies were Goddess worshippers with females having the same status and rights as men before male gods began being worshipped, and the latter led to patriarchy. Goddesses being worshipped contiguously in Hindu societies for thousands of years was the backing this thought utilized, in addition to feminist archaeology (i.e., ancient idols and temples of goddesses uncovered.)

==Start of modern reforms==
In modern India, most positive social changes within Indian Hindu societies came not first as enforcement or pressure from European rulers but from advocacy of forward-thinking Hindus. Raja Ram Mohan Roy had led the campaign to purge Hindu societies of Sati and caste prejudices. Roy worked with British imperial authority, specifically Lord William Bentinck to have sati outlawed. Roy himself was a religious leader that reiterated Upanishads for their principles.

Other institutions of positive social changes were mainly Hindu ones or were governed by Hindu religious leaders, not secular ones.

The Indian National Social Conference of 1887 was organized by Justice Ranade, Rai Raghunath Rao, Narendra Nath Sen Gupta, and Janki Nath Ghoshal. Ranade was founder of the Prarthana Samaj, a religious group.

Arya Samajis, Brahmo Samajis, and Prarthana Samajis were the most vocal and active forces advocating: 
#Widow Remarriage (i.e., Widow Remarriage Act 1856—initiative of Brahmo Samaj)
#Women's right to divorce (i.e., Native Marriage Act 1872—initiative of Brahmo Samaj) 
#Property rights for women 
#Opposition to child marriages (i.e., Age of Consent Act 1891—initiative of Brahmo Samaj and Prarthana Samaj, Child Marriage Restraint Act 1929—initiative of Arya Samaj) 
#Universal accessible education (built schools, including colleges and gurukuls) 
#Caste-based reservations
[[image:Justice Ranade.jpg|right|thumb|200px|Mahadev Govind Ranade (alias 'Justice Ranade'.)]]
[[image:Jagannath Shankarshet.jpg|right|thumb|200px|Jagannath Shankarshet (alias 'Architect of Modern Mumbai'.)]]
The Indian Factories Act 1881's ratification was a landmark in workers' rights and the credit goes mainly to Sorabjee Shapoorjee Bengalee, and then Prarthana Samaj. He did work alongside the Prarthana Samaj to lobby the British authority through the First Factory Commission in 1875 (made to investigate the brutal conditions of Indian labour.) Prarthana Samaj's ''Subodh Patrika'' newspaper specifically critiqued mill owners. Rahnumai Mazdayasnan Sabha, its newspaper ''Rast Goftar'', and Bengalee himself referenced labour reformers Sasipada Banerji and Protap Chunder Mozumdar, and used the former's methods of worker upliftment as a blueprint for their own legislative arguments. Collaboration between the Sabha and Prarthana Samaj began with the latter's creation of the Theistic Association, on which the Parsi Naoroji Furdonji was its 1st Chairman. Ranade and Bhandarkar drove the Association from discussing only theism to improving society through finding solutions of work hardships. The Night School Initiative was launched, helping workers receive adequate training, particularly in labourer-heavy neighborhoods Byculla, Dongri, Khetwadi, and Thakurdwar. (From 1886-1890 alone, over 2,750 industrial workers successfully studied through this initiative.) Protap Chunder Mozoomdar, a Brahmo, began eight night schools in 1872 within Mumbai when he relocated to the city.<ref> P. 47 ''Peaceful Industrial Relations, Their Science and Technique'' (1957) By R. J. Soman </ref> Brahmos then established night schools within Kolkata by 1878.

Brahmo Samaj's K.C. Sen’s first visit to Mumbai in March-April 1864 engaged him with Bengalee, Furdonji, Ranade, and Bhandarkar (all then members of Young India.) They all discussed ways to develop India. They also shared strategies on how to bypass orthodox religious resistance—Furdonji within Zoroastrianism and Sen within Sanatan Dharm. Bengalee's First Labor Bill (1878) laid the groundwork for the later Indian Factories Act.

Prior to all of this, Jagannath Shankarshet[https://www.vishwakonkani.org/hall-of-fame/hon-jagannath-shankar-sheth/] spent the 1850s petitioning the British Parliament for local governance. As a result, it codified the Indian Councils Act of 1861, thus creating the Bombay Legislative Council as a political body to better govern the-then Bombay Presidency. Shankarshet was the main founder of Bombay Association. In its first leadership were also Dr. Ramachandra Vitthal Lad (alias 'Dr. Bhau Daji'), a Hindu intellectual who used his Sanskrit knowledge to decipher inscriptions, preserve manuscripts, and help reconstruct the forgotten timelines of ancient Guptas and Western Kshatrapa dynasties. Mentionable is the Parsi Sir Jamsetjee Jeejeebhoy of the group. Shankarshet was a wealthy philanthropist that constructed and financed Sanatan and secular infrastructure, most notably the Bhavani Shankar Mandir[https://www.mcgm.gov.in/irj/go/km/docs/documents/D%20Ward/Heritage-Sites/73_Legacy%20of%20D%20Ward_Article_Bhavani%20Shankar%20Temple.pdf] (Mumbai), Sanskrit Seminary and Sanskrit Library (both in Mumbai too.) Elphinstone Educational Institution[https://elphinstone.ac.in/index.php] and Grant Medical College[https://gmcjjh.edu.in/] were his creations too. (Jeejeebhoy contributed to constructing the Grant Medical College.)

===Shahu's royal authority to implement reforms===
[[image:Shahu adoption.jpg|right|thumb|200px|Prince Yeshwantrao Ghatge being adopted by the royal family of Kohlapur.]]
[[image:Rajarshi.jpg|right|thumb|200px|Rajarshi Chhatrapati Shahu Maharaj.]]
[[image:School foundation.jpg|right|thumb|200px|Foundation of Shri Shahu Chhatrapati Shikshan Sanstha.]]
The greatest champion on all of these sections for reforms was Chhatrapati Shahu Maharaj[https://aissms.org/breaking-barriers-chhatrapati-shahu-maharaj-and-his-enduring-impact-on-progress-and-modernity/] (born Yeshwantrao Ghatge), '[[Rta and Spiritual Authority#Rishis|Rajarshi]]', the ruler of Kohlapur Kingdom who affiliated with organizations but probably the Arya Samaj[https://thearyasamaj.org] more than any other. Shahu definitely was not shy to publicly perform prayers, as he famously attended temples of goddesses Ambabai[https://www.mahalaxmikolhapur.com/home] and Bhavani[https://shrituljabhavani.org/] when having returned from his Europe trip in 1902. Also in 1902, Pratap Singh Maharaj of Idhar (Gujarat) introduced and educated him about the Arya Samaj. He provided patronage to the Arya Samaj.[https://navjyot.net/wp-content/uploads/2022/12/10.pdf]

The king passed many policies for for the upliftment of untouchable, nomadic, non-Brahmin communities and for females.<ref>Act of Free and Compulsory Primary Education (1917), Widow remarriage Act (1917), End of Balutedari (1918), Repeal of Kulkarni Watan (1918), Intercaste and Interreligious Marriages and Sanctioning of Registered Marriage Act (1919), Act relating to protection of Harassment of Women (1919), Divorce act (1919), Order on prohibition of Untouchability practice (1919), Illegitimate Children's Rights and Devadasi Prohibition Act (1920); 
[https://www.indiejournal.in/article/rajarshi-shahu-maharaj-and-his-tryst-with-the-arya-samaj "Rajarshi Shahu Maharaj & his tryst with the Arya Samaj Lessons for our times"] By Devkumar Ahire (Jun 26, 2023 6:42 PM)</ref>

;Prejudiced disgruntled castists promoting anti-Brahman hate, not universalism
While Shahu was affiliated with the Satyashodhak Samaj (SS) because it wanted to uplift the non-dwija castes, he did not feel they had any religious foundations, whereas the Arya Samaj was encompassed both a spiritual and social movement.<ref>"Beyond Reformism: Chhatrapati Shahu and Hinduism Reimagined" By Surajkumar Thube P. 124-144 ''Nidān: International Journal for Indian Studies, Volume 8'', Issue 1 (July 2023)</ref> Also, the SS of Pune was antithetical to social cohesion because it targeted the Brahman caste as an enemy, and while its main founder (Jyotirao Phule) made absurd claims like 'Shiv-Dharma'<ref>"''The real Shiv-Dharma that is ours, we are re-establishing it as Sarvajanik Satya Dharma.''" Chapter 4, ''Sarvajanik Satya Pustak''</ref> or 'Mahadev-Dharma' (worship of [[Shiva|Shiv]] as God and some local gods like Khandoba as avatars) being the true religion of Indians whereas every other Hindu belief and practice was an imposition by 'non-Indian Brahman invaders'. Being a chauvinist, he also criticized freedom fighter martyrs Lakshmi Bai, Nana Sahib, Tantia Tope for being Brahmans. He also wrote positively that freedom fighters lost the 1857 War of Independence against the British colonialists. He was also openly criticized by his own relative Baburao Phule, who accused the former of being a Christian convert who destroyed the Hindu religion.<ref>P. 58-59 ''The Caste Question: Dalits and the Politics of Modern India'' (2009) By Anupama Rao </ref>

Phule though anti-Brahman, was influenced by some Brahmans, such as Balshastri Jambhekar (a Hindu activist) who pushed scientific knowledge and history through Marathi, criticized caste segregation, and attacked other or kinds or orthodoxy like widowhood. He was also influenced by some Hindu activists who were not anti-Brahman (i.e., Karsandas Mulji.)

The organization would receive the most aid from Shahu (financial and social work), Karmvir (social work), and Padval (intellectual) but they themselves always kept a distance from the SS because of its explicitly castist vitriol. People would choose to align or become members of other associations for their inclusivity and harmonious vision for the future.

;Satyashodhak Samaj becoming less anti-Brahman
"''All Hindus are equal. No one is superior, no one is inferior. Let all flesh and blood be one. Four varnas are a real deceit. It's a tool to keep the non-Brahmins in slavery. There is no difference among the Hindus. Hindu is the only varna. If a Hindu eats or marries with another Hindu that's not ''[[adharma]].'' In contrast, what divide Hindus in the name of religion is not a dharma, but a trick by Brahmins. One who calls themselves a Hindu, whether they are Europeans or Africans, they are our coreligionists.''" - P. 39 ''Deshache Dushman'' (1925) By Dinkarrao Javalkar
[[image:Sasipada Banerji.jpg|right|thumb|100px|Sasipada Banerji (alias 'Sevabrata'.)]]
Notable is that Phule's friend Narayan Meghaji Lokhande, a labour organization leader, was close friends with Phule and used Khandoba-worship and the reverence of Sundays for Khandoba in his petition to British authority to achieve Sunday as a holiday for factory labourers. Phule and Lokhande emulated Brahmans, like forming the political lobby group Deenbandhu Sarvajanik Sabha after Ranade's Poona Sarvajanik Sabha and forming the Bombay Mill Hands Association based and its mouthpiece ''Deenbandhu'' on the Working Men's Club (India's 1st labour welfare platform) and its mouthpiece ''Bharat Sramajibi'' (India's 1st labour journal) of Sasipada Banerji (Brahmo Samaji.)

Though Dinkarrao Javalkar portrayed himself as pan-Hindu when discussing the specific topic of Hindu unity, he still prejudicially criticized the Brahman caste in general<ref>"''This day will be counted among the most important days in the history of Hindus. There is no reason for you to fear jail. The Brahmans who eat ghee and roti should have that fear. To make the touchable people behave is in your hands. You are the sons of Hindus. You capture the tank saying 'har har Mahadev' and follow the advice of your leader Dr. Ambedkar Saheb. This is my own position.''" -Dinkarrao Javalkar at satyagraha with Keshavrao Jedhe and Dr. Ambedkar among a Mahar crowd</ref> and targeted some prominent Brahmans like Lokmanya Tilak. (Javalkar and Keshavrao Jedhe also portrayed themselves as pro-woman but derogatory remarks about women from the Brahman and certain other castes<ref>P. 44 ''19th Century Maharashtra: A Reassessment'' (2020) By Shraddha Kumbhojkar </ref> and both appealed to Dr. B.R. Ambedkar in 1927 to exclude Brahmans from the Mahad Satyagraha<ref> P. 27 ''Social Reform Movements in India: A Historical Perspective'' (1991) By V.D. Divekar</ref>.) Jedhe did protest with other activists (including Brahmans like Narhar Vishnu Gadgil, Seshdas Ranade, Shreedhar Mahadev Joshi, and members of Arya Samaj) for the right of Dalits to worship at Pune's Devdeveshwar Mandir[https://devdeveshwarsanthan.org/home.html]. Javalkar did write favourably about some like Ranade, Gopal Ganesh Agarkar, and Krishna Gopal Gokhale but even they were rarely mentioned. He rightfully partook in the Kalaram Mandir[https://www.shrikalaramsansthannasik.org/] Satyagraha in Nasik that protested for Dalits to be able to enter the temple. He was a communist and 10 years after his death, the Peasants and Workers Party (PWP) was formed.

SS branches outside of Pune were less hateful of Brahmans. It is also noteworthy, however, is that Nana Patil, a founder of the PWP, was affiliated with both the Satyashodhak and Prarthana associations [meaning that he, like most other Satyashodhaks didn't believe in Phule's religious ideology.] Some other PWP founders like Jedhe and Madhavrao Bagal were Satyashodhaks, they popularized Shiv Jayanti and Ganesh Chathuri. The latter and his son Vasantrao even wrote devotional pieces inspired from Bhakti Era saints (i.e., [[Tukaram]], [[Eknath]]) and valourizing pieces about Shahu. Tulshidas Jadhav, a Gandian within the PWP, championed the Bhakti Era's Warkari Movement, which was still popular in his time, because it was based on social equality and public seva. Also noteworthy is, that even some prominent members supported the Arya Samaj, like Krishnarao Bhalekar<ref>"''Bhalekar said that while Hinduism needed to be reformed , this reform should be brought about from within . He said he would defend Hinduism if it was under attack from Islam or Christianity.''" - P. 35 ''Non-Brahman Movement in Maharashtra'' (1989) By M. S. Gore </ref> (1 of the founders of SS with Phule) defended Dayanand Saraswati (Arya Samaj’s founder), when the latter’s procession was opposed by some orthodox Hindus in Pune, and Bhalekar organized a speech to be delivered by Saraswati at a dharmshal near a Rokdoba Temple in Pune. SS' Moro Vitthal Walvekar was directly affiliated with the Prarthana Samaj and played a crucial role in its associated media landscape (frequently serving as an editor of ''Subodha Patrika''.)

Bhalekar himself made the claim that the SS is the true follower of Sant Tukaram's [[Bhāgavata-dharma|Bhagwat Dharma]] ([[Krishna|Krishnaite]] [[Vaishnava|Vaishnavism]].) His son was Mukundrao Patil, who made the claim, "''The Satyasodhak Samaj is the true heir of the Hindu religion. Brahmanism is not Hinduism.''"<ref>''Dinmitra'' newspaper (1920s)</ref> Javalkar claimed SS is the true representative of the Hindu religion and that SS members are liberating Hinduism from the supremacy of the Brahmins. Shivram Janma Kamble (a Dalit) stated the SS is a revival movement of the true Hinduism. Kisan Faguji Bansode (a Dalit) argued "Shivdharma" was the true Hindu religion and that the SS advocates that version.

There were those in his organization that promoted about how in ancient Sanatan society, there were no caste distinctions and that people were recognized by their merits. Their view was promoted by Tukaram Tatya Padval, who wrote ''Jatibhed Vivekshar'' (1861) after being inspired by Ashwaghosha's ''Vajrasuchi''. Phule republished copies of Padval's books, and the 2 developed a friendship. He did write at that in ancient India, certain sages were had Sudra or Avarna status but rose to the rank of a Brahman through their intellect, and used examples of Valmiki (wrote a ''Ramayan''), Sankhya, and Kabilar rishis. He also published copies of the ''Bhagavad Gita'', ''Yogasutra'', and compilations of the ''Rajayoga'' and ''Sankhya Karika.'' He further compiled the ''Tukarambaba ani Tyanche Shisya Yanchi Abhanga Gatha'' (1889) and ''Eknath Maharajancha Abhangachi Gatha'' (1903.) Padval, however, never became a member of Phule's organization and instead became a member of the Theosophical Society.

;Shahu forming his own Satyashodhak Samaj focused on upliftment (free of anti-Brahman distractions)
As a result of the Satyashodhak Samaj of Pune being too antagonistic of Brahmans, Shahu had instead founded his own branch in 1911 — Shri Shahu Satyashodhak Samaj. By an order, Shahu replaced the Brahman priests in the Patgaon Sansthan (Mauni Maharaj Math[https://durgbharari.in/maunibaba-patgaon/]) and Jyotiba Devasthan[https://shreejyotiba.com/?lang=E][https://maharashtratourism.gov.in/temple/jyotiba/] with Maratha priests. Bhaskarrao Jadhav and Anna Babaji Latthe were leaders of Shahu's Kolhapur Satyashodhak Samaj. Whereas Phule mostly only wrote positively of Shiva and local-born gods, Jadhav in his ''Marathas and their Religion'' wrote positively about Krishna and the ''Bhagavad Gita''. He further worked with Shahu to aid Arya Samaj in its activities and goals (i.e., train non-Brahmans to become priests too.) Noteworthy is that Latthe, who worked personally with Shahu Maharaj, was its first VP and that he worked to dismantle priestly (Jain priests, not usually Brahmans) intermediation within the Jain clergy. (He was a big-time activist for general upliftment and for reform within the Jain community (i.e., wrote ''Jain Dharmacha Parichay''.)

Latthe founded the Dakshin Bharat Jain Sabha[https://dbjainsabha.com/], of which Dr. Bhaurao Patil (from a Jain family) became a member and through he wasn't a member of any SS branch, he did sometimes participate in its activities and himself founded the Rayat Shikshan Sansthan[https://rayatshikshan.edu/], which educated students in a multitude of topics, including Sanskrit. Patil (alias 'Karmvir Anna') was deeply influenced by Mahatma Gandhi and Vitthal Ramji Shinde.

;Shahu distancing himself formally from Satyashodhak Samaj
The SS had earned a bad reputation in Maharashtra with the general public, particularly for the outright anti-Brahman vitriol spewed in the SS's publications and events. Because the goal of Shahu and true reformers was to achieve a harmonious society with all people cooperating, it would not make sense to support an organization that's known for abusing persons (i.e., Brahmans) specifically over their caste identity.

In 1921, Shahu made a public statement in a Baroda newspaper that even though he granted significant support to the non-Brahman movement and introduced measures to eliminate Brahman dominance, he had never been affiliated with Phule's SS, and that he always accepted [[Rta and Spiritual Authority#Rishis|Vedic ritual authority]].

;Granting, accommodating, and expanding Arya Samaj
Shahu attended Arya Samaj sessions like the one at Navsari in 1918 and another at Bhavnagar in 1920<ref>P. 6. ''People's Raj Volume 30'' (1974) By Directorate-General of Information and Public Relations </ref>. He provided funding for Gurukul Boarding House to be built at Kerle, wherein large buildings and well-irrigated lands were granted to the Arya Samaj. Later, the Rajaram Anathalaya orphanage was added to this grant. He also brought educational institutions in his domain under the leadership of Arya Pratinidhi Sabha. Rajaram College's administration was also granted to the Arya Samaj.

;Spiritual Authority as Rajarshi
Shahu Maharaj, being a devout Sanatan wanted to proclaim the rights that warriors of history had and so participated in important ceremonies and worked with priests (i.e., Brahmans) to achieve the rights to learn and perform Vedic ceremonies. He established the Vedokta Committee for Marathas to be able to perform Vedic rites without requiring priests. In 1905, the Karveer Peeth's (or Kolhapur Math's) Shankaracharya declared full rights of Vedokta to Chhatrapati Shahu.

Tatyarao Joshirao was appointed by Shahu Maharaj as new royal purohit, replacing the Rajopadhye (creator of the infamous 'Vedokta Controversy'), who denied the Maharaj to perform Vedic rites. Joshirao was from a family that had traditional ownership of the historic Binkhambi Ganapati Mandir in Kolhapur.

Rajaram Shastri (alias 'Bhagavata'), a Brahman scholar, linguist, and researcher, openly challenged the religious orthodoxy, arguing from scripture that Shahu Maharaj had full rights to the Vedas. Vishnu Topkhane was another Brahman who greatly helped the Chhatrapati with his progressive reforms. Topkhane the educationalist helped the latter establish the Vidyapeeth High School near the Shri Karveer Niwasini Ambabai Mahalakshmi Temple. Freedom fighter Gokhale was someone who worked with Shahu. When the Vedokta Controversy broke out and the conservative press attacked the Maharaja, Gokhale privately and publicly validated Shahu Maharaj's stance, recognizing that social reform was a prerequisite for true political freedom. Ranade, though passed away before much Shahu's reforms began, was admired by the latter for his progressive ideals and actions.

Chhatrapati Shahu founded the Satyashodhak School for spiritual training in 1913, in which seminarians (predominantly from castes such as Marathas, Mahars, and Chambhars) were taught to recite and preach the poems (i.e., abhangs of Tukaram) of sants. He also created the Shivaji Vedic School (aliases 'Shahu Vedic School', 'Shahu Vedic Pathshala', 'Shri Shahu Vaidik Vidyalay') in 1920 and had invited scholars from Varanasi (spiritual capital of Sanatan Dharm) to ensure the highest standard of scriptural and linguistic training. The school trained seminarians (of all castes) to learn Sanskrit and become priests and conduct ceremonies. He further established and financed the office of the Kshatra Jagadguru (''Warrior Universal Teacher''), a pontiff seat open to anyone of any caste. The first Kshatra Jagadguru was Sadashivrao Lakshmanrao Sankpal Patil Benadikar, was an accomplished Sanskrit scholar who received his formal higher education at Rajaram College in Kolhapur. The Kshatra Jagadguru Peeth was the pontiff's seat at Patgaon (in the Bhudargad region of Kolhapur.) Patgaon was chosen because it was the historic site of the Mauni Maharaj Math, a highly respected spiritual center that had historically blessed Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj[https://pilgrimdata.in/temple/mouni-maharaj-math-temple-patgaon-bhudargarh-dist-kolhapur/]. The Kshatra Jagadguru had the Shri Sadashivrao Patil Shikshan Sanstha educationalist association named after him, and it runs schools[https://www.mwssm.org/][https://sspiop.com/] in Maharashtra still. Other organizations too use his name for schools like Sadashivrao Mandlik Mahavidyalaya (Kolhapur) of the ⁠Jay Shivray Education Society.

===Successive associations===
From Hindu-based institutions like sociopolitical organizations and schools came a number of philanthropic associations. Even other humanitarian associations that were not established by Hindu activists, were established by their influence. For example, Krishna Gopal Gokhale had participated in many sessions of the Prarthana Samaj as he was Ranade's pupil, and he later joined the Deccan Education Society, which he left to establish the Servants of India Society. Narayan Malhar Joshi was a member of Gokhale's group and later formed his own Social Service League[https://socialserviceleague.org.in/]. Hriday Nath Kunzru too was part of Gokhale's group and left to establish the Seva Samiti.

{| class="wikitable sortable"
|-
! Organization
! Demographic of Focus
! Region(s)
! Founder
! Founder's Affiliation(s)
! Achievement
|-
|Anath Balikashram Society
|Widows
|Maharashtra
|Dhondo Keshav Karve
|Educated at BHU
|
|-
|Andhra Mahila Sabha
|Females
|Andhra Pradesh
|Durgabai Deshmukh
|
|
|-
|Bharat Stree Mahamandal
|Females
|Bengal, Bihar, Punjab, Sindh, U.P.
|Sarala Devi Chaudhurani
|Arya Samaji, Brahmo Samaji, accepted Bijoy Krishna Chattopadhyaya as her guru
|
|-
|Buddhi Vardhak Sabha
|General public
|Gujarat
|Narmadashankar Labheshankar Dave
|
|Exposed people in positions of power that abused their privileges, build schools for girls
|-
|Central Social Welfare Board
|Females and children
|
|Dr. Durgabai Deshmukh
|
|
|-
|Hindu Widow Marriage Association
|Females
|Maharashtra
|Dhondo Keshav Karve
|Educated at BHU
|
|-
|Hindustani Seva Dal
|Females
|Every province
|Dr. Narayan Subbarao Hardikar
|
|Established the Hindustani Seva Mandal (later became Rashtriya Seva Dal) in 1923, established the Arya Bala Sabha, taught the Gita during his student days in Kolkata, was a fan of Lokmanya Tilak, and had enthusiastically worked with Lala Rai
|-
|Indian Reform Association
|Females
|West Bengal
|Keshub Chandra Sen
|
|Brahmo Samaji, founded ''Sulabh Samachar'' as weekly newspaper of group
|-
|Kasthurbha Gandhi Kanya Gurukulam[http://www.kgkgurukulam.org/]
|Girls
|Tamil Nadu (Vedaranyam)
|Vedaratnam Pillai
|
|Involved in temple-based philanthropy and donated to Sri Ramakrishna Mission too
|-
|Lakshmi Ashram
|Females
|Uttarakhand
|Sarla Behn
|
|Established individual Mahila Mandals throughout Uttarakhand and promoted important skills as well as ecological awareness
|-
|Lokahitawadi Mandal
|General public
|Maharashtra
|Vishnu Vaman Shirwadkar
|
|Wrote about Hindu themes, including persons from scriptures and about Shivaji poetically, philosophically, and nationally
|-
|Maharshi Karve Stree Shikshan Samstha
|Females
|Maharashtra
|Dhondo Keshav Karve
|Educated at BHU
|
|-
|Mahila Vidyalaya (Pune)
|Females
|Maharashtra
|Dhondo Keshav Karve
|Educated at BHU
|
|-
|Nishkam Karma Math
|Females
|Maharashtra
|Dhondo Keshav Karve
|Educated at BHU
|
|-
|Poona Seva Sadan
|Females
|Maharashtra (at its peak, included M.P. and T.N.)
|Ramabai Ranade
|
|
|-
|Samata Sangh
|General public
|Maharashtra
|Dhondo Keshav Karve
|Educated at BHU
|
|-
|Self Employed Women's Association (SEWA)
|Females
|18 states
|Ela Bhatt
|Gandhian Textile Labour Association
|Established: own bank (Shri Mahila Sewa Sahakari Bank, or 'SEWA Cooperative Bank'), SEWA Mahila Housing Trust
|-
|Servants of the People Society
|Females
|Kerala, Maharashtra, M.P., Odisha T.N., Uttarakhand U.P.
|
|
|
|-
|Shraddhanand Ashram[https://shraddhanandmahilashram.org] (alias Hindu Women's Welfare Society)
|Females and boys
|Maharashtra (Mumbai)
|Swami Shraddhanand
|
|Has cared for thousands of destitute women and orphans, and educated them and provided skills development, as well as fostered personal development
|-
|Stree Hitaishini Mandali
|Females
|Andhra Pradesh
|Kanuparti Varalakshmamma
|
|Educated many females
|-
|Widow Marriage Association
|Females
|Maharashtra
|Dhondo Keshav Karve
|Educated at BHU
|
|-
|}

==Inspiration to Madras Presidency==
[[image:M.C. Rajah.jpg|right|thumb|200px|Mylai Chinna Thambi Pillai Rajah (the real 'Periyar'.)]]
While the Arya Samaj, Brahmo Samaj, Prarthana Samaj, and a host of other Hindu-based humanitarian and sociopolitical institutions existed in the-then Madras Presidency of southern India, they inspired local organizations as well. Shahu Maharaj had friends in the-then Justice Party (JP, est. 1916), like Arcot Ramasamy Mudaliar and Panaganti Ramarayaningar. While some ethnic groups, like certain castes even falsely supported the idea of an 'Aryan Invasion Theory' and themselves (Dravidian-languages speakers) as indigenous, they still appreciated Hinduism and did not consider it alien.

The biggest uplifter of the party was M.C. Rajah, who had the highest influence upon the policies that improved the lives of the Dalits in Madras Presidency. The party itself was founded primarily by 3 individuals — Sir Pitti Theagaraya Chetty (political founder who built the political machine), Dr. Taravath Madhavan Nair (ideological co-founder), and Dr. Chintadripet Natesa Mudaliar (cultural/grassroots mobilizer who helped shape cultural legitimacy.) Dr. Nair had said that Hindu society had originally possessed broader equality before caste dominance hardened it. Chetty occasionally used dharm-based ethical framing. He is consistently described as arguing that governance must align with "''dharma and justice''". The Dr. Mudaliar was a devout Shaiva that infused into the party Shaivism as a cultural identity for southerners.
[[image:P.T. Rajan.jpg|right|thumb|200px|P.T. Rajan (centre-right, wearing glasses next to priest), touring with the idol of [[Ayyappan|Ayyappa]] he had made at Swamimalai Temple[https://swamimalaiswaminathar.hrce.tn.gov.in/] and it was placed in the Sabarimala Temple[https://www.sabarimalauptodate.in/].]]
An ideologue of influence to the JP and Self-Respect Movement was Maraimalai Adigal, a Shaiv preacher and writer, who claimed that both the JP and Self-Respect Movement were from his teachings and that militant atheist Erode Venkatappa Ramasami Naicker had hijacked them. JP founder Dr. Nair died in 1919 and Chetty in 1925, so had no interaction Naicker. Ponnambala Thiaga Rajan was an active party member and disagreed with Naicker's ideology, so joined Congress-aligned politics. Mudaliar died in 1935 around the time Naicker entered the JP. Naicker was also a prejudiced castist that criticized but did not contribute to build schools and shelters for women and children, as Rajah[https://www.news18.com/opinion/opinion-m-c-rajah-the-forgotten-hindu-mahasabha-dalit-8937192.html][https://vskbharat.com/m-c-rajah-a-staunch-hindu-leader/?lang=en][https://thecommunemag.com/m-c-rajah-the-hindu-mahasabha-dalit/], a practicing Hindu of the party did. Rajah even once formed a political alliance with the Hindu Mahasabha, was the contributor. Before Rajah, the party's caste disparity was mainly about civil service occupations and education access for underprivileged castes. Rajah was recommended by Ambedkar to convert but Rajah replied there's no religion better than Hinduism.<ref>P. 92 ''The Political Evolution of Muslims in Tamilnadu and Madras, 1930-1947'' By J.B. Prashant More (1997) </ref><ref> In a public meeting of the All India Adi Dravida Mahajana Sabha in Nungambakkam, Chennai he said, "''The president (of this meeting) mentioned that no other community other than us has more right to be called Hindus. Conversion will not bring about any good. By saying so, I am not undermining or wishing away the oppression and ills we have faced. We need to fight for our rights. The speed at which reforms are happening might be slow. But think about our current situation and how much it has improved. I beseech you to please abandon any move that will weaken us. I request the government to bring about the Untouchability Abolition Bill and pass it quickly. The Harijans are proud Hindus. That is the only reason why even after years of oppression by higher castes and a barrage of proselytization efforts by other religions hasn't changed their resolve being Hindus.''" P. 123 ''Evolution of Hindu Nationalism - Icons of HMS, RSS & BJS'' By Sankara Narayanan T (2025)</ref> Adigal's writings had a profound impact on Subramania Ramanathan, the founder of the Self-Respect Movement, and on the Naicker but the latter only wanted pro-Tamil and castist societal changes, not promotion of Shaivism. Naicker would later break away from the party and form his own Dravidar Kazhagam, a title he copied from Adigal's Shaiv association (Podhunilak Kazhagam.) (His own pupil, Conjeevaram Natarajan Annadurai, would eventually disown him after he married his own adopted daughter, and Annadurai would leave his group.)
[[image:Alamelu.jpg|right|thumb|200px|Alamelu Mangai Thayarammal, a Brahmo Samaji, was co-founder of the party among 29 others (all men.)]]
The Hindu sentiment was definitely present in the JP. Many left after Naicker's hijacking. Important members bothered by Naicker's rhetoric apart from Rajan were Ananda Prasad Patro, Arunachalam Thamaraiselvam Panneerselvam, Muthiah Annamalai Chettiar, Ramasamy Kandasamy Shanmukham Chetty, and Subbarayalu Kumaraswami Reddiar. Chettiar even personally regularly donated to temple renovations, endowing temple lands or festivals, supporting pilgrimage facilities, and Hindu-managed schools. Rajan, the last leader of the JP, was the head-of-government of the Presidency, and was a big devotee a [[Ayyappan|Swami Ayyappa]]. Rajan even solemnized a marriage of a German couple converted to Hinduism in Coimbatore (Oct 31, 1962.) He further discouraged conversion of Dalits from Hinduism to another religion<ref>"''If by mass conversion you expect to achieve your object, you will be disappointed, because of a mere change of religion it will not give you all that you want.''" 
P. 147 ''Sir P. T. Rajan's Eighty Second Birthday Souvenir, 1973'' By P.T. Rajan and K. Paramasivam</ref> while encouraging caste-Hindus to better treat Dalits. His family had deep ties to the Meenakshi Amman Temple[https://maduraimeenakshi.hrce.tn.gov.in/] in Madurai, with his son (Palanivel Rajan), serving as a minister, and his daughter-in-law (Rukmani), serving as the first female chairperson of the temple's board of trustees. His predecessor Ramakrishna Ranga Rao denied that the JP was anti-Hindu and declared that it aimed to purify Hindu society from "''absurdities''" and return "''Hinduism greater and more glorious than it was in the past...''"<ref>"''As I understand it, the Self-Respect movement stands for certain great ideals to make Hinduism greater and more glorious than it was in the past, to rid it of all those absurdities which are the accretions of an unfortunate era of the past, and unite us in a solid federation so that all those who profess to follow the Hindu faith may feel that they are brethren following one of the most ancient and glorious religions of the world. No longer should the foreigner point his finger of scorn at this or that particular phase of Hinduism which belies its cosmopolitan tendency by inflicting personal hardship on classes or communities. If a few youths in their exuberant enthusiasm have been carried away beyond the bounds of Hinduism it will not do to fight shy of the new movements, but political wisdom and sagacity lie in taking them into our fold and guiding them aright along the paths of duty and rectitude.''" 
P. 289 ''The Indian Annual Register An Annual Digest of Public Affairs of India Recording the Nation's Activities Each Year in Matters Political, Economic, Industrial, Educational, Social, Etc · Volume 2'' By Nipendra Nath Mitra (1934)</ref> Alamelu Mangai Thayarammal, conferred 'Pandithai' title by Saiva Sabha in Palamcottah, was a JP co-founder [with 29 co-founders being men] who was a Brahmo Samaji, meaning the influence of the Hindu-based organizations wasn't insignificant. Paramasivan Subbarayan Gounder, while not technically a JP member, worked with it closely, and both he and his women's rights activist wife Kailash Radhabai Kulmud were Brahmos. It is also noteworthy that [[Ascetics|ascetic]] Swamiyar Kaivalyar who supported the party without being a member wrote pro-Shaiv material. Cattamanchi Ramalinga Reddy, an ex-member who formed his own party in 1923 was a close friend of Dr. Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan, and he himself engaged with Hindu texts on a literary artistic level. As Hinduism isn't a scripture-dependent religion, some JP members like A.R. Mudaliar heavily criticized certain scriptures but were devout Hindus ([[Vaiśnava|Vaishnav]] in his case.) And while orthodox opposition was present, the majority of Indians, including religious leaders, supported reforms, like when Shankaracharya of Kanchi[https://www.kamakoti.org/] supported the "Hindu Religious Endowments Bill" (1921) even while voicing some concerns in within. Mentionable is that [[Shatata-Unnati#Female upliftment|Dr. Muthulakshmi Reddy]] wasn't part of the JP but it still nominated her in 1926 for the Madras Legislative Council to bring about positive changes.

==Related articles==
*[[Women]]
*[[Women as Rishikas in the Vedas]]
*[[Worship of God as Mother]]

==External resources==
*[https://www.ijhsss.com/files/08.-ABHISEK-KARMAKAR_6813z4a4.pdf "Changing status of women in Indian politics (1917-1947): the role of civil society"], P. 42-45 ''International Journal of Humanities & Social Science Studies'' Volume-I, Issue-II (September 2014) By Abhisek Karmakar
*[https://www.besanthill.org/about/history-heritage/annie-besant/ Besant Hill School of Happy Valley in Ojai, California]
*[https://www.anniebesant.org Annie Besant Women's College in Hyderabad, Telangana]
*[https://www.aryasabha.mu/cultural-programme-arya-mahila-mandal-in-the-context-of-the-200th-birth-anniversary-of-swami-dayananda-saraswati/ Arya Mahila Mandal (Mauritius)]
*[https://www.thearyasamaj.org/ammkarolbagh Arya Mahila Mandal Karol Bagh]
*[https://vatikashaktipeeth.com/seven-agitations/women-awakening.html Vatika Shakti Peeth]

==References==
{{reflist}}

[[Category: History]]
[[Category: Economics]]
[[Category: Societal altruism]]

Shatata-Unnati

2026-06-15T06:45:13Z

Himanshu Bhatt: /* Shahu's royal authority to implement reforms */

{{Author|Himanshu Bhatt}}
'Shatata-Unnati' is ''continual change'', 'abhyas' means improvement, 'kram-parivartanam' is ''incremental reformation'', while 'shodhanam' is ''refinement''. All of these terms are descriptive of Hindu society throughout the ages.

Continual social betterment has been one of the defining characteristics of Hindu society. All major cultures have had evils in their histories, including Hindu societies, but the shining examples to enforce positive changes and adaptability to a changing world are the Hinduism, Christianity, and Judaism.

In an era wherein colonial norms meant imprisonment or executions for speaking out against imperial rule, Mahatma Gandhi challenged the ideas of forcing nations to be subservient, fighting oppression by violence, and purging one's own nation of evils (i.e., inequality and superstition.) Today, much of the world still looks to Gandhi's perseverance to bring positive change into society.

Transformation of India's political systems made India into the world's largest democracy, and for accomplishing that, [[Indian Freedom Fighters#INC's Hindu activist roots|Hindu doctrines were rationalize to promote democracy]]. Even in India's political spectrum, Hindu principles were used to make liberalism and communism resonate with people, like Ram Rajya being a communist utopia. Some of the Communist Party of India's [[Indian Freedom Fighters#CPI's Hindu activist roots|founders were idealogues for both communism and Hinduism]], such as Swami Kumaranand, Swami Satyabhakt, and Swami Sahajanand Saraswati, as well as Keezhedathu Damodaran, Radhamohan Gokulji, and Rahul Sankrityayan.

==Comparison in societal reformation (India and Europe)==
:''See also: [[Contribution of Hindu Diaspora]]''
Whereas even in modern times, in most European Christian societies, witch-hunts and slavery were the norm, in Indian Hindu societies, widow-burning was the norm among certain communities (usually northwestern) and caste prejudice was prevalent. Both the Christian and Hindu communities worked to extinguish these and other evils.

Historical societal injustices have been acknowledged and reconciled. Even today, the lasting legacy of important Hindu reformers is visible wherein quotas employment and educational quotas are implemented for social upward mobility to ensure poorer castes and women do not fall behind.

During the colonial era, as human rights improved in Western societies as results from agricultural/economic advancements, Western writers of non-Christian societies took a chauvinistic, parochialist, and Eurocentric approach towards Hindu societies, claiming that they:
#Would never improve in human rights, morality, or rationality
#Are permanently stagnant
#Cannot produce modern or political economic institutions

Critics of the colonial era were proven wrong in these concrete ways:
#Large-scale societal reforms led by Hindu activists themselves improved Hindu societies — i.e., promoting window remarriage and caste integration while also creating quotas for females and historically-disadvantaged castes
#Rapid expansion of education and intellectual mobility — i.e., growth of global Hindu academic presence
#Global economic and corporate leadership — i.e., entrepreneurship and CEOs of major multinational companies like Adobe, Google, and Microsoft
#Democratic political evolution — i.e., maintaining electoral democracies like Hindu-majority nations, providing peaceful transfers of power, and granting significant autonomy to judiciary, press, and civil societies
#Religious and philosophical continuity + adaptation
#Ritual practice has diversified massively by religion and class — i.e., clerics ([[Rta and Spiritual Authority|priests]] and [[ascetics|monks]]) are from many backgrounds
#Reinterpretation of scriptures became internationally influential — i.e., Aldous Huxley loved the perennialism of Upanishads, Erwin Schrödinger the idea of aikatmyam, and Henry David Thoreau that of Ishavasyam
#Non-Hindus from outside of the Indian Subcontinent have converted to Sanatan Dharm and have promoted the religion — James Donald Walters who founded Ananda Sangha, Richard Alpert who founded Hanuman Foundation, John Edwin Favors who founded iFast[https://ifastdc.com/][https://ifastglobal.com/], and Robert Hansen who founded Saiva Siddhanta Church[https://www.himalayanacademy.com/]
#Hindu-based intellectual practices have popularized globally — i.e., [[Ayurveda|Ayurvedic medicine]], divination, political activism, [[Animal rights#Influence upon Westerners|animal rights]], [[Animal_rights#Vegetarianism|vegetarianism]], and [[yoga]]

==Hindu-led social betterment==
What is extraordinary in the case of India is that it was the religious institutions ([[Organizations|Hindu organizations]] and [[Hindu Post-Secondary Institutes|schools]]) that made revolutionary changes, not normally secular or non-Hindu ones. Practicing Hindus saw that superstitious and chauvinistic practices had become institutionalized (caste system and misogyny) within Hindu society, so they formed associations to help, uplift, educate the destitute. They would even go steps further to privilege the marginalized through reservations.

Even women who were more exploratory and not members of specific religions engaged with Hinduism positively. The best example might be Annette Beveridge, an Englishwoman who was the daughter of a Unitarian Christian herself became affiliated with Keshub Chandra Sen in England. She was drawn to his lectures and this fascination with his philosophy inspired her to begin life in India, where she even established<ref>Its expenses were financed by Ananda Mohan Bose and Durga Mohan Das, Dwarkanath Ganguly was its headmaster, and others Brahmos involved with the school were Sibnath Sastri and Monomohun Ghose.</ref> the Hindu Mahila Vidyalaya (''Hindu Women's School''.) Her husband Henry Beveridge was an orientalist (westerners intrigued with Asian cultures) working in India, meaning they were not Westerners critical of Hindu identity. Mrs. Emily Phear was an honorary teacher, and she too was involved in Brahmo Samaji circles for societal development. (Her husband Sir John Budd Phear helped Brahmo Samaj legally.) A non-Hindu that likewise began a girls school (Hindu Female School[https://www.bethunecollegiateschool.com/]) with Brahmos and other Hindus was John Bethune, whose accomplices were Dakshinaranjan Mukherjee, Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar, Ramgopal Ghosh, and Madanmohan Tarkalanka (the last even taught at the school without pay.) Others foreign women in India that engaged positively with Hindu activist organizations were Mary Carpenter[https://southasianbritain.org/people/mary-carpenter/] and Sophia Dobson Collet with Brahmo Samaj, Alma B.R.A. with Arya Samaj, and Mary Hobson with Prarthana Samaj[https://puneprarthanasamaj.org/].

Hindu women that set women's rights activism into motion were Arya Samaj's Lajwanti Sood and Satyavati Devi, and Brahmo Samaj's Kadambini Ganguly and Sarala Devi Chaudhurani. Swarnakumari Devi was both an Arya Samaji and a Brahmo Samaji.
[[image:Dr. Anandi Gopal Joshi.jpg|right|thumb|200px|Dr. Anandi Gopal Joshi in 1886 marking a milestone with 2 other Asian women.]]
What is also worth mentioning is that there were women not members of sociopolitical organizations who pursued and achieved new societal achievements, showing that many Hindu women thought for themselves. Dr. Anandibai Joshi was India's first female doctor to trained in Western medicine. Her education and trip to U.S. was funded by [[Shatata-Unnati#Shahu's royal authority to implement reforms|Chhatrapati Shahu Maharaj]]. Upon return, he even funded her return journey and offer her supervisory role at Kolhapur's largest hospital[https://old.rcsmgmc.ac.in/]. Foundations[https://anandibai.org/resources/], institutions (i.e., Dr. Anandi Gopal Higher Education & Medical Facilities), awards (i.e., IRDS's[https://ngosindia.org/uttar-pradesh-ngos/irds-institute-for-research-documentation-in-social-sciences-lucknow/] Anandibai Joshi Award for Medicine), and scholarships (i.e., Dr. Anandi Gopal Scholarship Scheme) are named after her in commemoration. (Dr. Anandi Gopal Higher Education & Medical Facilities itself is a collaboration between the U.S. university she graduated in (DUCM[https://drexel.edu/medicine/news-events/publications/pulse/spring-2018/]) and SMCW. She let people know that she was not ashamed of being a Hindu. She was often pressured by Christian missionaries to convert[https://knowledge.lancashire.ac.uk/id/eprint/48487/1/bharadwaj-et-al-2023-journey-across-the-world-to-study-medicine-the-anandi-joshi-story.pdf]. Dr. Anandi had written her thesis, "Obstetrics among the Aryan Hindus", containing references from both the traditional Ayurvedic (''Susruta Samhita'' and ''Charaka Samhita'') and modern American medical literatures. (Mentionable is that although her husband Gopalrao Joshi's relentless, public letter-writing campaigns and essays targeted Lokmanya Tilak for being not liberal enough and Justice Ranade for being too liberal Tilak's ''Kesari'' and ''Mahratta'' newspapers glorified Dr. Joshi as a rolemodel for women.)

===Female upliftment===
:''See also: [[Indian Freedom Fighters]] 
;Theosophical Society wing
[[image:Paris Women's Congress.jpg|right|thumb|200px|Dr. Reddy and 3 Indian women at the Paris Women's Congress (1926.)]]
The top 3 champions who politically improved Indian women's rights in the modern era were foreigners — Dr. Annie Besant, Dorothy Jinarajadasa, and Margaret Cousins. They did not tell Indian women to leave Hinduism but rather they themselves became Hindu in practice and Indian in habit. They then sought to restore the Vedic-era of womanhood wherein women had authority (i.e., to become clerics, scholars, and leaders.) Emma Mitchell (American) and Francesca Arundale (English) greatly contributed to building of Hindu educational institutions (i.e., Central Hindu College.)

Dr. Muthulakshmi Reddy is a big name in female rights, and she was influenced by Dr. Besant in her college years (1907-1912) and was guided by Dr. Besant in both her social reform and political work. She worked with Dr. Besant and others to establish the Women's Indian Association (1917.) After Dr. Besant's death, she took over the presidency of the WIA. Gandhi was another major mentor but Reddy never formally joined the INC but sometimes protested colonial injustices (i.e., Gandhi's arrest.)

;Ramakrishna Mission wing
[[image:Nivedita & Vivekanand.jpg|right|thumb|200px|Nivedita with Vivekanand.]]
[[Niveditā, Sister|Sister Nivedita (Margaret Noble)]], a convert from Ireland became a disciple of [[Swami Vivekananda|Swami Vivekanand]] and joined Aurobindo's Dawn Society and had also founded and ran girls' schools in Kolkata (i.e., Ramakrishna Sarada Mission Sister Nivedita Girls' School[https://www.sisterniveditagirlsschool.org/home.html] in Baghbazar) to educate girls who had little to no access to education (i.e., poorest of the poor.) She advocated for women's intellectual and moral development, influenced by Vivekanand's vision of strong Indian womanhood. Her work included lectures, fundraising (India, England, and U.S.), and writings that promoted gender equality in access to knowledge and opportunities. She had worked with Dr. Annie Besant at times. Likewise, Sister Christine, disciple of Vivekanand, is another example of a Westerner who utilized the Ramakrishna Mission and Vivekanand's circles as vehicles for improving female rights in India.

;INC wing
:''See also: [[Indian Freedom Fighters#INC's Hindu activist roots|INC's Hindu activist roots]] 
[[image:Nellie Sen Gupta.jpg|right|thumb|100px|N.S. Gupta.]]
Nellie Sen Gupta[https://www.thedailystar.net/in-focus/news/deshpriya-jatindra-mohan-nellie-sengupta-2036981] (nee Edith Ellen Gray) had married freedom fighter Jatindra Mohan Sen Gupta, and both joined the INC — she also founded Deepali Sangha, a women's organization aimed at promoting social and political awareness, leadership, training, and empowerment among women. Her husband passed away but she was advised to stay in the-then East Pakistan to take care of Hindu rights, which she did. Umadevi (born Wanda Dynowska), a Polish convert to Sanatan Dharm too championed women's rights in India and translated ''[[Bhagavad Gita]]'', ''[[Mahabharata]]'', ''[[Ramayana]]'', and other [[Hindu Scriptures|Hindu and Bauddh literature]] into Polish. Mira Behn (born Madeleine Slade), the daughter of a British Royal Navy admiral, gave up her affluent lifestyle to become Gandhi's servant in India.
[[image:Sarla Behn Chipko Movement.jpg|right|thumb|200px|Sarla Behn's Chipko act[https://www.adda247.com/school/chipko-movement/].]]
Sarla Behn[https://growbilliontrees.com/blogs/knowledge/sarla-behn-tree-nurturing-nature-and-empowering-communities-for-a-sustainable-future?srsltid=AfmBOoq4h0d0skQBNr4w4zOvISuhYz02_EXtPvD3pUoQYjTlcvNHEbQ-#fullcontent] (born Catherine Mary Heilman) from England setup the Lakshmi Ashram Kausani in 1946 within Uttarakhand to uplift women, after having lived in the Sevagram Ashram[https://gandhiashramsevagram.org/] in Maharashtra. The organization educated rural hill girls academically, trained women of self-reliance and industrial skills (i.e., khadi weaving), taught personal care (i.e., literacy, hygiene, anti-liquor campaigns), and promoted [[Environmentalism|ecological awareness]] (Chipko Movement.) It also worked with the INC to encourage nationalist fervour. Lakshmi Ashram individual units were known as Mahila Mandals. This ashram attracted foreign residents intrigued with Sanatan Dharm even after independence, like David Hopkins, who relocated to there in the 1990's.
[[image:Durgabai Deshmukh.jpg|right|thumb|100px|Dr. D.D.]]
Dr. Durgabai Deshmukh, pupil of Gandhi and freedom fighter in the colonial era, established the Central Social Welfare Board (1953.) She later became president of the All India Women's Conference (1931.) Taraben Premchand is an important mention, as she was an important member of this organization, as well as the Jain Mahila Parishad[https://www.dbjainsabha.com], Jyoti Sangh[https://jyotisangh.org/about-us/] (local women's advancement group in Gujarat), and Shraddhanand Ashram[https://shraddhanandmahilashram.org/].

Madeleine Rolland was Women's International League for Peace and Freedom's[https://www.wilpf.org/] French section and never settled in India. However, upon engaging with Hindu culture in the 1920's, she translated Ananda Coomaraswamy's ''[[Nataraja Dasakam|The Dance of Shiva]]'' into French, introducing Hinduism to the-then residents of France. She also translated Rabindranath Tagore's writings of Sanatan themes and universal humanism, helping popularize them in Europe. She welcomed Gandhi on his visit to Marseille, France. [[image:Kanuparti Varalakshmamma.jpg|right|thumb|100px|'Sarada'.]]
Kanuparti Varalakshmamma (alias 'Sarada'), a devout Gandhian, used Hindu themes like providing ethical refences (i.e., Savitri, Sita) to depict women's morality, dignity, and conduct. She often engaged with the idea of a grihalakshmi (idea woman of the household.) She also founded the Stree Hitaishini Mandali for uplifting women. She used ''Andhra Patrika'', a newspaper created by a promoter of the ''Bhagavad Gita'', Kasinathuni Nageswara Rao, to preach her ideas.
[[image:Vijaya Lakshmi Pandit.jpg|right|thumb|100px|'Vijaya Lakshmi Pandit'.]]
It is also noteworthy that the 1st female head of government in the world was a [[Bauddh Dharm|Bauddh]] (Sirimavo Bandaranaike of Sri Lanka, non-INC member), and 2nd was a Hindu (Indira Gandhi, INC member.) Also Vijaya Lakshmi Pandit[https://news.un.org/en/story/2024/03/1147327] (born Swaroop Rani Nehru) played a significant role in global representation of women, particularly in the United Nations. She was the first woman to serve as the President of the UN General Assembly (1953-1954), a position she held to advocate for decolonization and the independence of countries in Asia and Africa. She was also the first Indian woman to hold a cabinet rank in a provincial government. Hansa Mehta[https://india.un.org/en/311450-hansa-mehta%E2%80%99s-life-story-continues-inspire] had an impact on the UN's constitution wording wherein "''all human beings''" instead of "all men" in the Universal Declaration of Human Rights. (She was also one of only 2 women delegates working alongside Eleanor Roosevelt in the UN Human Rights Commission 1946-48.)
[[image:Nilla Cram Cook.jpg|right|thumb|100px|'Nilla Nagini Devi'.]]
Nilla Cram Cook, an American who settled at Gandhi's ashrams, had [[Conversion|converted to Hinduism]] in the 1930's but identified with the '[[Samyag Darshan#Samadarshan|sarva dharma sambhava]]' ideal, so considered herself a [[Bhakta|devotee]] of not only [[Krishna]] but of Jesus too, and so she later also translated the Quran and engaged with Islamic practices in a syncretic way with her Hindu and Christian customs. Her final literary work was ''The Way of the Swam: Poems of Kashmir'' (1958), which was mostly focused around the [[Saiva|Shaiv]] mystic poetess Lal Ded[https://hindupost.in/society-culture/lal-ded-her-life-and-works/#][https://homegrown.co.in/homegrown-voices/the-poetry-of-lal-ded-mysticism-resistance-the-female-voice-in-14th-century-kashmir] and others from Kashmir syncretic Sanatan-[[Bauddh Dharm|Bauddh]]-[[Sufism with Vaishnavism|Sufi]] tradition. She dedicated the book to Pandit. She didn't work on women's upliftment directly but did participate with Gandhi's Harijan Sevak Sangh. She had also written about Sarojini Naidu (1st Indian woman-president of the INC.)

;Other associations
[[image:Maharani Chimnabai Gaekwad II.jpg|right|thumb|100px|Maharani Chimnabai.]]
[[image:Sethu Parvathi Bayi.jpg|right|thumb|100px|Junior Queen Bayi.]]
The National Council of Women in India[https://www.ncwi.in/], founded 1925, was also a monumental organization to make progress for women — it mainly focused on female literacy, vocational training, public participation, and legal reform. It was primarily the initiative of Lady Meherbai Tata, a Mazdaean icon, and its first president was Maharani Chimnabai Gaekwad II, born Gajrabai Ghatge, a princess of Dewas (M.P.) She supported societal progress of women that did not compromise on Hindu identity (i.e., traditional customs like wearing sari and sindhoor or like celebrating Raksha Bandhan), which is how she framed her ''The Position of Women in Indian Life'' book. She financed schools for girls, as well as Hindu charities and temples. The Gaekwad family also funded libraries and women's institutions and social reform initiatives. She discussed the eradication or the purdah, child marriage, women's restrictions (i.e., obtaining education and employment), and other obstacles towards advancement. Following her presidentship, Sethu Parvathi Bayi took over. She was from the royal family of Travancore (Kerala), and her family was deeply connected to the Padmanabhaswamy Temple[https://spst.in/][https://www.padmanabhaswamytemple.com/]. She financed Hindu institutions as well. It is notable that Sucharu Deo, daughter of Brahmo leader K.C. Sen was a prominent member and she had also helped build the Maharani Girls' High School[https://school.banglarshiksha.gov.in/ws/website/index/19013701705] in Darjeeling (W.B.) together with her sister (Suniti) and Hemlata Sarkar, daughter of Brahmo leader Sibnath Sastri.

From Hindu-based institutions like sociopolitical organizations and schools came a number of philanthropic associations.
;Most influential persons for women's upliftment
{| class="wikitable sortable"
|-
! Area of Contribution
! Meaning
! Steps Taken
! Activists
! Organizations
! Founder's Affiliation(s)
|-
|Political rights and visibility
|1. Women appearing in public political spaces 2. Women being recognized as leaders (not just participants) 3. Changing social norms about women's public roles 4. Symbolic representation
|Helped institutionalize women's leadership through bodies like Women's Indian Association
|Dr. Annie Besant (women's political rights + organizational leadership), Kamaladevi Chattopadhyay (political participation, economic empowerment, cooperatives), Margaret Cousins[https://www.womensmuseumofireland.ie/exhibits/margaret-elizabeth-cousins] (Suffarage, WIA), Sarojini Naidu (mass mobilization of women in politics)
|
|
|-
|Modern institutional equality
|
|Helped institutionalize institutional equality through contributing policy influence (Hansa Mehta) and constitutional rights (Dr. Durgabai Deshmukh)
|Dr. Durgabai Deshmukh (welfare systems), Hansa Mehta
|
|
|-
|Foundational legal reform
|
|
|Raja Ram Mohan Roy (abolition of sati), Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar (widow remarriage)
|
|
|-
|Education
|
|
|Raja Ram Mohan Roy, Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar
|
|
|-
|}

====Hindu influence internationally====
Even outside of India during the 20th century, women's rights were not perfect, and so many women incorporated Hindu symbolism (i.e., worship) and concepts towards promoting societies where women would have equal rights.
[[image:M.J. Gage.jpg|right|thumb|200px|Matilda Joslyn Gage.]]
[[image: Charlotte Despard.jpg|right|thumb|200px|Charlotte Despard, an Anglo-Irish suffragist who supported Indian independence.]]
As [[Worship of God as Mother|worship of God as a female or mother]] has been common in Sanatan Dharm since its foundation, that made validating female upliftment in India quicker. Even in Western nations, prominent women's rights organizations implemented imagery of goddesses from pertinent ancient cultures, like U.K.'s Women's Freedom League and National Union of Women's Suffrage Societies, and the global International Woman Suffrage Alliance, to legitimize female equality and women being in positions of power. Some American and European feminists and women's rights activists, like Matilda Joslyn Gage<ref>"''While the sale of daughters was practiced in England for seven hundred years after the introduction of Christianity, we note that by the ancient law of India, a father was forbidden to sell his daughter in marriage, or receive the smallest present therefor.''" - P. 79-82 ''Woman, Church and State'' (1893) By Matilda Joslyn Gage</ref> (U.S. suffragist) and Helena Petrovna Blavatsky<ref>"''The pre- and post-Vedic woman was as free as man; and no impure terrestrial thought was ever mixed with the religious symbology of the early Aryans.''" 
"''This is proven by the fact that in the Vedic period their women were not placed apart from men in penetralia, or ‘Zenanas.’ Their seclusion began when the Mahomedans … had conquered the land and gradually enforced their ways and customs upon the Hindus.''" 
- P. 379-380 ''The Secret Doctrine: Volume I'' By Helena Blavatsky </ref> (European feminist), even used the examples of [[Worship of God as Mother|Hindu goddess-worship]] and Hindu queens to support their examples. And though Blavatsky did not officially align with any single religion to encourage recruitment for her Theosophical Society, she referenced Sanatan and Bauddh scriptures (Upanishads, and then Gita, then Bauddh shastras) more than others. (M.J. Gage[https://www.smithsonianmag.com/history/the-feminist-inspired-witches-of-oz-180985334/] in her ''Woman, Church, and State'' even highlighted Hindu texts to counter the male-centric theology of the West and referenced ''[[Bhagavad Gita]]'' to validate the concept of a female [[divinity]].) Even feminists of the colonial era like Victoria Woodhull that was skeptical of organized religion, respected "''Christna and Buddha''" (Krishna and Gautama.) Mary Lowe Dickinson at the World's Parliament Circles (1893) was so impressed by [[Swami Vivekananda|Swami Vivekanand]]'s speech, that she developed a fascination with female divinity of Hinduism, and in her editorials and public circles, argued that Hinduism's recognition of a feminine aspect within the divine was spiritually superior to the rigidly patriarchal, all-male Trinity of mainstream American Christianity. Emily Pitts Stevens and Charlotte LeMoyne Wills (wrote about the genderless [[Brahm]]) became disciples of Vivekanand. Laura de Force Gordon wrote about the immortal soul and continuous cycle of life. Alice Moore McComas wrote about the interconnectedness (aikatmyam) of all things. In U.K., Charlotte Despard's specific pamphlets linked [[karma]] to political activism. Margaret Louise Sanger was influenced by Vivekanand and Rabindranath Tagore. Sarah Bull<ref> P. 483 ''Western Admirers of Ramakrishna and His Disciples'' By Gopal Stavig, Swami Shuddhidananda </ref>, who particularly focused on women's education and reform was connected to both Vivekanand and Sister Nivedita. Josephine MacLeod was a major promoter of Vivekanand in the West and was involved in transatlantic reform-intellectual networks. Viktoria Ocampo of Argentina was deeply influenced by Tagore, even hosting him in Argentina and promoting his ideas widely. Gabriela Mistral of Chile was too, and she applied Tagore's ideas to women's education, child welfare, and cultural reform. Mabel Dodge Luhan was fascinated with Sanatan philosophy and influenced by Vivekanand. Mentionable is Emma Calve of France, who wasn't a political feminist leader but influential in women's intellectual-cultural circles, and she was deeply influenced by Vivekanand.
[[image:Carol Patrice Christ.jpg|right|thumb|200px|Carol Patrice Christ.]]
After suffragists had attained complete institutional equality, they them progressed to the next stage of female liberation by ensuring that their own spiritual faith wasn't male-chauvinistic or making them subordinates of males. Feminists were inspired by goddess deity of Hinduism to then promote it within generic spirituality. Valerie Saiving, Isaac Bonewits and Naomi Goldenberg founded in the 1970's, Thealogy, a feminine-specific theology. Carol Patrice Christ launched the Goddess Movement, which provided 4 aspects of Goddess symbolism as reasons to needing a goddess in women's lives; 1) the Goddess as affirmation of female power, 2) the female body, 3) the female will, and 4) women's bond and heritage. She specifically used the Shakti concept to prove that a major global religion (Hinduism) explicitly defined the [[Brahmanda|material universe]]/nature/change ([[Darshana#Sankhya|Prakriti]]) as an inherently active, female, and sacred force. She was an ecofeminist, as were Charlene Spretnak and Miriam Simos were ecofeminists too. Merlin Stone wrote ''Ancient Mirrors of Womanhood: Our Goddess and Heroine Heritage'' (1979) and in a chapter analyzes goddesses like [[Durga]], [[Kali]], [[Lakshmi Puja|Lakshmi]], Parvati, and Saraswati. Devout Christian women feminists too drew on Hindu practices and ideas to support women's advocacy, and they include Ivone Gebara, Pearl Sydenstricker Buck, and Sally McFague.

'Matriarchal religion' is a philosophy stating that societies were Goddess worshippers with females having the same status and rights as men before male gods began being worshipped, and the latter led to patriarchy. Goddesses being worshipped contiguously in Hindu societies for thousands of years was the backing this thought utilized, in addition to feminist archaeology (i.e., ancient idols and temples of goddesses uncovered.)

==Start of modern reforms==
In modern India, most positive social changes within Indian Hindu societies came not first as enforcement or pressure from European rulers but from advocacy of forward-thinking Hindus. Raja Ram Mohan Roy had led the campaign to purge Hindu societies of Sati and caste prejudices. Roy worked with British imperial authority, specifically Lord William Bentinck to have sati outlawed. Roy himself was a religious leader that reiterated Upanishads for their principles.

Other institutions of positive social changes were mainly Hindu ones or were governed by Hindu religious leaders, not secular ones.

The Indian National Social Conference of 1887 was organized by Justice Ranade, Rai Raghunath Rao, Narendra Nath Sen Gupta, and Janki Nath Ghoshal. Ranade was founder of the Prarthana Samaj, a religious group.

Arya Samajis, Brahmo Samajis, and Prarthana Samajis were the most vocal and active forces advocating: 
#Widow Remarriage (i.e., Widow Remarriage Act 1856—initiative of Brahmo Samaj)
#Women's right to divorce (i.e., Native Marriage Act 1872—initiative of Brahmo Samaj) 
#Property rights for women 
#Opposition to child marriages (i.e., Age of Consent Act 1891—initiative of Brahmo Samaj and Prarthana Samaj, Child Marriage Restraint Act 1929—initiative of Arya Samaj) 
#Universal accessible education (built schools, including colleges and gurukuls) 
#Caste-based reservations
[[image:Justice Ranade.jpg|right|thumb|200px|Mahadev Govind Ranade (alias 'Justice Ranade'.)]]
[[image:Jagannath Shankarshet.jpg|right|thumb|200px|Jagannath Shankarshet (alias 'Architect of Modern Mumbai'.)]]
The Indian Factories Act 1881's ratification was a landmark in workers' rights and the credit goes mainly to Sorabjee Shapoorjee Bengalee, and then Prarthana Samaj. He did work alongside the Prarthana Samaj to lobby the British authority through the First Factory Commission in 1875 (made to investigate the brutal conditions of Indian labour.) Prarthana Samaj's ''Subodh Patrika'' newspaper specifically critiqued mill owners. Rahnumai Mazdayasnan Sabha, its newspaper ''Rast Goftar'', and Bengalee himself referenced labour reformers Sasipada Banerji and Protap Chunder Mozumdar, and used the former's methods of worker upliftment as a blueprint for their own legislative arguments. Collaboration between the Sabha and Prarthana Samaj began with the latter's creation of the Theistic Association, on which the Parsi Naoroji Furdonji was its 1st Chairman. Ranade and Bhandarkar drove the Association from discussing only theism to improving society through finding solutions of work hardships. The Night School Initiative was launched, helping workers receive adequate training, particularly in labourer-heavy neighborhoods Byculla, Dongri, Khetwadi, and Thakurdwar. (From 1886-1890 alone, over 2,750 industrial workers successfully studied through this initiative.) Protap Chunder Mozoomdar, a Brahmo, began eight night schools in 1872 within Mumbai when he relocated to the city.<ref> P. 47 ''Peaceful Industrial Relations, Their Science and Technique'' (1957) By R. J. Soman </ref> Brahmos then established night schools within Kolkata by 1878.

Brahmo Samaj's K.C. Sen’s first visit to Mumbai in March-April 1864 engaged him with Bengalee, Furdonji, Ranade, and Bhandarkar (all then members of Young India.) They all discussed ways to develop India. They also shared strategies on how to bypass orthodox religious resistance—Furdonji within Zoroastrianism and Sen within Sanatan Dharm. Bengalee's First Labor Bill (1878) laid the groundwork for the later Indian Factories Act.

Prior to all of this, Jagannath Shankarshet[https://www.vishwakonkani.org/hall-of-fame/hon-jagannath-shankar-sheth/] spent the 1850s petitioning the British Parliament for local governance. As a result, it codified the Indian Councils Act of 1861, thus creating the Bombay Legislative Council as a political body to better govern the-then Bombay Presidency. Shankarshet was the main founder of Bombay Association. In its first leadership were also Dr. Ramachandra Vitthal Lad (alias 'Dr. Bhau Daji'), a Hindu intellectual who used his Sanskrit knowledge to decipher inscriptions, preserve manuscripts, and help reconstruct the forgotten timelines of ancient Guptas and Western Kshatrapa dynasties. Mentionable is the Parsi Sir Jamsetjee Jeejeebhoy of the group. Shankarshet was a wealthy philanthropist that constructed and financed Sanatan and secular infrastructure, most notably the Bhavani Shankar Mandir[https://www.mcgm.gov.in/irj/go/km/docs/documents/D%20Ward/Heritage-Sites/73_Legacy%20of%20D%20Ward_Article_Bhavani%20Shankar%20Temple.pdf] (Mumbai), Sanskrit Seminary and Sanskrit Library (both in Mumbai too.) Elphinstone Educational Institution[https://elphinstone.ac.in/index.php] and Grant Medical College[https://gmcjjh.edu.in/] were his creations too. (Jeejeebhoy contributed to constructing the Grant Medical College.)

===Shahu's royal authority to implement reforms===
[[image:Shahu adoption.jpg|right|thumb|200px|Prince Yeshwantrao Ghatge being adopted by the royal family of Kohlapur.]]
[[image:Rajarshi.jpg|right|thumb|200px|Rajarshi Chhatrapati Shahu Maharaj.]]
[[image:School foundation.jpg|right|thumb|200px|Foundation of Shri Shahu Chhatrapati Shikshan Sanstha.]]
The greatest champion on all of these sections for reforms was Chhatrapati Shahu Maharaj[https://aissms.org/breaking-barriers-chhatrapati-shahu-maharaj-and-his-enduring-impact-on-progress-and-modernity/] (born Yeshwantrao Ghatge), '[[Rta and Spiritual Authority#Rishis|Rajarshi]]', the ruler of Kohlapur Kingdom who affiliated with organizations but probably the Arya Samaj[https://thearyasamaj.org] more than any other. Shahu definitely was not shy to publicly perform prayers, as he famously attended temples of goddesses Ambabai[https://www.mahalaxmikolhapur.com/home] and Bhavani[https://shrituljabhavani.org/] when having returned from his Europe trip in 1902. Also in 1902, Pratap Singh Maharaj of Idhar (Gujarat) introduced and educated him about the Arya Samaj. He provided patronage to the Arya Samaj.[https://navjyot.net/wp-content/uploads/2022/12/10.pdf]

The king passed many policies for for the upliftment of untouchable, nomadic, non-Brahmin communities and for females.<ref>Act of Free and Compulsory Primary Education (1917), Widow remarriage Act (1917), End of Balutedari (1918), Repeal of Kulkarni Watan (1918), Intercaste and Interreligious Marriages and Sanctioning of Registered Marriage Act (1919), Act relating to protection of Harassment of Women (1919), Divorce act (1919), Order on prohibition of Untouchability practice (1919), Illegitimate Children's Rights and Devadasi Prohibition Act (1920); 
[https://www.indiejournal.in/article/rajarshi-shahu-maharaj-and-his-tryst-with-the-arya-samaj "Rajarshi Shahu Maharaj & his tryst with the Arya Samaj Lessons for our times"] By Devkumar Ahire (Jun 26, 2023 6:42 PM)</ref>

;Prejudiced disgruntled castists promoting anti-Brahman hate, not universalism
While Shahu was affiliated with the Satyashodhak Samaj (SS) because it wanted to uplift the non-dwija castes, he did not feel they had any religious foundations, whereas the Arya Samaj was encompassed both a spiritual and social movement.<ref>"Beyond Reformism: Chhatrapati Shahu and Hinduism Reimagined" By Surajkumar Thube P. 124-144 ''Nidān: International Journal for Indian Studies, Volume 8'', Issue 1 (July 2023)</ref> Also, the SS of Pune was antithetical to social cohesion because it targeted the Brahman caste as an enemy, and while its main founder (Jyotirao Phule) made absurd claims like 'Shiv-Dharma'<ref>"''The real Shiv-Dharma that is ours, we are re-establishing it as Sarvajanik Satya Dharma.''" Chapter 4, ''Sarvajanik Satya Pustak''</ref> or 'Mahadev-Dharma' (worship of [[Shiva|Shiv]] as God and some local gods like Khandoba as avatars) being the true religion of Indians whereas every other Hindu belief and practice was an imposition by 'non-Indian Brahman invaders'. Being a chauvinist, he also criticized freedom fighter martyrs Lakshmi Bai, Nana Sahib, Tantia Tope for being Brahmans. He also wrote positively that freedom fighters lost the 1857 War of Independence against the British colonialists. He was also openly criticized by his own relative Baburao Phule, who accused the former of being a Christian convert who destroyed the Hindu religion.<ref>P. 58-59 ''The Caste Question: Dalits and the Politics of Modern India'' (2009) By Anupama Rao </ref>

Phule though anti-Brahman, was influenced by some Brahmans, such as Balshastri Jambhekar (a Hindu activist) who pushed scientific knowledge and history through Marathi, criticized caste segregation, and attacked other or kinds or orthodoxy like widowhood. He was also influenced by some Hindu activists who were not anti-Brahman (i.e., Karsandas Mulji.)

The organization would receive the most aid from Shahu (financial and social work), Karmvir (social work), and Padval (intellectual) but they themselves always kept a distance from the SS because of its explicitly castist vitriol. People would choose to align or become members of other associations for their inclusivity and harmonious vision for the future.

;Satyashodhak Samaj becoming less anti-Brahman
"''All Hindus are equal. No one is superior, no one is inferior. Let all flesh and blood be one. Four varnas are a real deceit. It's a tool to keep the non-Brahmins in slavery. There is no difference among the Hindus. Hindu is the only varna. If a Hindu eats or marries with another Hindu that's not ''[[adharma]].'' In contrast, what divide Hindus in the name of religion is not a dharma, but a trick by Brahmins. One who calls themselves a Hindu, whether they are Europeans or Africans, they are our coreligionists.''" - P. 39 ''Deshache Dushman'' (1925) By Dinkarrao Javalkar
[[image:Sasipada Banerji.jpg|right|thumb|100px|Sasipada Banerji (alias 'Sevabrata'.)]]
Notable is that Phule's friend Narayan Meghaji Lokhande, a labour organization leader, was close friends with Phule and used Khandoba-worship and the reverence of Sundays for Khandoba in his petition to British authority to achieve Sunday as a holiday for factory labourers. Phule and Lokhande emulated Brahmans, like forming the political lobby group Deenbandhu Sarvajanik Sabha after Ranade's Poona Sarvajanik Sabha and forming the Bombay Mill Hands Association based and its mouthpiece ''Deenbandhu'' on the Working Men's Club (India's 1st labour welfare platform) and its mouthpiece ''Bharat Sramajibi'' (India's 1st labour journal) of Sasipada Banerji (Brahmo Samaji.)

Though Dinkarrao Javalkar portrayed himself as pan-Hindu when discussing the specific topic of Hindu unity, he still prejudicially criticized the Brahman caste in general<ref>"''This day will be counted among the most important days in the history of Hindus. There is no reason for you to fear jail. The Brahmans who eat ghee and roti should have that fear. To make the touchable people behave is in your hands. You are the sons of Hindus. You capture the tank saying 'har har Mahadev' and follow the advice of your leader Dr. Ambedkar Saheb. This is my own position.''" -Dinkarrao Javalkar at satyagraha with Keshavrao Jedhe and Dr. Ambedkar among a Mahar crowd</ref> and targeted some prominent Brahmans like Lokmanya Tilak. (Javalkar and Keshavrao Jedhe also portrayed themselves as pro-woman but derogatory remarks about women from the Brahman and certain other castes<ref>P. 44 ''19th Century Maharashtra: A Reassessment'' (2020) By Shraddha Kumbhojkar </ref> and both appealed to Dr. B.R. Ambedkar in 1927 to exclude Brahmans from the Mahad Satyagraha<ref> P. 27 ''Social Reform Movements in India: A Historical Perspective'' (1991) By V.D. Divekar</ref>.) Jedhe did protest with other activists (including Brahmans like Narhar Vishnu Gadgil, Seshdas Ranade, Shreedhar Mahadev Joshi, and members of Arya Samaj) for the right of Dalits to worship at Pune's Devdeveshwar Mandir[https://devdeveshwarsanthan.org/home.html]. Javalkar did write favourably about some like Ranade, Gopal Ganesh Agarkar, and Krishna Gopal Gokhale but even they were rarely mentioned. He rightfully partook in the Kalaram Mandir[https://www.shrikalaramsansthannasik.org/] Satyagraha in Nasik that protested for Dalits to be able to enter the temple. He was a communist and 10 years after his death, the Peasants and Workers Party (PWP) was formed.

SS branches outside of Pune were less hateful of Brahmans. It is also noteworthy, however, is that Nana Patil, a founder of the PWP, was affiliated with both the Satyashodhak and Prarthana associations [meaning that he, like most other Satyashodhaks didn't believe in Phule's religious ideology.] Some other PWP founders like Jedhe and Madhavrao Bagal were Satyashodhaks, they popularized Shiv Jayanti and Ganesh Chathuri. The latter and his son Vasantrao even wrote devotional pieces inspired from Bhakti Era saints (i.e., [[Tukaram]], [[Eknath]]) and valourizing pieces about Shahu. Tulshidas Jadhav, a Gandian within the PWP, championed the Bhakti Era's Warkari Movement, which was still popular in his time, because it was based on social equality and public seva. Also noteworthy is, that even some prominent members supported the Arya Samaj, like Krishnarao Bhalekar<ref>"''Bhalekar said that while Hinduism needed to be reformed , this reform should be brought about from within . He said he would defend Hinduism if it was under attack from Islam or Christianity.''" - P. 35 ''Non-Brahman Movement in Maharashtra'' (1989) By M. S. Gore </ref> (1 of the founders of SS with Phule) defended Dayanand Saraswati (Arya Samaj’s founder), when the latter’s procession was opposed by some orthodox Hindus in Pune, and Bhalekar organized a speech to be delivered by Saraswati at a dharmshal near a Rokdoba Temple in Pune.

Bhalekar himself made the claim that the SS is the true follower of Sant Tukaram's [[Bhāgavata-dharma|Bhagwat Dharma]] ([[Krishna|Krishnaite]] [[Vaishnava|Vaishnavism]].) His son was Mukundrao Patil, who made the claim, "''The Satyasodhak Samaj is the true heir of the Hindu religion. Brahmanism is not Hinduism.''"<ref>''Dinmitra'' newspaper (1920s)</ref> Javalkar claimed SS is the true representative of the Hindu religion and that SS members are liberating Hinduism from the supremacy of the Brahmins. Shivram Janma Kamble stated the SS is a revival movement of the true Hinduism. Kisan Faguji Bansode argued "Shivdharma" was the true Hindu religion and that the SS advocates that version.

There were those in his organization that promoted about how in ancient Sanatan society, there were no caste distinctions and that people were recognized by their merits. Their view was promoted by Tukaram Tatya Padval, who wrote ''Jatibhed Vivekshar'' (1861) after being inspired by Ashwaghosha's ''Vajrasuchi''. Phule republished copies of Padval's books, and the 2 developed a friendship. He did write at that in ancient India, certain sages were had Sudra or Avarna status but rose to the rank of a Brahman through their intellect, and used examples of Valmiki (wrote a ''Ramayan''), Sankhya, and Kabilar rishis. He also published copies of the ''Bhagavad Gita'', ''Yogasutra'', and compilations of the ''Rajayoga'' and ''Sankhya Karika.'' He further compiled the ''Tukarambaba ani Tyanche Shisya Yanchi Abhanga Gatha'' (1889) and ''Eknath Maharajancha Abhangachi Gatha'' (1903.) Padval, however, never became a member of Phule's organization and instead became a member of the Theosophical Society.

;Shahu forming his own Satyashodhak Samaj focused on upliftment (free of anti-Brahman distractions)
As a result of the Satyashodhak Samaj of Pune being too antagonistic of Brahmans, Shahu had instead founded his own branch in 1911 — Shri Shahu Satyashodhak Samaj. By an order, Shahu replaced the Brahman priests in the Patgaon Sansthan (Mauni Maharaj Math[https://durgbharari.in/maunibaba-patgaon/]) and Jyotiba Devasthan[https://shreejyotiba.com/?lang=E][https://maharashtratourism.gov.in/temple/jyotiba/] with Maratha priests. Bhaskarrao Jadhav and Anna Babaji Latthe were leaders of Shahu's Kolhapur Satyashodhak Samaj. Whereas Phule mostly only wrote positively of Shiva and local-born gods, Jadhav in his ''Marathas and their Religion'' wrote positively about Krishna and the ''Bhagavad Gita''. He further worked with Shahu to aid Arya Samaj in its activities and goals (i.e., train non-Brahmans to become priests too.) Noteworthy is that Latthe, who worked personally with Shahu Maharaj, was its first VP and that he worked to dismantle priestly (Jain priests, not usually Brahmans) intermediation within the Jain clergy. (He was a big-time activist for general upliftment and for reform within the Jain community (i.e., wrote ''Jain Dharmacha Parichay''.)

Latthe founded the Dakshin Bharat Jain Sabha[https://dbjainsabha.com/], of which Dr. Bhaurao Patil (from a Jain family) became a member and through he wasn't a member of any SS branch, he did sometimes participate in its activities and himself founded the Rayat Shikshan Sansthan[https://rayatshikshan.edu/], which educated students in a multitude of topics, including Sanskrit. Patil (alias 'Karmvir Anna') was deeply influenced by Mahatma Gandhi and Vitthal Ramji Shinde.

;Shahu distancing himself formally from Satyashodhak Samaj
The SS had earned a bad reputation in Maharashtra with the general public, particularly for the outright anti-Brahman vitriol spewed in the SS's publications and events. Because the goal of Shahu and true reformers was to achieve a harmonious society with all people cooperating, it would not make sense to support an organization that's known for abusing persons (i.e., Brahmans) specifically over their caste identity.

In 1921, Shahu made a public statement in a Baroda newspaper that even though he granted significant support to the non-Brahman movement and introduced measures to eliminate Brahman dominance, he had never been affiliated with Phule's SS, and that he always accepted [[Rta and Spiritual Authority#Rishis|Vedic ritual authority]].

;Granting, accommodating, and expanding Arya Samaj
Shahu attended Arya Samaj sessions like the one at Navsari in 1918 and another at Bhavnagar in 1920<ref>P. 6. ''People's Raj Volume 30'' (1974) By Directorate-General of Information and Public Relations </ref>. He provided funding for Gurukul Boarding House to be built at Kerle, wherein large buildings and well-irrigated lands were granted to the Arya Samaj. Later, the Rajaram Anathalaya orphanage was added to this grant. He also brought educational institutions in his domain under the leadership of Arya Pratinidhi Sabha. Rajaram College's administration was also granted to the Arya Samaj.

;Spiritual Authority as Rajarshi
Shahu Maharaj, being a devout Sanatan wanted to proclaim the rights that warriors of history had and so participated in important ceremonies and worked with priests (i.e., Brahmans) to achieve the rights to learn and perform Vedic ceremonies. He established the Vedokta Committee for Marathas to be able to perform Vedic rites without requiring priests. In 1905, the Karveer Peeth's (or Kolhapur Math's) Shankaracharya declared full rights of Vedokta to Chhatrapati Shahu.

Tatyarao Joshirao was appointed by Shahu Maharaj as new royal purohit, replacing the Rajopadhye (creator of the infamous 'Vedokta Controversy'), who denied the Maharaj to perform Vedic rites. Joshirao was from a family that had traditional ownership of the historic Binkhambi Ganapati Mandir in Kolhapur.

Rajaram Shastri (alias 'Bhagavata'), a Brahman scholar, linguist, and researcher, openly challenged the religious orthodoxy, arguing from scripture that Shahu Maharaj had full rights to the Vedas. Vishnu Topkhane was another Brahman who greatly helped the Chhatrapati with his progressive reforms. Topkhane the educationalist helped the latter establish the Vidyapeeth High School near the Shri Karveer Niwasini Ambabai Mahalakshmi Temple. Freedom fighter Gokhale was someone who worked with Shahu. When the Vedokta Controversy broke out and the conservative press attacked the Maharaja, Gokhale privately and publicly validated Shahu Maharaj's stance, recognizing that social reform was a prerequisite for true political freedom. Ranade, though passed away before much Shahu's reforms began, was admired by the latter for his progressive ideals and actions.

Chhatrapati Shahu founded the Satyashodhak School for spiritual training in 1913, in which seminarians (predominantly from castes such as Marathas, Mahars, and Chambhars) were taught to recite and preach the poems (i.e., abhangs of Tukaram) of sants. He also created the Shivaji Vedic School (aliases 'Shahu Vedic School', 'Shahu Vedic Pathshala', 'Shri Shahu Vaidik Vidyalay') in 1920 and had invited scholars from Varanasi (spiritual capital of Sanatan Dharm) to ensure the highest standard of scriptural and linguistic training. The school trained seminarians (of all castes) to learn Sanskrit and become priests and conduct ceremonies. He further established and financed the office of the Kshatra Jagadguru (''Warrior Universal Teacher''), a pontiff seat open to anyone of any caste. The first Kshatra Jagadguru was Sadashivrao Lakshmanrao Sankpal Patil Benadikar, was an accomplished Sanskrit scholar who received his formal higher education at Rajaram College in Kolhapur. The Kshatra Jagadguru Peeth was the pontiff's seat at Patgaon (in the Bhudargad region of Kolhapur.) Patgaon was chosen because it was the historic site of the Mauni Maharaj Math, a highly respected spiritual center that had historically blessed Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj[https://pilgrimdata.in/temple/mouni-maharaj-math-temple-patgaon-bhudargarh-dist-kolhapur/]. The Kshatra Jagadguru had the Shri Sadashivrao Patil Shikshan Sanstha educationalist association named after him, and it runs schools[https://www.mwssm.org/][https://sspiop.com/] in Maharashtra still. Other organizations too use his name for schools like Sadashivrao Mandlik Mahavidyalaya (Kolhapur) of the ⁠Jay Shivray Education Society.

===Successive associations===
From Hindu-based institutions like sociopolitical organizations and schools came a number of philanthropic associations. Even other humanitarian associations that were not established by Hindu activists, were established by their influence. For example, Krishna Gopal Gokhale had participated in many sessions of the Prarthana Samaj as he was Ranade's pupil, and he later joined the Deccan Education Society, which he left to establish the Servants of India Society. Narayan Malhar Joshi was a member of Gokhale's group and later formed his own Social Service League[https://socialserviceleague.org.in/]. Hriday Nath Kunzru too was part of Gokhale's group and left to establish the Seva Samiti.

{| class="wikitable sortable"
|-
! Organization
! Demographic of Focus
! Region(s)
! Founder
! Founder's Affiliation(s)
! Achievement
|-
|Anath Balikashram Society
|Widows
|Maharashtra
|Dhondo Keshav Karve
|Educated at BHU
|
|-
|Andhra Mahila Sabha
|Females
|Andhra Pradesh
|Durgabai Deshmukh
|
|
|-
|Bharat Stree Mahamandal
|Females
|Bengal, Bihar, Punjab, Sindh, U.P.
|Sarala Devi Chaudhurani
|Arya Samaji, Brahmo Samaji, accepted Bijoy Krishna Chattopadhyaya as her guru
|
|-
|Buddhi Vardhak Sabha
|General public
|Gujarat
|Narmadashankar Labheshankar Dave
|
|Exposed people in positions of power that abused their privileges, build schools for girls
|-
|Central Social Welfare Board
|Females and children
|
|Dr. Durgabai Deshmukh
|
|
|-
|Hindu Widow Marriage Association
|Females
|Maharashtra
|Dhondo Keshav Karve
|Educated at BHU
|
|-
|Hindustani Seva Dal
|Females
|Every province
|Dr. Narayan Subbarao Hardikar
|
|Established the Hindustani Seva Mandal (later became Rashtriya Seva Dal) in 1923, established the Arya Bala Sabha, taught the Gita during his student days in Kolkata, was a fan of Lokmanya Tilak, and had enthusiastically worked with Lala Rai
|-
|Indian Reform Association
|Females
|West Bengal
|Keshub Chandra Sen
|
|Brahmo Samaji, founded ''Sulabh Samachar'' as weekly newspaper of group
|-
|Kasthurbha Gandhi Kanya Gurukulam[http://www.kgkgurukulam.org/]
|Girls
|Tamil Nadu (Vedaranyam)
|Vedaratnam Pillai
|
|Involved in temple-based philanthropy and donated to Sri Ramakrishna Mission too
|-
|Lakshmi Ashram
|Females
|Uttarakhand
|Sarla Behn
|
|Established individual Mahila Mandals throughout Uttarakhand and promoted important skills as well as ecological awareness
|-
|Lokahitawadi Mandal
|General public
|Maharashtra
|Vishnu Vaman Shirwadkar
|
|Wrote about Hindu themes, including persons from scriptures and about Shivaji poetically, philosophically, and nationally
|-
|Maharshi Karve Stree Shikshan Samstha
|Females
|Maharashtra
|Dhondo Keshav Karve
|Educated at BHU
|
|-
|Mahila Vidyalaya (Pune)
|Females
|Maharashtra
|Dhondo Keshav Karve
|Educated at BHU
|
|-
|Nishkam Karma Math
|Females
|Maharashtra
|Dhondo Keshav Karve
|Educated at BHU
|
|-
|Poona Seva Sadan
|Females
|Maharashtra (at its peak, included M.P. and T.N.)
|Ramabai Ranade
|
|
|-
|Samata Sangh
|General public
|Maharashtra
|Dhondo Keshav Karve
|Educated at BHU
|
|-
|Self Employed Women's Association (SEWA)
|Females
|18 states
|Ela Bhatt
|Gandhian Textile Labour Association
|Established: own bank (Shri Mahila Sewa Sahakari Bank, or 'SEWA Cooperative Bank'), SEWA Mahila Housing Trust
|-
|Servants of the People Society
|Females
|Kerala, Maharashtra, M.P., Odisha T.N., Uttarakhand U.P.
|
|
|
|-
|Shraddhanand Ashram[https://shraddhanandmahilashram.org] (alias Hindu Women's Welfare Society)
|Females and boys
|Maharashtra (Mumbai)
|Swami Shraddhanand
|
|Has cared for thousands of destitute women and orphans, and educated them and provided skills development, as well as fostered personal development
|-
|Stree Hitaishini Mandali
|Females
|Andhra Pradesh
|Kanuparti Varalakshmamma
|
|Educated many females
|-
|Widow Marriage Association
|Females
|Maharashtra
|Dhondo Keshav Karve
|Educated at BHU
|
|-
|}

==Inspiration to Madras Presidency==
[[image:M.C. Rajah.jpg|right|thumb|200px|Mylai Chinna Thambi Pillai Rajah (the real 'Periyar'.)]]
While the Arya Samaj, Brahmo Samaj, Prarthana Samaj, and a host of other Hindu-based humanitarian and sociopolitical institutions existed in the-then Madras Presidency of southern India, they inspired local organizations as well. Shahu Maharaj had friends in the-then Justice Party (JP, est. 1916), like Arcot Ramasamy Mudaliar and Panaganti Ramarayaningar. While some ethnic groups, like certain castes even falsely supported the idea of an 'Aryan Invasion Theory' and themselves (Dravidian-languages speakers) as indigenous, they still appreciated Hinduism and did not consider it alien.

The biggest uplifter of the party was M.C. Rajah, who had the highest influence upon the policies that improved the lives of the Dalits in Madras Presidency. The party itself was founded primarily by 3 individuals — Sir Pitti Theagaraya Chetty (political founder who built the political machine), Dr. Taravath Madhavan Nair (ideological co-founder), and Dr. Chintadripet Natesa Mudaliar (cultural/grassroots mobilizer who helped shape cultural legitimacy.) Dr. Nair had said that Hindu society had originally possessed broader equality before caste dominance hardened it. Chetty occasionally used dharm-based ethical framing. He is consistently described as arguing that governance must align with "''dharma and justice''". The Dr. Mudaliar was a devout Shaiva that infused into the party Shaivism as a cultural identity for southerners.
[[image:P.T. Rajan.jpg|right|thumb|200px|P.T. Rajan (centre-right, wearing glasses next to priest), touring with the idol of [[Ayyappan|Ayyappa]] he had made at Swamimalai Temple[https://swamimalaiswaminathar.hrce.tn.gov.in/] and it was placed in the Sabarimala Temple[https://www.sabarimalauptodate.in/].]]
An ideologue of influence to the JP and Self-Respect Movement was Maraimalai Adigal, a Shaiv preacher and writer, who claimed that both the JP and Self-Respect Movement were from his teachings and that militant atheist Erode Venkatappa Ramasami Naicker had hijacked them. JP founder Dr. Nair died in 1919 and Chetty in 1925, so had no interaction Naicker. Ponnambala Thiaga Rajan was an active party member and disagreed with Naicker's ideology, so joined Congress-aligned politics. Mudaliar died in 1935 around the time Naicker entered the JP. Naicker was also a prejudiced castist that criticized but did not contribute to build schools and shelters for women and children, as Rajah[https://www.news18.com/opinion/opinion-m-c-rajah-the-forgotten-hindu-mahasabha-dalit-8937192.html][https://vskbharat.com/m-c-rajah-a-staunch-hindu-leader/?lang=en][https://thecommunemag.com/m-c-rajah-the-hindu-mahasabha-dalit/], a practicing Hindu of the party did. Rajah even once formed a political alliance with the Hindu Mahasabha, was the contributor. Before Rajah, the party's caste disparity was mainly about civil service occupations and education access for underprivileged castes. Rajah was recommended by Ambedkar to convert but Rajah replied there's no religion better than Hinduism.<ref>P. 92 ''The Political Evolution of Muslims in Tamilnadu and Madras, 1930-1947'' By J.B. Prashant More (1997) </ref><ref> In a public meeting of the All India Adi Dravida Mahajana Sabha in Nungambakkam, Chennai he said, "''The president (of this meeting) mentioned that no other community other than us has more right to be called Hindus. Conversion will not bring about any good. By saying so, I am not undermining or wishing away the oppression and ills we have faced. We need to fight for our rights. The speed at which reforms are happening might be slow. But think about our current situation and how much it has improved. I beseech you to please abandon any move that will weaken us. I request the government to bring about the Untouchability Abolition Bill and pass it quickly. The Harijans are proud Hindus. That is the only reason why even after years of oppression by higher castes and a barrage of proselytization efforts by other religions hasn't changed their resolve being Hindus.''" P. 123 ''Evolution of Hindu Nationalism - Icons of HMS, RSS & BJS'' By Sankara Narayanan T (2025)</ref> Adigal's writings had a profound impact on Subramania Ramanathan, the founder of the Self-Respect Movement, and on the Naicker but the latter only wanted pro-Tamil and castist societal changes, not promotion of Shaivism. Naicker would later break away from the party and form his own Dravidar Kazhagam, a title he copied from Adigal's Shaiv association (Podhunilak Kazhagam.) (His own pupil, Conjeevaram Natarajan Annadurai, would eventually disown him after he married his own adopted daughter, and Annadurai would leave his group.)
[[image:Alamelu.jpg|right|thumb|200px|Alamelu Mangai Thayarammal, a Brahmo Samaji, was co-founder of the party among 29 others (all men.)]]
The Hindu sentiment was definitely present in the JP. Many left after Naicker's hijacking. Important members bothered by Naicker's rhetoric apart from Rajan were Ananda Prasad Patro, Arunachalam Thamaraiselvam Panneerselvam, Muthiah Annamalai Chettiar, Ramasamy Kandasamy Shanmukham Chetty, and Subbarayalu Kumaraswami Reddiar. Chettiar even personally regularly donated to temple renovations, endowing temple lands or festivals, supporting pilgrimage facilities, and Hindu-managed schools. Rajan, the last leader of the JP, was the head-of-government of the Presidency, and was a big devotee a [[Ayyappan|Swami Ayyappa]]. Rajan even solemnized a marriage of a German couple converted to Hinduism in Coimbatore (Oct 31, 1962.) He further discouraged conversion of Dalits from Hinduism to another religion<ref>"''If by mass conversion you expect to achieve your object, you will be disappointed, because of a mere change of religion it will not give you all that you want.''" 
P. 147 ''Sir P. T. Rajan's Eighty Second Birthday Souvenir, 1973'' By P.T. Rajan and K. Paramasivam</ref> while encouraging caste-Hindus to better treat Dalits. His family had deep ties to the Meenakshi Amman Temple[https://maduraimeenakshi.hrce.tn.gov.in/] in Madurai, with his son (Palanivel Rajan), serving as a minister, and his daughter-in-law (Rukmani), serving as the first female chairperson of the temple's board of trustees. His predecessor Ramakrishna Ranga Rao denied that the JP was anti-Hindu and declared that it aimed to purify Hindu society from "''absurdities''" and return "''Hinduism greater and more glorious than it was in the past...''"<ref>"''As I understand it, the Self-Respect movement stands for certain great ideals to make Hinduism greater and more glorious than it was in the past, to rid it of all those absurdities which are the accretions of an unfortunate era of the past, and unite us in a solid federation so that all those who profess to follow the Hindu faith may feel that they are brethren following one of the most ancient and glorious religions of the world. No longer should the foreigner point his finger of scorn at this or that particular phase of Hinduism which belies its cosmopolitan tendency by inflicting personal hardship on classes or communities. If a few youths in their exuberant enthusiasm have been carried away beyond the bounds of Hinduism it will not do to fight shy of the new movements, but political wisdom and sagacity lie in taking them into our fold and guiding them aright along the paths of duty and rectitude.''" 
P. 289 ''The Indian Annual Register An Annual Digest of Public Affairs of India Recording the Nation's Activities Each Year in Matters Political, Economic, Industrial, Educational, Social, Etc · Volume 2'' By Nipendra Nath Mitra (1934)</ref> Alamelu Mangai Thayarammal, conferred 'Pandithai' title by Saiva Sabha in Palamcottah, was a JP co-founder [with 29 co-founders being men] who was a Brahmo Samaji, meaning the influence of the Hindu-based organizations wasn't insignificant. Paramasivan Subbarayan Gounder, while not technically a JP member, worked with it closely, and both he and his women's rights activist wife Kailash Radhabai Kulmud were Brahmos. It is also noteworthy that [[Ascetics|ascetic]] Swamiyar Kaivalyar who supported the party without being a member wrote pro-Shaiv material. Cattamanchi Ramalinga Reddy, an ex-member who formed his own party in 1923 was a close friend of Dr. Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan, and he himself engaged with Hindu texts on a literary artistic level. As Hinduism isn't a scripture-dependent religion, some JP members like A.R. Mudaliar heavily criticized certain scriptures but were devout Hindus ([[Vaiśnava|Vaishnav]] in his case.) And while orthodox opposition was present, the majority of Indians, including religious leaders, supported reforms, like when Shankaracharya of Kanchi[https://www.kamakoti.org/] supported the "Hindu Religious Endowments Bill" (1921) even while voicing some concerns in within. Mentionable is that [[Shatata-Unnati#Female upliftment|Dr. Muthulakshmi Reddy]] wasn't part of the JP but it still nominated her in 1926 for the Madras Legislative Council to bring about positive changes.

==Related articles==
*[[Women]]
*[[Women as Rishikas in the Vedas]]
*[[Worship of God as Mother]]

==External resources==
*[https://www.ijhsss.com/files/08.-ABHISEK-KARMAKAR_6813z4a4.pdf "Changing status of women in Indian politics (1917-1947): the role of civil society"], P. 42-45 ''International Journal of Humanities & Social Science Studies'' Volume-I, Issue-II (September 2014) By Abhisek Karmakar
*[https://www.besanthill.org/about/history-heritage/annie-besant/ Besant Hill School of Happy Valley in Ojai, California]
*[https://www.anniebesant.org Annie Besant Women's College in Hyderabad, Telangana]
*[https://www.aryasabha.mu/cultural-programme-arya-mahila-mandal-in-the-context-of-the-200th-birth-anniversary-of-swami-dayananda-saraswati/ Arya Mahila Mandal (Mauritius)]
*[https://www.thearyasamaj.org/ammkarolbagh Arya Mahila Mandal Karol Bagh]
*[https://vatikashaktipeeth.com/seven-agitations/women-awakening.html Vatika Shakti Peeth]

==References==
{{reflist}}

[[Category: History]]
[[Category: Economics]]
[[Category: Societal altruism]]

Shatata-Unnati

2026-06-15T05:59:57Z

Himanshu Bhatt: /* Start of modern reforms */

{{Author|Himanshu Bhatt}}
'Shatata-Unnati' is ''continual change'', 'abhyas' means improvement, 'kram-parivartanam' is ''incremental reformation'', while 'shodhanam' is ''refinement''. All of these terms are descriptive of Hindu society throughout the ages.

Continual social betterment has been one of the defining characteristics of Hindu society. All major cultures have had evils in their histories, including Hindu societies, but the shining examples to enforce positive changes and adaptability to a changing world are the Hinduism, Christianity, and Judaism.

In an era wherein colonial norms meant imprisonment or executions for speaking out against imperial rule, Mahatma Gandhi challenged the ideas of forcing nations to be subservient, fighting oppression by violence, and purging one's own nation of evils (i.e., inequality and superstition.) Today, much of the world still looks to Gandhi's perseverance to bring positive change into society.

Transformation of India's political systems made India into the world's largest democracy, and for accomplishing that, [[Indian Freedom Fighters#INC's Hindu activist roots|Hindu doctrines were rationalize to promote democracy]]. Even in India's political spectrum, Hindu principles were used to make liberalism and communism resonate with people, like Ram Rajya being a communist utopia. Some of the Communist Party of India's [[Indian Freedom Fighters#CPI's Hindu activist roots|founders were idealogues for both communism and Hinduism]], such as Swami Kumaranand, Swami Satyabhakt, and Swami Sahajanand Saraswati, as well as Keezhedathu Damodaran, Radhamohan Gokulji, and Rahul Sankrityayan.

==Comparison in societal reformation (India and Europe)==
:''See also: [[Contribution of Hindu Diaspora]]''
Whereas even in modern times, in most European Christian societies, witch-hunts and slavery were the norm, in Indian Hindu societies, widow-burning was the norm among certain communities (usually northwestern) and caste prejudice was prevalent. Both the Christian and Hindu communities worked to extinguish these and other evils.

Historical societal injustices have been acknowledged and reconciled. Even today, the lasting legacy of important Hindu reformers is visible wherein quotas employment and educational quotas are implemented for social upward mobility to ensure poorer castes and women do not fall behind.

During the colonial era, as human rights improved in Western societies as results from agricultural/economic advancements, Western writers of non-Christian societies took a chauvinistic, parochialist, and Eurocentric approach towards Hindu societies, claiming that they:
#Would never improve in human rights, morality, or rationality
#Are permanently stagnant
#Cannot produce modern or political economic institutions

Critics of the colonial era were proven wrong in these concrete ways:
#Large-scale societal reforms led by Hindu activists themselves improved Hindu societies — i.e., promoting window remarriage and caste integration while also creating quotas for females and historically-disadvantaged castes
#Rapid expansion of education and intellectual mobility — i.e., growth of global Hindu academic presence
#Global economic and corporate leadership — i.e., entrepreneurship and CEOs of major multinational companies like Adobe, Google, and Microsoft
#Democratic political evolution — i.e., maintaining electoral democracies like Hindu-majority nations, providing peaceful transfers of power, and granting significant autonomy to judiciary, press, and civil societies
#Religious and philosophical continuity + adaptation
#Ritual practice has diversified massively by religion and class — i.e., clerics ([[Rta and Spiritual Authority|priests]] and [[ascetics|monks]]) are from many backgrounds
#Reinterpretation of scriptures became internationally influential — i.e., Aldous Huxley loved the perennialism of Upanishads, Erwin Schrödinger the idea of aikatmyam, and Henry David Thoreau that of Ishavasyam
#Non-Hindus from outside of the Indian Subcontinent have converted to Sanatan Dharm and have promoted the religion — James Donald Walters who founded Ananda Sangha, Richard Alpert who founded Hanuman Foundation, John Edwin Favors who founded iFast[https://ifastdc.com/][https://ifastglobal.com/], and Robert Hansen who founded Saiva Siddhanta Church[https://www.himalayanacademy.com/]
#Hindu-based intellectual practices have popularized globally — i.e., [[Ayurveda|Ayurvedic medicine]], divination, political activism, [[Animal rights#Influence upon Westerners|animal rights]], [[Animal_rights#Vegetarianism|vegetarianism]], and [[yoga]]

==Hindu-led social betterment==
What is extraordinary in the case of India is that it was the religious institutions ([[Organizations|Hindu organizations]] and [[Hindu Post-Secondary Institutes|schools]]) that made revolutionary changes, not normally secular or non-Hindu ones. Practicing Hindus saw that superstitious and chauvinistic practices had become institutionalized (caste system and misogyny) within Hindu society, so they formed associations to help, uplift, educate the destitute. They would even go steps further to privilege the marginalized through reservations.

Even women who were more exploratory and not members of specific religions engaged with Hinduism positively. The best example might be Annette Beveridge, an Englishwoman who was the daughter of a Unitarian Christian herself became affiliated with Keshub Chandra Sen in England. She was drawn to his lectures and this fascination with his philosophy inspired her to begin life in India, where she even established<ref>Its expenses were financed by Ananda Mohan Bose and Durga Mohan Das, Dwarkanath Ganguly was its headmaster, and others Brahmos involved with the school were Sibnath Sastri and Monomohun Ghose.</ref> the Hindu Mahila Vidyalaya (''Hindu Women's School''.) Her husband Henry Beveridge was an orientalist (westerners intrigued with Asian cultures) working in India, meaning they were not Westerners critical of Hindu identity. Mrs. Emily Phear was an honorary teacher, and she too was involved in Brahmo Samaji circles for societal development. (Her husband Sir John Budd Phear helped Brahmo Samaj legally.) A non-Hindu that likewise began a girls school (Hindu Female School[https://www.bethunecollegiateschool.com/]) with Brahmos and other Hindus was John Bethune, whose accomplices were Dakshinaranjan Mukherjee, Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar, Ramgopal Ghosh, and Madanmohan Tarkalanka (the last even taught at the school without pay.) Others foreign women in India that engaged positively with Hindu activist organizations were Mary Carpenter[https://southasianbritain.org/people/mary-carpenter/] and Sophia Dobson Collet with Brahmo Samaj, Alma B.R.A. with Arya Samaj, and Mary Hobson with Prarthana Samaj[https://puneprarthanasamaj.org/].

Hindu women that set women's rights activism into motion were Arya Samaj's Lajwanti Sood and Satyavati Devi, and Brahmo Samaj's Kadambini Ganguly and Sarala Devi Chaudhurani. Swarnakumari Devi was both an Arya Samaji and a Brahmo Samaji.
[[image:Dr. Anandi Gopal Joshi.jpg|right|thumb|200px|Dr. Anandi Gopal Joshi in 1886 marking a milestone with 2 other Asian women.]]
What is also worth mentioning is that there were women not members of sociopolitical organizations who pursued and achieved new societal achievements, showing that many Hindu women thought for themselves. Dr. Anandibai Joshi was India's first female doctor to trained in Western medicine. Her education and trip to U.S. was funded by [[Shatata-Unnati#Shahu's royal authority to implement reforms|Chhatrapati Shahu Maharaj]]. Upon return, he even funded her return journey and offer her supervisory role at Kolhapur's largest hospital[https://old.rcsmgmc.ac.in/]. Foundations[https://anandibai.org/resources/], institutions (i.e., Dr. Anandi Gopal Higher Education & Medical Facilities), awards (i.e., IRDS's[https://ngosindia.org/uttar-pradesh-ngos/irds-institute-for-research-documentation-in-social-sciences-lucknow/] Anandibai Joshi Award for Medicine), and scholarships (i.e., Dr. Anandi Gopal Scholarship Scheme) are named after her in commemoration. (Dr. Anandi Gopal Higher Education & Medical Facilities itself is a collaboration between the U.S. university she graduated in (DUCM[https://drexel.edu/medicine/news-events/publications/pulse/spring-2018/]) and SMCW. She let people know that she was not ashamed of being a Hindu. She was often pressured by Christian missionaries to convert[https://knowledge.lancashire.ac.uk/id/eprint/48487/1/bharadwaj-et-al-2023-journey-across-the-world-to-study-medicine-the-anandi-joshi-story.pdf]. Dr. Anandi had written her thesis, "Obstetrics among the Aryan Hindus", containing references from both the traditional Ayurvedic (''Susruta Samhita'' and ''Charaka Samhita'') and modern American medical literatures. (Mentionable is that although her husband Gopalrao Joshi's relentless, public letter-writing campaigns and essays targeted Lokmanya Tilak for being not liberal enough and Justice Ranade for being too liberal Tilak's ''Kesari'' and ''Mahratta'' newspapers glorified Dr. Joshi as a rolemodel for women.)

===Female upliftment===
:''See also: [[Indian Freedom Fighters]] 
;Theosophical Society wing
[[image:Paris Women's Congress.jpg|right|thumb|200px|Dr. Reddy and 3 Indian women at the Paris Women's Congress (1926.)]]
The top 3 champions who politically improved Indian women's rights in the modern era were foreigners — Dr. Annie Besant, Dorothy Jinarajadasa, and Margaret Cousins. They did not tell Indian women to leave Hinduism but rather they themselves became Hindu in practice and Indian in habit. They then sought to restore the Vedic-era of womanhood wherein women had authority (i.e., to become clerics, scholars, and leaders.) Emma Mitchell (American) and Francesca Arundale (English) greatly contributed to building of Hindu educational institutions (i.e., Central Hindu College.)

Dr. Muthulakshmi Reddy is a big name in female rights, and she was influenced by Dr. Besant in her college years (1907-1912) and was guided by Dr. Besant in both her social reform and political work. She worked with Dr. Besant and others to establish the Women's Indian Association (1917.) After Dr. Besant's death, she took over the presidency of the WIA. Gandhi was another major mentor but Reddy never formally joined the INC but sometimes protested colonial injustices (i.e., Gandhi's arrest.)

;Ramakrishna Mission wing
[[image:Nivedita & Vivekanand.jpg|right|thumb|200px|Nivedita with Vivekanand.]]
[[Niveditā, Sister|Sister Nivedita (Margaret Noble)]], a convert from Ireland became a disciple of [[Swami Vivekananda|Swami Vivekanand]] and joined Aurobindo's Dawn Society and had also founded and ran girls' schools in Kolkata (i.e., Ramakrishna Sarada Mission Sister Nivedita Girls' School[https://www.sisterniveditagirlsschool.org/home.html] in Baghbazar) to educate girls who had little to no access to education (i.e., poorest of the poor.) She advocated for women's intellectual and moral development, influenced by Vivekanand's vision of strong Indian womanhood. Her work included lectures, fundraising (India, England, and U.S.), and writings that promoted gender equality in access to knowledge and opportunities. She had worked with Dr. Annie Besant at times. Likewise, Sister Christine, disciple of Vivekanand, is another example of a Westerner who utilized the Ramakrishna Mission and Vivekanand's circles as vehicles for improving female rights in India.

;INC wing
:''See also: [[Indian Freedom Fighters#INC's Hindu activist roots|INC's Hindu activist roots]] 
[[image:Nellie Sen Gupta.jpg|right|thumb|100px|N.S. Gupta.]]
Nellie Sen Gupta[https://www.thedailystar.net/in-focus/news/deshpriya-jatindra-mohan-nellie-sengupta-2036981] (nee Edith Ellen Gray) had married freedom fighter Jatindra Mohan Sen Gupta, and both joined the INC — she also founded Deepali Sangha, a women's organization aimed at promoting social and political awareness, leadership, training, and empowerment among women. Her husband passed away but she was advised to stay in the-then East Pakistan to take care of Hindu rights, which she did. Umadevi (born Wanda Dynowska), a Polish convert to Sanatan Dharm too championed women's rights in India and translated ''[[Bhagavad Gita]]'', ''[[Mahabharata]]'', ''[[Ramayana]]'', and other [[Hindu Scriptures|Hindu and Bauddh literature]] into Polish. Mira Behn (born Madeleine Slade), the daughter of a British Royal Navy admiral, gave up her affluent lifestyle to become Gandhi's servant in India.
[[image:Sarla Behn Chipko Movement.jpg|right|thumb|200px|Sarla Behn's Chipko act[https://www.adda247.com/school/chipko-movement/].]]
Sarla Behn[https://growbilliontrees.com/blogs/knowledge/sarla-behn-tree-nurturing-nature-and-empowering-communities-for-a-sustainable-future?srsltid=AfmBOoq4h0d0skQBNr4w4zOvISuhYz02_EXtPvD3pUoQYjTlcvNHEbQ-#fullcontent] (born Catherine Mary Heilman) from England setup the Lakshmi Ashram Kausani in 1946 within Uttarakhand to uplift women, after having lived in the Sevagram Ashram[https://gandhiashramsevagram.org/] in Maharashtra. The organization educated rural hill girls academically, trained women of self-reliance and industrial skills (i.e., khadi weaving), taught personal care (i.e., literacy, hygiene, anti-liquor campaigns), and promoted [[Environmentalism|ecological awareness]] (Chipko Movement.) It also worked with the INC to encourage nationalist fervour. Lakshmi Ashram individual units were known as Mahila Mandals. This ashram attracted foreign residents intrigued with Sanatan Dharm even after independence, like David Hopkins, who relocated to there in the 1990's.
[[image:Durgabai Deshmukh.jpg|right|thumb|100px|Dr. D.D.]]
Dr. Durgabai Deshmukh, pupil of Gandhi and freedom fighter in the colonial era, established the Central Social Welfare Board (1953.) She later became president of the All India Women's Conference (1931.) Taraben Premchand is an important mention, as she was an important member of this organization, as well as the Jain Mahila Parishad[https://www.dbjainsabha.com], Jyoti Sangh[https://jyotisangh.org/about-us/] (local women's advancement group in Gujarat), and Shraddhanand Ashram[https://shraddhanandmahilashram.org/].

Madeleine Rolland was Women's International League for Peace and Freedom's[https://www.wilpf.org/] French section and never settled in India. However, upon engaging with Hindu culture in the 1920's, she translated Ananda Coomaraswamy's ''[[Nataraja Dasakam|The Dance of Shiva]]'' into French, introducing Hinduism to the-then residents of France. She also translated Rabindranath Tagore's writings of Sanatan themes and universal humanism, helping popularize them in Europe. She welcomed Gandhi on his visit to Marseille, France. [[image:Kanuparti Varalakshmamma.jpg|right|thumb|100px|'Sarada'.]]
Kanuparti Varalakshmamma (alias 'Sarada'), a devout Gandhian, used Hindu themes like providing ethical refences (i.e., Savitri, Sita) to depict women's morality, dignity, and conduct. She often engaged with the idea of a grihalakshmi (idea woman of the household.) She also founded the Stree Hitaishini Mandali for uplifting women. She used ''Andhra Patrika'', a newspaper created by a promoter of the ''Bhagavad Gita'', Kasinathuni Nageswara Rao, to preach her ideas.
[[image:Vijaya Lakshmi Pandit.jpg|right|thumb|100px|'Vijaya Lakshmi Pandit'.]]
It is also noteworthy that the 1st female head of government in the world was a [[Bauddh Dharm|Bauddh]] (Sirimavo Bandaranaike of Sri Lanka, non-INC member), and 2nd was a Hindu (Indira Gandhi, INC member.) Also Vijaya Lakshmi Pandit[https://news.un.org/en/story/2024/03/1147327] (born Swaroop Rani Nehru) played a significant role in global representation of women, particularly in the United Nations. She was the first woman to serve as the President of the UN General Assembly (1953-1954), a position she held to advocate for decolonization and the independence of countries in Asia and Africa. She was also the first Indian woman to hold a cabinet rank in a provincial government. Hansa Mehta[https://india.un.org/en/311450-hansa-mehta%E2%80%99s-life-story-continues-inspire] had an impact on the UN's constitution wording wherein "''all human beings''" instead of "all men" in the Universal Declaration of Human Rights. (She was also one of only 2 women delegates working alongside Eleanor Roosevelt in the UN Human Rights Commission 1946-48.)
[[image:Nilla Cram Cook.jpg|right|thumb|100px|'Nilla Nagini Devi'.]]
Nilla Cram Cook, an American who settled at Gandhi's ashrams, had [[Conversion|converted to Hinduism]] in the 1930's but identified with the '[[Samyag Darshan#Samadarshan|sarva dharma sambhava]]' ideal, so considered herself a [[Bhakta|devotee]] of not only [[Krishna]] but of Jesus too, and so she later also translated the Quran and engaged with Islamic practices in a syncretic way with her Hindu and Christian customs. Her final literary work was ''The Way of the Swam: Poems of Kashmir'' (1958), which was mostly focused around the [[Saiva|Shaiv]] mystic poetess Lal Ded[https://hindupost.in/society-culture/lal-ded-her-life-and-works/#][https://homegrown.co.in/homegrown-voices/the-poetry-of-lal-ded-mysticism-resistance-the-female-voice-in-14th-century-kashmir] and others from Kashmir syncretic Sanatan-[[Bauddh Dharm|Bauddh]]-[[Sufism with Vaishnavism|Sufi]] tradition. She dedicated the book to Pandit. She didn't work on women's upliftment directly but did participate with Gandhi's Harijan Sevak Sangh. She had also written about Sarojini Naidu (1st Indian woman-president of the INC.)

;Other associations
[[image:Maharani Chimnabai Gaekwad II.jpg|right|thumb|100px|Maharani Chimnabai.]]
[[image:Sethu Parvathi Bayi.jpg|right|thumb|100px|Junior Queen Bayi.]]
The National Council of Women in India[https://www.ncwi.in/], founded 1925, was also a monumental organization to make progress for women — it mainly focused on female literacy, vocational training, public participation, and legal reform. It was primarily the initiative of Lady Meherbai Tata, a Mazdaean icon, and its first president was Maharani Chimnabai Gaekwad II, born Gajrabai Ghatge, a princess of Dewas (M.P.) She supported societal progress of women that did not compromise on Hindu identity (i.e., traditional customs like wearing sari and sindhoor or like celebrating Raksha Bandhan), which is how she framed her ''The Position of Women in Indian Life'' book. She financed schools for girls, as well as Hindu charities and temples. The Gaekwad family also funded libraries and women's institutions and social reform initiatives. She discussed the eradication or the purdah, child marriage, women's restrictions (i.e., obtaining education and employment), and other obstacles towards advancement. Following her presidentship, Sethu Parvathi Bayi took over. She was from the royal family of Travancore (Kerala), and her family was deeply connected to the Padmanabhaswamy Temple[https://spst.in/][https://www.padmanabhaswamytemple.com/]. She financed Hindu institutions as well. It is notable that Sucharu Deo, daughter of Brahmo leader K.C. Sen was a prominent member and she had also helped build the Maharani Girls' High School[https://school.banglarshiksha.gov.in/ws/website/index/19013701705] in Darjeeling (W.B.) together with her sister (Suniti) and Hemlata Sarkar, daughter of Brahmo leader Sibnath Sastri.

From Hindu-based institutions like sociopolitical organizations and schools came a number of philanthropic associations.
;Most influential persons for women's upliftment
{| class="wikitable sortable"
|-
! Area of Contribution
! Meaning
! Steps Taken
! Activists
! Organizations
! Founder's Affiliation(s)
|-
|Political rights and visibility
|1. Women appearing in public political spaces 2. Women being recognized as leaders (not just participants) 3. Changing social norms about women's public roles 4. Symbolic representation
|Helped institutionalize women's leadership through bodies like Women's Indian Association
|Dr. Annie Besant (women's political rights + organizational leadership), Kamaladevi Chattopadhyay (political participation, economic empowerment, cooperatives), Margaret Cousins[https://www.womensmuseumofireland.ie/exhibits/margaret-elizabeth-cousins] (Suffarage, WIA), Sarojini Naidu (mass mobilization of women in politics)
|
|
|-
|Modern institutional equality
|
|Helped institutionalize institutional equality through contributing policy influence (Hansa Mehta) and constitutional rights (Dr. Durgabai Deshmukh)
|Dr. Durgabai Deshmukh (welfare systems), Hansa Mehta
|
|
|-
|Foundational legal reform
|
|
|Raja Ram Mohan Roy (abolition of sati), Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar (widow remarriage)
|
|
|-
|Education
|
|
|Raja Ram Mohan Roy, Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar
|
|
|-
|}

====Hindu influence internationally====
Even outside of India during the 20th century, women's rights were not perfect, and so many women incorporated Hindu symbolism (i.e., worship) and concepts towards promoting societies where women would have equal rights.
[[image:M.J. Gage.jpg|right|thumb|200px|Matilda Joslyn Gage.]]
[[image: Charlotte Despard.jpg|right|thumb|200px|Charlotte Despard, an Anglo-Irish suffragist who supported Indian independence.]]
As [[Worship of God as Mother|worship of God as a female or mother]] has been common in Sanatan Dharm since its foundation, that made validating female upliftment in India quicker. Even in Western nations, prominent women's rights organizations implemented imagery of goddesses from pertinent ancient cultures, like U.K.'s Women's Freedom League and National Union of Women's Suffrage Societies, and the global International Woman Suffrage Alliance, to legitimize female equality and women being in positions of power. Some American and European feminists and women's rights activists, like Matilda Joslyn Gage<ref>"''While the sale of daughters was practiced in England for seven hundred years after the introduction of Christianity, we note that by the ancient law of India, a father was forbidden to sell his daughter in marriage, or receive the smallest present therefor.''" - P. 79-82 ''Woman, Church and State'' (1893) By Matilda Joslyn Gage</ref> (U.S. suffragist) and Helena Petrovna Blavatsky<ref>"''The pre- and post-Vedic woman was as free as man; and no impure terrestrial thought was ever mixed with the religious symbology of the early Aryans.''" 
"''This is proven by the fact that in the Vedic period their women were not placed apart from men in penetralia, or ‘Zenanas.’ Their seclusion began when the Mahomedans … had conquered the land and gradually enforced their ways and customs upon the Hindus.''" 
- P. 379-380 ''The Secret Doctrine: Volume I'' By Helena Blavatsky </ref> (European feminist), even used the examples of [[Worship of God as Mother|Hindu goddess-worship]] and Hindu queens to support their examples. And though Blavatsky did not officially align with any single religion to encourage recruitment for her Theosophical Society, she referenced Sanatan and Bauddh scriptures (Upanishads, and then Gita, then Bauddh shastras) more than others. (M.J. Gage[https://www.smithsonianmag.com/history/the-feminist-inspired-witches-of-oz-180985334/] in her ''Woman, Church, and State'' even highlighted Hindu texts to counter the male-centric theology of the West and referenced ''[[Bhagavad Gita]]'' to validate the concept of a female [[divinity]].) Even feminists of the colonial era like Victoria Woodhull that was skeptical of organized religion, respected "''Christna and Buddha''" (Krishna and Gautama.) Mary Lowe Dickinson at the World's Parliament Circles (1893) was so impressed by [[Swami Vivekananda|Swami Vivekanand]]'s speech, that she developed a fascination with female divinity of Hinduism, and in her editorials and public circles, argued that Hinduism's recognition of a feminine aspect within the divine was spiritually superior to the rigidly patriarchal, all-male Trinity of mainstream American Christianity. Emily Pitts Stevens and Charlotte LeMoyne Wills (wrote about the genderless [[Brahm]]) became disciples of Vivekanand. Laura de Force Gordon wrote about the immortal soul and continuous cycle of life. Alice Moore McComas wrote about the interconnectedness (aikatmyam) of all things. In U.K., Charlotte Despard's specific pamphlets linked [[karma]] to political activism. Margaret Louise Sanger was influenced by Vivekanand and Rabindranath Tagore. Sarah Bull<ref> P. 483 ''Western Admirers of Ramakrishna and His Disciples'' By Gopal Stavig, Swami Shuddhidananda </ref>, who particularly focused on women's education and reform was connected to both Vivekanand and Sister Nivedita. Josephine MacLeod was a major promoter of Vivekanand in the West and was involved in transatlantic reform-intellectual networks. Viktoria Ocampo of Argentina was deeply influenced by Tagore, even hosting him in Argentina and promoting his ideas widely. Gabriela Mistral of Chile was too, and she applied Tagore's ideas to women's education, child welfare, and cultural reform. Mabel Dodge Luhan was fascinated with Sanatan philosophy and influenced by Vivekanand. Mentionable is Emma Calve of France, who wasn't a political feminist leader but influential in women's intellectual-cultural circles, and she was deeply influenced by Vivekanand.
[[image:Carol Patrice Christ.jpg|right|thumb|200px|Carol Patrice Christ.]]
After suffragists had attained complete institutional equality, they them progressed to the next stage of female liberation by ensuring that their own spiritual faith wasn't male-chauvinistic or making them subordinates of males. Feminists were inspired by goddess deity of Hinduism to then promote it within generic spirituality. Valerie Saiving, Isaac Bonewits and Naomi Goldenberg founded in the 1970's, Thealogy, a feminine-specific theology. Carol Patrice Christ launched the Goddess Movement, which provided 4 aspects of Goddess symbolism as reasons to needing a goddess in women's lives; 1) the Goddess as affirmation of female power, 2) the female body, 3) the female will, and 4) women's bond and heritage. She specifically used the Shakti concept to prove that a major global religion (Hinduism) explicitly defined the [[Brahmanda|material universe]]/nature/change ([[Darshana#Sankhya|Prakriti]]) as an inherently active, female, and sacred force. She was an ecofeminist, as were Charlene Spretnak and Miriam Simos were ecofeminists too. Merlin Stone wrote ''Ancient Mirrors of Womanhood: Our Goddess and Heroine Heritage'' (1979) and in a chapter analyzes goddesses like [[Durga]], [[Kali]], [[Lakshmi Puja|Lakshmi]], Parvati, and Saraswati. Devout Christian women feminists too drew on Hindu practices and ideas to support women's advocacy, and they include Ivone Gebara, Pearl Sydenstricker Buck, and Sally McFague.

'Matriarchal religion' is a philosophy stating that societies were Goddess worshippers with females having the same status and rights as men before male gods began being worshipped, and the latter led to patriarchy. Goddesses being worshipped contiguously in Hindu societies for thousands of years was the backing this thought utilized, in addition to feminist archaeology (i.e., ancient idols and temples of goddesses uncovered.)

==Start of modern reforms==
In modern India, most positive social changes within Indian Hindu societies came not first as enforcement or pressure from European rulers but from advocacy of forward-thinking Hindus. Raja Ram Mohan Roy had led the campaign to purge Hindu societies of Sati and caste prejudices. Roy worked with British imperial authority, specifically Lord William Bentinck to have sati outlawed. Roy himself was a religious leader that reiterated Upanishads for their principles.

Other institutions of positive social changes were mainly Hindu ones or were governed by Hindu religious leaders, not secular ones.

The Indian National Social Conference of 1887 was organized by Justice Ranade, Rai Raghunath Rao, Narendra Nath Sen Gupta, and Janki Nath Ghoshal. Ranade was founder of the Prarthana Samaj, a religious group.

Arya Samajis, Brahmo Samajis, and Prarthana Samajis were the most vocal and active forces advocating: 
#Widow Remarriage (i.e., Widow Remarriage Act 1856—initiative of Brahmo Samaj)
#Women's right to divorce (i.e., Native Marriage Act 1872—initiative of Brahmo Samaj) 
#Property rights for women 
#Opposition to child marriages (i.e., Age of Consent Act 1891—initiative of Brahmo Samaj and Prarthana Samaj, Child Marriage Restraint Act 1929—initiative of Arya Samaj) 
#Universal accessible education (built schools, including colleges and gurukuls) 
#Caste-based reservations
[[image:Justice Ranade.jpg|right|thumb|200px|Mahadev Govind Ranade (alias 'Justice Ranade'.)]]
[[image:Jagannath Shankarshet.jpg|right|thumb|200px|Jagannath Shankarshet (alias 'Architect of Modern Mumbai'.)]]
The Indian Factories Act 1881's ratification was a landmark in workers' rights and the credit goes mainly to Sorabjee Shapoorjee Bengalee, and then Prarthana Samaj. He did work alongside the Prarthana Samaj to lobby the British authority through the First Factory Commission in 1875 (made to investigate the brutal conditions of Indian labour.) Prarthana Samaj's ''Subodh Patrika'' newspaper specifically critiqued mill owners. Rahnumai Mazdayasnan Sabha, its newspaper ''Rast Goftar'', and Bengalee himself referenced labour reformers Sasipada Banerji and Protap Chunder Mozumdar, and used the former's methods of worker upliftment as a blueprint for their own legislative arguments. Collaboration between the Sabha and Prarthana Samaj began with the latter's creation of the Theistic Association, on which the Parsi Naoroji Furdonji was its 1st Chairman. Ranade and Bhandarkar drove the Association from discussing only theism to improving society through finding solutions of work hardships. The Night School Initiative was launched, helping workers receive adequate training, particularly in labourer-heavy neighborhoods Byculla, Dongri, Khetwadi, and Thakurdwar. (From 1886-1890 alone, over 2,750 industrial workers successfully studied through this initiative.) Protap Chunder Mozoomdar, a Brahmo, began eight night schools in 1872 within Mumbai when he relocated to the city.<ref> P. 47 ''Peaceful Industrial Relations, Their Science and Technique'' (1957) By R. J. Soman </ref> Brahmos then established night schools within Kolkata by 1878.

Brahmo Samaj's K.C. Sen’s first visit to Mumbai in March-April 1864 engaged him with Bengalee, Furdonji, Ranade, and Bhandarkar (all then members of Young India.) They all discussed ways to develop India. They also shared strategies on how to bypass orthodox religious resistance—Furdonji within Zoroastrianism and Sen within Sanatan Dharm. Bengalee's First Labor Bill (1878) laid the groundwork for the later Indian Factories Act.

Prior to all of this, Jagannath Shankarshet[https://www.vishwakonkani.org/hall-of-fame/hon-jagannath-shankar-sheth/] spent the 1850s petitioning the British Parliament for local governance. As a result, it codified the Indian Councils Act of 1861, thus creating the Bombay Legislative Council as a political body to better govern the-then Bombay Presidency. Shankarshet was the main founder of Bombay Association. In its first leadership were also Dr. Ramachandra Vitthal Lad (alias 'Dr. Bhau Daji'), a Hindu intellectual who used his Sanskrit knowledge to decipher inscriptions, preserve manuscripts, and help reconstruct the forgotten timelines of ancient Guptas and Western Kshatrapa dynasties. Mentionable is the Parsi Sir Jamsetjee Jeejeebhoy of the group. Shankarshet was a wealthy philanthropist that constructed and financed Sanatan and secular infrastructure, most notably the Bhavani Shankar Mandir[https://www.mcgm.gov.in/irj/go/km/docs/documents/D%20Ward/Heritage-Sites/73_Legacy%20of%20D%20Ward_Article_Bhavani%20Shankar%20Temple.pdf] (Mumbai), Sanskrit Seminary and Sanskrit Library (both in Mumbai too.) Elphinstone Educational Institution[https://elphinstone.ac.in/index.php] and Grant Medical College[https://gmcjjh.edu.in/] were his creations too. (Jeejeebhoy contributed to constructing the Grant Medical College.)

===Shahu's royal authority to implement reforms===
[[image:Shahu adoption.jpg|right|thumb|200px|Prince Yeshwantrao Ghatge being adopted by the royal family of Kohlapur.]]
[[image:Rajarshi.jpg|right|thumb|200px|Rajarshi Chhatrapati Shahu Maharaj.]]
[[image:School foundation.jpg|right|thumb|200px|Foundation of Shri Shahu Chhatrapati Shikshan Sanstha.]]
The greatest champion on all of these sections for reforms was Chhatrapati Shahu Maharaj[https://aissms.org/breaking-barriers-chhatrapati-shahu-maharaj-and-his-enduring-impact-on-progress-and-modernity/] (born Yeshwantrao Ghatge), '[[Rta and Spiritual Authority#Rishis|Rajarshi]]', the ruler of Kohlapur Kingdom who affiliated with organizations but probably the Arya Samaj[https://thearyasamaj.org] more than any other. Shahu definitely was not shy to publicly perform prayers, as he famously attended temples of goddesses Ambabai[https://www.mahalaxmikolhapur.com/home] and Bhavani[https://shrituljabhavani.org/] when having returned from his Europe trip in 1902. Also in 1902, Pratap Singh Maharaj of Idhar (Gujarat) introduced and educated him about the Arya Samaj. He provided patronage to the Arya Samaj.[https://navjyot.net/wp-content/uploads/2022/12/10.pdf]

The king passed many policies for for the upliftment of untouchable, nomadic, non-Brahmin communities and for females.<ref>Act of Free and Compulsory Primary Education (1917), Widow remarriage Act (1917), End of Balutedari (1918), Repeal of Kulkarni Watan (1918), Intercaste and Interreligious Marriages and Sanctioning of Registered Marriage Act (1919), Act relating to protection of Harassment of Women (1919), Divorce act (1919), Order on prohibition of Untouchability practice (1919), Illegitimate Children's Rights and Devadasi Prohibition Act (1920); 
[https://www.indiejournal.in/article/rajarshi-shahu-maharaj-and-his-tryst-with-the-arya-samaj "Rajarshi Shahu Maharaj & his tryst with the Arya Samaj Lessons for our times"] By Devkumar Ahire (Jun 26, 2023 6:42 PM)</ref>

;Prejudiced disgruntled castists promoting anti-Brahman hate, not universalism
While Shahu was affiliated with the Satyashodhak Samaj (SS) because it wanted to uplift the non-dwija castes, he did not feel they had any religious foundations, whereas the Arya Samaj was encompassed both a spiritual and social movement.<ref>"Beyond Reformism: Chhatrapati Shahu and Hinduism Reimagined" By Surajkumar Thube P. 124-144 ''Nidān: International Journal for Indian Studies, Volume 8'', Issue 1 (July 2023)</ref> Also, the SS of Pune was antithetical to social cohesion because it targeted the Brahman caste as an enemy, and while its main founder (Jyotirao Phule) made absurd claims like 'Shiv-Dharma'<ref>"''The real Shiv-Dharma that is ours, we are re-establishing it as Sarvajanik Satya Dharma.''" Chapter 4, ''Sarvajanik Satya Pustak''</ref> or 'Mahadev-Dharma' (worship of [[Shiva|Shiv]] as God and some local gods like Khandoba as avatars) being the true religion of Indians whereas every other Hindu belief and practice was an imposition by 'non-Indian Brahman invaders'. Being a chauvinist, he also criticized freedom fighter martyrs Lakshmi Bai, Nana Sahib, Tantia Tope for being Brahmans. He also wrote positively that freedom fighters lost the 1857 War of Independence against the British colonialists. He was also openly criticized by his own relative Baburao Phule, who accused the former of being a Christian convert who destroyed the Hindu religion.<ref>P. 58-59 ''The Caste Question: Dalits and the Politics of Modern India'' (2009) By Anupama Rao </ref>

Phule though anti-Brahman, was influenced by some Brahmans, such as Balshastri Jambhekar (a Hindu activist) who pushed scientific knowledge and history through Marathi, criticized caste segregation, and attacked other or kinds or orthodoxy like widowhood. He was also influenced by some Hindu activists who were not anti-Brahman (i.e., Karsandas Mulji.)

The organization would receive the most aid from Shahu (financial and social work), Karmvir (social work), and Padval (intellectual) but they themselves always kept a distance from the SS because of its explicitly castist vitriol. People would choose to align or become members of other associations for their inclusivity and harmonious vision for the future.

;Satyashodhak Samaj becoming less anti-Brahman
"''All Hindus are equal. No one is superior, no one is inferior. Let all flesh and blood be one. Four varnas are a real deceit. It's a tool to keep the non-Brahmins in slavery. There is no difference among the Hindus. Hindu is the only varna. If a Hindu eats or marries with another Hindu that's not ''[[adharma]].'' In contrast, what divide Hindus in the name of religion is not a dharma, but a trick by Brahmins. One who calls themselves a Hindu, whether they are Europeans or Africans, they are our coreligionists.''" - P. 39 ''Deshache Dushman'' (1925) By Dinkarrao Javalkar
[[image:Sasipada Banerji.jpg|right|thumb|100px|Sasipada Banerji (alias 'Sevabrata'.)]]
Notable is that Phule's friend Narayan Meghaji Lokhande, a labour organization leader, was close friends with Phule and used Khandoba-worship and the reverence of Sundays for Khandoba in his petition to British authority to achieve Sunday as a holiday for factory labourers. Phule and Lokhande emulated Brahmans, like forming the political lobby group Deenbandhu Sarvajanik Sabha after Ranade's Poona Sarvajanik Sabha and forming the Bombay Mill Hands Association based and its mouthpiece ''Deenbandhu'' on the Working Men's Club (India's 1st labour welfare platform) and its mouthpiece ''Bharat Sramajibi'' (India's 1st labour journal) of Sasipada Banerji (Brahmo Samaji.)

Though Dinkarrao Javalkar portrayed himself as pan-Hindu when discussing the specific topic of Hindu unity, he still prejudicially criticized the Brahman caste in general<ref>"''This day will be counted among the most important days in the history of Hindus. There is no reason for you to fear jail. The Brahmans who eat ghee and roti should have that fear. To make the touchable people behave is in your hands. You are the sons of Hindus. You capture the tank saying 'har har Mahadev' and follow the advice of your leader Dr. Ambedkar Saheb. This is my own position.''" -Dinkarrao Javalkar at satyagraha with Keshavrao Jedhe and Dr. Ambedkar among a Mahar crowd</ref> and targeted some prominent Brahmans like Lokmanya Tilak. (Javalkar and Keshavrao Jedhe also portrayed themselves as pro-woman but derogatory remarks about women from the Brahman and certain other castes<ref>P. 44 ''19th Century Maharashtra: A Reassessment'' (2020) By Shraddha Kumbhojkar </ref> and both appealed to Dr. B.R. Ambedkar in 1927 to exclude Brahmans from the Mahad Satyagraha<ref> P. 27 ''Social Reform Movements in India: A Historical Perspective'' (1991) By V.D. Divekar</ref>.) Jedhe did protest with other activists (including Brahmans like Narhar Vishnu Gadgil, Seshdas Ranade, Shreedhar Mahadev Joshi, and members of Arya Samaj) for the right of Dalits to worship at Pune's Devdeveshwar Mandir[https://devdeveshwarsanthan.org/home.html]. Javalkar did write favourably about some like Ranade, Gopal Ganesh Agarkar, and Krishna Gopal Gokhale but even they were rarely mentioned. He rightfully partook in the Kalaram Mandir[https://www.shrikalaramsansthannasik.org/] Satyagraha in Nasik that protested for Dalits to be able to enter the temple. He was a communist and 10 years after his death, the Peasants and Workers Party (PWP) was formed.

SS branches outside of Pune were less hateful of Brahmans. It is also noteworthy, however, is that Nana Patil, a founder of the PWP, was affiliated with both the Satyashodhak and Prarthana associations [meaning that he, like most other Satyashodhaks didn't believe in Phule's religious ideology.] Some other PWP founders like Jedhe and Madhavrao Bagal were Satyashodhaks, they popularized Shiv Jayanti and Ganesh Chathuri. The latter and his son Vasantrao even wrote devotional pieces inspired from Bhakti Era saints (i.e., [[Tukaram]], [[Eknath]]) and valourizing pieces about Shahu. Tulshidas Jadhav, a Gandian within the PWP, championed the Bhakti Era's Warkari Movement, which was still popular in his time, because it was based on social equality and public seva. Also noteworthy is, that even some prominent members supported the Arya Samaj, like Krishnarao Bhalekar (1 of the founders of SS with Phule) defended Dayanand Saraswati (Arya Samaj’s founder), when the latter’s procession was opposed by some orthodox Hindus in Pune, and Bhalekar organized a speech to be delivered by Saraswati at a dharmshal near a Rokdoba Temple in Pune.

Bhalekar himself made the claim that the SS is the true follower of Sant Tukaram's [[Bhāgavata-dharma|Bhagwat Dharma]] ([[Krishna|Krishnaite]] [[Vaishnava|Vaishnavism]].) His son was Mukundrao Patil, who made the claim, "''The Satyasodhak Samaj is the true heir of the Hindu religion. Brahmanism is not Hinduism.''"<ref>''Dinmitra'' newspaper (1920s)</ref> Javalkar claimed SS is the true representative of the Hindu religion and that SS members are liberating Hinduism from the supremacy of the Brahmins. Shivram Janma Kamble stated the SS is a revival movement of the true Hinduism. Kisan Faguji Bansode argued "Shivdharma" was the true Hindu religion and that the SS advocates that version.

There were those in his organization that promoted about how in ancient Sanatan society, there were no caste distinctions and that people were recognized by their merits. Their view was promoted by Tukaram Tatya Padval, who wrote ''Jatibhed Vivekshar'' (1861) after being inspired by Ashwaghosha's ''Vajrasuchi''. Phule republished copies of Padval's books, and the 2 developed a friendship. He did write at that in ancient India, certain sages were had Sudra or Avarna status but rose to the rank of a Brahman through their intellect, and used examples of Valmiki (wrote a ''Ramayan''), Sankhya, and Kabilar rishis. He also published copies of the ''Bhagavad Gita'', ''Yogasutra'', and compilations of the ''Rajayoga'' and ''Sankhya Karika.'' He further compiled the ''Tukarambaba ani Tyanche Shisya Yanchi Abhanga Gatha'' (1889) and ''Eknath Maharajancha Abhangachi Gatha'' (1903.) Padval, however, never became a member of Phule's organization and instead became a member of the Theosophical Society.

;Shahu forming his own Satyashodhak Samaj focused on upliftment (free of anti-Brahman distractions)
As a result of the Satyashodhak Samaj of Pune being too antagonistic of Brahmans, Shahu had instead founded his own branch in 1911 — Shri Shahu Satyashodhak Samaj. By an order, Shahu replaced the Brahman priests in the Patgaon Sansthan (Mauni Maharaj Math[https://durgbharari.in/maunibaba-patgaon/]) and Jyotiba Devasthan[https://shreejyotiba.com/?lang=E][https://maharashtratourism.gov.in/temple/jyotiba/] with Maratha priests. Bhaskarrao Jadhav and Anna Babaji Latthe were leaders of Shahu's Kolhapur Satyashodhak Samaj. Whereas Phule mostly only wrote positively of Shiva and local-born gods, Jadhav in his ''Marathas and their Religion'' wrote positively about Krishna and the ''Bhagavad Gita''. He further worked with Shahu to aid Arya Samaj in its activities and goals (i.e., train non-Brahmans to become priests too.) Noteworthy is that Latthe, who worked personally with Shahu Maharaj, was its first VP and that he worked to dismantle priestly (Jain priests, not usually Brahmans) intermediation within the Jain clergy. (He was a big-time activist for general upliftment and for reform within the Jain community (i.e., wrote ''Jain Dharmacha Parichay''.)

Latthe founded the Dakshin Bharat Jain Sabha[https://dbjainsabha.com/], of which Dr. Bhaurao Patil (from a Jain family) became a member and through he wasn't a member of any SS branch, he did sometimes participate in its activities and himself founded the Rayat Shikshan Sansthan[https://rayatshikshan.edu/], which educated students in a multitude of topics, including Sanskrit. Patil (alias 'Karmvir Anna') was deeply influenced by Mahatma Gandhi and Vitthal Ramji Shinde.

;Shahu distancing himself formally from Satyashodhak Samaj
The SS had earned a bad reputation in Maharashtra with the general public, particularly for the outright anti-Brahman vitriol spewed in the SS's publications and events. Because the goal of Shahu and true reformers was to achieve a harmonious society with all people cooperating, it would not make sense to support an organization that's known for abusing persons (i.e., Brahmans) specifically over their caste identity.

In 1921, Shahu made a public statement in a Baroda newspaper that even though he granted significant support to the non-Brahman movement and introduced measures to eliminate Brahman dominance, he had never been affiliated with Phule's SS, and that he always accepted [[Rta and Spiritual Authority#Rishis|Vedic ritual authority]].

;Granting, accommodating, and expanding Arya Samaj
Shahu attended Arya Samaj sessions like the one at Navsari in 1918 and another at Bhavnagar in 1920<ref>P. 6. ''People's Raj Volume 30'' (1974) By Directorate-General of Information and Public Relations </ref>. He provided funding for Gurukul Boarding House to be built at Kerle, wherein large buildings and well-irrigated lands were granted to the Arya Samaj. Later, the Rajaram Anathalaya orphanage was added to this grant. He also brought educational institutions in his domain under the leadership of Arya Pratinidhi Sabha. Rajaram College's administration was also granted to the Arya Samaj.

;Spiritual Authority as Rajarshi
Shahu Maharaj, being a devout Sanatan wanted to proclaim the rights that warriors of history had and so participated in important ceremonies and worked with priests (i.e., Brahmans) to achieve the rights to learn and perform Vedic ceremonies. He established the Vedokta Committee for Marathas to be able to perform Vedic rites without requiring priests. In 1905, the Karveer Peeth's (or Kolhapur Math's) Shankaracharya declared full rights of Vedokta to Chhatrapati Shahu.

Tatyarao Joshirao was appointed by Shahu Maharaj as new royal purohit, replacing the Rajopadhye (creator of the infamous 'Vedokta Controversy'), who denied the Maharaj to perform Vedic rites. Joshirao was from a family that had traditional ownership of the historic Binkhambi Ganapati Mandir in Kolhapur.

Rajaram Shastri (alias 'Bhagavata'), a Brahman scholar, linguist, and researcher, openly challenged the religious orthodoxy, arguing from scripture that Shahu Maharaj had full rights to the Vedas. Vishnu Topkhane was another Brahman who greatly helped the Chhatrapati with his progressive reforms. Topkhane the educationalist helped the latter establish the Vidyapeeth High School near the Shri Karveer Niwasini Ambabai Mahalakshmi Temple. Freedom fighter Gokhale was someone who worked with Shahu. When the Vedokta Controversy broke out and the conservative press attacked the Maharaja, Gokhale privately and publicly validated Shahu Maharaj's stance, recognizing that social reform was a prerequisite for true political freedom. Ranade, though passed away before much Shahu's reforms began, was admired by the latter for his progressive ideals and actions.

Chhatrapati Shahu founded the Satyashodhak School for spiritual training in 1913, in which seminarians (predominantly from castes such as Marathas, Mahars, and Chambhars) were taught to recite and preach the poems (i.e., abhangs of Tukaram) of sants. He also created the Shivaji Vedic School (aliases 'Shahu Vedic School', 'Shahu Vedic Pathshala', 'Shri Shahu Vaidik Vidyalay') in 1920 and had invited scholars from Varanasi (spiritual capital of Sanatan Dharm) to ensure the highest standard of scriptural and linguistic training. The school trained seminarians (of all castes) to learn Sanskrit and become priests and conduct ceremonies. He further established and financed the office of the Kshatra Jagadguru (''Warrior Universal Teacher''), a pontiff seat open to anyone of any caste. The first Kshatra Jagadguru was Sadashivrao Lakshmanrao Sankpal Patil Benadikar, was an accomplished Sanskrit scholar who received his formal higher education at Rajaram College in Kolhapur. The Kshatra Jagadguru Peeth was the pontiff's seat at Patgaon (in the Bhudargad region of Kolhapur.) Patgaon was chosen because it was the historic site of the Mauni Maharaj Math, a highly respected spiritual center that had historically blessed Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj[https://pilgrimdata.in/temple/mouni-maharaj-math-temple-patgaon-bhudargarh-dist-kolhapur/]. The Kshatra Jagadguru had the Shri Sadashivrao Patil Shikshan Sanstha educationalist association named after him, and it runs schools[https://www.mwssm.org/][https://sspiop.com/] in Maharashtra still. Other organizations too use his name for schools like Sadashivrao Mandlik Mahavidyalaya (Kolhapur) of the ⁠Jay Shivray Education Society.

===Successive associations===
From Hindu-based institutions like sociopolitical organizations and schools came a number of philanthropic associations. Even other humanitarian associations that were not established by Hindu activists, were established by their influence. For example, Krishna Gopal Gokhale had participated in many sessions of the Prarthana Samaj as he was Ranade's pupil, and he later joined the Deccan Education Society, which he left to establish the Servants of India Society. Narayan Malhar Joshi was a member of Gokhale's group and later formed his own Social Service League[https://socialserviceleague.org.in/]. Hriday Nath Kunzru too was part of Gokhale's group and left to establish the Seva Samiti.

{| class="wikitable sortable"
|-
! Organization
! Demographic of Focus
! Region(s)
! Founder
! Founder's Affiliation(s)
! Achievement
|-
|Anath Balikashram Society
|Widows
|Maharashtra
|Dhondo Keshav Karve
|Educated at BHU
|
|-
|Andhra Mahila Sabha
|Females
|Andhra Pradesh
|Durgabai Deshmukh
|
|
|-
|Bharat Stree Mahamandal
|Females
|Bengal, Bihar, Punjab, Sindh, U.P.
|Sarala Devi Chaudhurani
|Arya Samaji, Brahmo Samaji, accepted Bijoy Krishna Chattopadhyaya as her guru
|
|-
|Buddhi Vardhak Sabha
|General public
|Gujarat
|Narmadashankar Labheshankar Dave
|
|Exposed people in positions of power that abused their privileges, build schools for girls
|-
|Central Social Welfare Board
|Females and children
|
|Dr. Durgabai Deshmukh
|
|
|-
|Hindu Widow Marriage Association
|Females
|Maharashtra
|Dhondo Keshav Karve
|Educated at BHU
|
|-
|Hindustani Seva Dal
|Females
|Every province
|Dr. Narayan Subbarao Hardikar
|
|Established the Hindustani Seva Mandal (later became Rashtriya Seva Dal) in 1923, established the Arya Bala Sabha, taught the Gita during his student days in Kolkata, was a fan of Lokmanya Tilak, and had enthusiastically worked with Lala Rai
|-
|Indian Reform Association
|Females
|West Bengal
|Keshub Chandra Sen
|
|Brahmo Samaji, founded ''Sulabh Samachar'' as weekly newspaper of group
|-
|Kasthurbha Gandhi Kanya Gurukulam[http://www.kgkgurukulam.org/]
|Girls
|Tamil Nadu (Vedaranyam)
|Vedaratnam Pillai
|
|Involved in temple-based philanthropy and donated to Sri Ramakrishna Mission too
|-
|Lakshmi Ashram
|Females
|Uttarakhand
|Sarla Behn
|
|Established individual Mahila Mandals throughout Uttarakhand and promoted important skills as well as ecological awareness
|-
|Lokahitawadi Mandal
|General public
|Maharashtra
|Vishnu Vaman Shirwadkar
|
|Wrote about Hindu themes, including persons from scriptures and about Shivaji poetically, philosophically, and nationally
|-
|Maharshi Karve Stree Shikshan Samstha
|Females
|Maharashtra
|Dhondo Keshav Karve
|Educated at BHU
|
|-
|Mahila Vidyalaya (Pune)
|Females
|Maharashtra
|Dhondo Keshav Karve
|Educated at BHU
|
|-
|Nishkam Karma Math
|Females
|Maharashtra
|Dhondo Keshav Karve
|Educated at BHU
|
|-
|Poona Seva Sadan
|Females
|Maharashtra (at its peak, included M.P. and T.N.)
|Ramabai Ranade
|
|
|-
|Samata Sangh
|General public
|Maharashtra
|Dhondo Keshav Karve
|Educated at BHU
|
|-
|Self Employed Women's Association (SEWA)
|Females
|18 states
|Ela Bhatt
|Gandhian Textile Labour Association
|Established: own bank (Shri Mahila Sewa Sahakari Bank, or 'SEWA Cooperative Bank'), SEWA Mahila Housing Trust
|-
|Servants of the People Society
|Females
|Kerala, Maharashtra, M.P., Odisha T.N., Uttarakhand U.P.
|
|
|
|-
|Shraddhanand Ashram[https://shraddhanandmahilashram.org] (alias Hindu Women's Welfare Society)
|Females and boys
|Maharashtra (Mumbai)
|Swami Shraddhanand
|
|Has cared for thousands of destitute women and orphans, and educated them and provided skills development, as well as fostered personal development
|-
|Stree Hitaishini Mandali
|Females
|Andhra Pradesh
|Kanuparti Varalakshmamma
|
|Educated many females
|-
|Widow Marriage Association
|Females
|Maharashtra
|Dhondo Keshav Karve
|Educated at BHU
|
|-
|}

==Inspiration to Madras Presidency==
[[image:M.C. Rajah.jpg|right|thumb|200px|Mylai Chinna Thambi Pillai Rajah (the real 'Periyar'.)]]
While the Arya Samaj, Brahmo Samaj, Prarthana Samaj, and a host of other Hindu-based humanitarian and sociopolitical institutions existed in the-then Madras Presidency of southern India, they inspired local organizations as well. Shahu Maharaj had friends in the-then Justice Party (JP, est. 1916), like Arcot Ramasamy Mudaliar and Panaganti Ramarayaningar. While some ethnic groups, like certain castes even falsely supported the idea of an 'Aryan Invasion Theory' and themselves (Dravidian-languages speakers) as indigenous, they still appreciated Hinduism and did not consider it alien.

The biggest uplifter of the party was M.C. Rajah, who had the highest influence upon the policies that improved the lives of the Dalits in Madras Presidency. The party itself was founded primarily by 3 individuals — Sir Pitti Theagaraya Chetty (political founder who built the political machine), Dr. Taravath Madhavan Nair (ideological co-founder), and Dr. Chintadripet Natesa Mudaliar (cultural/grassroots mobilizer who helped shape cultural legitimacy.) Dr. Nair had said that Hindu society had originally possessed broader equality before caste dominance hardened it. Chetty occasionally used dharm-based ethical framing. He is consistently described as arguing that governance must align with "''dharma and justice''". The Dr. Mudaliar was a devout Shaiva that infused into the party Shaivism as a cultural identity for southerners.
[[image:P.T. Rajan.jpg|right|thumb|200px|P.T. Rajan (centre-right, wearing glasses next to priest), touring with the idol of [[Ayyappan|Ayyappa]] he had made at Swamimalai Temple[https://swamimalaiswaminathar.hrce.tn.gov.in/] and it was placed in the Sabarimala Temple[https://www.sabarimalauptodate.in/].]]
An ideologue of influence to the JP and Self-Respect Movement was Maraimalai Adigal, a Shaiv preacher and writer, who claimed that both the JP and Self-Respect Movement were from his teachings and that militant atheist Erode Venkatappa Ramasami Naicker had hijacked them. JP founder Dr. Nair died in 1919 and Chetty in 1925, so had no interaction Naicker. Ponnambala Thiaga Rajan was an active party member and disagreed with Naicker's ideology, so joined Congress-aligned politics. Mudaliar died in 1935 around the time Naicker entered the JP. Naicker was also a prejudiced castist that criticized but did not contribute to build schools and shelters for women and children, as Rajah[https://www.news18.com/opinion/opinion-m-c-rajah-the-forgotten-hindu-mahasabha-dalit-8937192.html][https://vskbharat.com/m-c-rajah-a-staunch-hindu-leader/?lang=en][https://thecommunemag.com/m-c-rajah-the-hindu-mahasabha-dalit/], a practicing Hindu of the party did. Rajah even once formed a political alliance with the Hindu Mahasabha, was the contributor. Before Rajah, the party's caste disparity was mainly about civil service occupations and education access for underprivileged castes. Rajah was recommended by Ambedkar to convert but Rajah replied there's no religion better than Hinduism.<ref>P. 92 ''The Political Evolution of Muslims in Tamilnadu and Madras, 1930-1947'' By J.B. Prashant More (1997) </ref><ref> In a public meeting of the All India Adi Dravida Mahajana Sabha in Nungambakkam, Chennai he said, "''The president (of this meeting) mentioned that no other community other than us has more right to be called Hindus. Conversion will not bring about any good. By saying so, I am not undermining or wishing away the oppression and ills we have faced. We need to fight for our rights. The speed at which reforms are happening might be slow. But think about our current situation and how much it has improved. I beseech you to please abandon any move that will weaken us. I request the government to bring about the Untouchability Abolition Bill and pass it quickly. The Harijans are proud Hindus. That is the only reason why even after years of oppression by higher castes and a barrage of proselytization efforts by other religions hasn't changed their resolve being Hindus.''" P. 123 ''Evolution of Hindu Nationalism - Icons of HMS, RSS & BJS'' By Sankara Narayanan T (2025)</ref> Adigal's writings had a profound impact on Subramania Ramanathan, the founder of the Self-Respect Movement, and on the Naicker but the latter only wanted pro-Tamil and castist societal changes, not promotion of Shaivism. Naicker would later break away from the party and form his own Dravidar Kazhagam, a title he copied from Adigal's Shaiv association (Podhunilak Kazhagam.) (His own pupil, Conjeevaram Natarajan Annadurai, would eventually disown him after he married his own adopted daughter, and Annadurai would leave his group.)
[[image:Alamelu.jpg|right|thumb|200px|Alamelu Mangai Thayarammal, a Brahmo Samaji, was co-founder of the party among 29 others (all men.)]]
The Hindu sentiment was definitely present in the JP. Many left after Naicker's hijacking. Important members bothered by Naicker's rhetoric apart from Rajan were Ananda Prasad Patro, Arunachalam Thamaraiselvam Panneerselvam, Muthiah Annamalai Chettiar, Ramasamy Kandasamy Shanmukham Chetty, and Subbarayalu Kumaraswami Reddiar. Chettiar even personally regularly donated to temple renovations, endowing temple lands or festivals, supporting pilgrimage facilities, and Hindu-managed schools. Rajan, the last leader of the JP, was the head-of-government of the Presidency, and was a big devotee a [[Ayyappan|Swami Ayyappa]]. Rajan even solemnized a marriage of a German couple converted to Hinduism in Coimbatore (Oct 31, 1962.) He further discouraged conversion of Dalits from Hinduism to another religion<ref>"''If by mass conversion you expect to achieve your object, you will be disappointed, because of a mere change of religion it will not give you all that you want.''" 
P. 147 ''Sir P. T. Rajan's Eighty Second Birthday Souvenir, 1973'' By P.T. Rajan and K. Paramasivam</ref> while encouraging caste-Hindus to better treat Dalits. His family had deep ties to the Meenakshi Amman Temple[https://maduraimeenakshi.hrce.tn.gov.in/] in Madurai, with his son (Palanivel Rajan), serving as a minister, and his daughter-in-law (Rukmani), serving as the first female chairperson of the temple's board of trustees. His predecessor Ramakrishna Ranga Rao denied that the JP was anti-Hindu and declared that it aimed to purify Hindu society from "''absurdities''" and return "''Hinduism greater and more glorious than it was in the past...''"<ref>"''As I understand it, the Self-Respect movement stands for certain great ideals to make Hinduism greater and more glorious than it was in the past, to rid it of all those absurdities which are the accretions of an unfortunate era of the past, and unite us in a solid federation so that all those who profess to follow the Hindu faith may feel that they are brethren following one of the most ancient and glorious religions of the world. No longer should the foreigner point his finger of scorn at this or that particular phase of Hinduism which belies its cosmopolitan tendency by inflicting personal hardship on classes or communities. If a few youths in their exuberant enthusiasm have been carried away beyond the bounds of Hinduism it will not do to fight shy of the new movements, but political wisdom and sagacity lie in taking them into our fold and guiding them aright along the paths of duty and rectitude.''" 
P. 289 ''The Indian Annual Register An Annual Digest of Public Affairs of India Recording the Nation's Activities Each Year in Matters Political, Economic, Industrial, Educational, Social, Etc · Volume 2'' By Nipendra Nath Mitra (1934)</ref> Alamelu Mangai Thayarammal, conferred 'Pandithai' title by Saiva Sabha in Palamcottah, was a JP co-founder [with 29 co-founders being men] who was a Brahmo Samaji, meaning the influence of the Hindu-based organizations wasn't insignificant. Paramasivan Subbarayan Gounder, while not technically a JP member, worked with it closely, and both he and his women's rights activist wife Kailash Radhabai Kulmud were Brahmos. It is also noteworthy that [[Ascetics|ascetic]] Swamiyar Kaivalyar who supported the party without being a member wrote pro-Shaiv material. Cattamanchi Ramalinga Reddy, an ex-member who formed his own party in 1923 was a close friend of Dr. Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan, and he himself engaged with Hindu texts on a literary artistic level. As Hinduism isn't a scripture-dependent religion, some JP members like A.R. Mudaliar heavily criticized certain scriptures but were devout Hindus ([[Vaiśnava|Vaishnav]] in his case.) And while orthodox opposition was present, the majority of Indians, including religious leaders, supported reforms, like when Shankaracharya of Kanchi[https://www.kamakoti.org/] supported the "Hindu Religious Endowments Bill" (1921) even while voicing some concerns in within. Mentionable is that [[Shatata-Unnati#Female upliftment|Dr. Muthulakshmi Reddy]] wasn't part of the JP but it still nominated her in 1926 for the Madras Legislative Council to bring about positive changes.

==Related articles==
*[[Women]]
*[[Women as Rishikas in the Vedas]]
*[[Worship of God as Mother]]

==External resources==
*[https://www.ijhsss.com/files/08.-ABHISEK-KARMAKAR_6813z4a4.pdf "Changing status of women in Indian politics (1917-1947): the role of civil society"], P. 42-45 ''International Journal of Humanities & Social Science Studies'' Volume-I, Issue-II (September 2014) By Abhisek Karmakar
*[https://www.besanthill.org/about/history-heritage/annie-besant/ Besant Hill School of Happy Valley in Ojai, California]
*[https://www.anniebesant.org Annie Besant Women's College in Hyderabad, Telangana]
*[https://www.aryasabha.mu/cultural-programme-arya-mahila-mandal-in-the-context-of-the-200th-birth-anniversary-of-swami-dayananda-saraswati/ Arya Mahila Mandal (Mauritius)]
*[https://www.thearyasamaj.org/ammkarolbagh Arya Mahila Mandal Karol Bagh]
*[https://vatikashaktipeeth.com/seven-agitations/women-awakening.html Vatika Shakti Peeth]

==References==
{{reflist}}

[[Category: History]]
[[Category: Economics]]
[[Category: Societal altruism]]

Shatata-Unnati

2026-06-15T05:36:42Z

Himanshu Bhatt: /* Female upliftment */

{{Author|Himanshu Bhatt}}
'Shatata-Unnati' is ''continual change'', 'abhyas' means improvement, 'kram-parivartanam' is ''incremental reformation'', while 'shodhanam' is ''refinement''. All of these terms are descriptive of Hindu society throughout the ages.

Continual social betterment has been one of the defining characteristics of Hindu society. All major cultures have had evils in their histories, including Hindu societies, but the shining examples to enforce positive changes and adaptability to a changing world are the Hinduism, Christianity, and Judaism.

In an era wherein colonial norms meant imprisonment or executions for speaking out against imperial rule, Mahatma Gandhi challenged the ideas of forcing nations to be subservient, fighting oppression by violence, and purging one's own nation of evils (i.e., inequality and superstition.) Today, much of the world still looks to Gandhi's perseverance to bring positive change into society.

Transformation of India's political systems made India into the world's largest democracy, and for accomplishing that, [[Indian Freedom Fighters#INC's Hindu activist roots|Hindu doctrines were rationalize to promote democracy]]. Even in India's political spectrum, Hindu principles were used to make liberalism and communism resonate with people, like Ram Rajya being a communist utopia. Some of the Communist Party of India's [[Indian Freedom Fighters#CPI's Hindu activist roots|founders were idealogues for both communism and Hinduism]], such as Swami Kumaranand, Swami Satyabhakt, and Swami Sahajanand Saraswati, as well as Keezhedathu Damodaran, Radhamohan Gokulji, and Rahul Sankrityayan.

==Comparison in societal reformation (India and Europe)==
:''See also: [[Contribution of Hindu Diaspora]]''
Whereas even in modern times, in most European Christian societies, witch-hunts and slavery were the norm, in Indian Hindu societies, widow-burning was the norm among certain communities (usually northwestern) and caste prejudice was prevalent. Both the Christian and Hindu communities worked to extinguish these and other evils.

Historical societal injustices have been acknowledged and reconciled. Even today, the lasting legacy of important Hindu reformers is visible wherein quotas employment and educational quotas are implemented for social upward mobility to ensure poorer castes and women do not fall behind.

During the colonial era, as human rights improved in Western societies as results from agricultural/economic advancements, Western writers of non-Christian societies took a chauvinistic, parochialist, and Eurocentric approach towards Hindu societies, claiming that they:
#Would never improve in human rights, morality, or rationality
#Are permanently stagnant
#Cannot produce modern or political economic institutions

Critics of the colonial era were proven wrong in these concrete ways:
#Large-scale societal reforms led by Hindu activists themselves improved Hindu societies — i.e., promoting window remarriage and caste integration while also creating quotas for females and historically-disadvantaged castes
#Rapid expansion of education and intellectual mobility — i.e., growth of global Hindu academic presence
#Global economic and corporate leadership — i.e., entrepreneurship and CEOs of major multinational companies like Adobe, Google, and Microsoft
#Democratic political evolution — i.e., maintaining electoral democracies like Hindu-majority nations, providing peaceful transfers of power, and granting significant autonomy to judiciary, press, and civil societies
#Religious and philosophical continuity + adaptation
#Ritual practice has diversified massively by religion and class — i.e., clerics ([[Rta and Spiritual Authority|priests]] and [[ascetics|monks]]) are from many backgrounds
#Reinterpretation of scriptures became internationally influential — i.e., Aldous Huxley loved the perennialism of Upanishads, Erwin Schrödinger the idea of aikatmyam, and Henry David Thoreau that of Ishavasyam
#Non-Hindus from outside of the Indian Subcontinent have converted to Sanatan Dharm and have promoted the religion — James Donald Walters who founded Ananda Sangha, Richard Alpert who founded Hanuman Foundation, John Edwin Favors who founded iFast[https://ifastdc.com/][https://ifastglobal.com/], and Robert Hansen who founded Saiva Siddhanta Church[https://www.himalayanacademy.com/]
#Hindu-based intellectual practices have popularized globally — i.e., [[Ayurveda|Ayurvedic medicine]], divination, political activism, [[Animal rights#Influence upon Westerners|animal rights]], [[Animal_rights#Vegetarianism|vegetarianism]], and [[yoga]]

==Hindu-led social betterment==
What is extraordinary in the case of India is that it was the religious institutions ([[Organizations|Hindu organizations]] and [[Hindu Post-Secondary Institutes|schools]]) that made revolutionary changes, not normally secular or non-Hindu ones. Practicing Hindus saw that superstitious and chauvinistic practices had become institutionalized (caste system and misogyny) within Hindu society, so they formed associations to help, uplift, educate the destitute. They would even go steps further to privilege the marginalized through reservations.

Even women who were more exploratory and not members of specific religions engaged with Hinduism positively. The best example might be Annette Beveridge, an Englishwoman who was the daughter of a Unitarian Christian herself became affiliated with Keshub Chandra Sen in England. She was drawn to his lectures and this fascination with his philosophy inspired her to begin life in India, where she even established<ref>Its expenses were financed by Ananda Mohan Bose and Durga Mohan Das, Dwarkanath Ganguly was its headmaster, and others Brahmos involved with the school were Sibnath Sastri and Monomohun Ghose.</ref> the Hindu Mahila Vidyalaya (''Hindu Women's School''.) Her husband Henry Beveridge was an orientalist (westerners intrigued with Asian cultures) working in India, meaning they were not Westerners critical of Hindu identity. Mrs. Emily Phear was an honorary teacher, and she too was involved in Brahmo Samaji circles for societal development. (Her husband Sir John Budd Phear helped Brahmo Samaj legally.) A non-Hindu that likewise began a girls school (Hindu Female School[https://www.bethunecollegiateschool.com/]) with Brahmos and other Hindus was John Bethune, whose accomplices were Dakshinaranjan Mukherjee, Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar, Ramgopal Ghosh, and Madanmohan Tarkalanka (the last even taught at the school without pay.) Others foreign women in India that engaged positively with Hindu activist organizations were Mary Carpenter[https://southasianbritain.org/people/mary-carpenter/] and Sophia Dobson Collet with Brahmo Samaj, Alma B.R.A. with Arya Samaj, and Mary Hobson with Prarthana Samaj[https://puneprarthanasamaj.org/].

Hindu women that set women's rights activism into motion were Arya Samaj's Lajwanti Sood and Satyavati Devi, and Brahmo Samaj's Kadambini Ganguly and Sarala Devi Chaudhurani. Swarnakumari Devi was both an Arya Samaji and a Brahmo Samaji.
[[image:Dr. Anandi Gopal Joshi.jpg|right|thumb|200px|Dr. Anandi Gopal Joshi in 1886 marking a milestone with 2 other Asian women.]]
What is also worth mentioning is that there were women not members of sociopolitical organizations who pursued and achieved new societal achievements, showing that many Hindu women thought for themselves. Dr. Anandibai Joshi was India's first female doctor to trained in Western medicine. Her education and trip to U.S. was funded by [[Shatata-Unnati#Shahu's royal authority to implement reforms|Chhatrapati Shahu Maharaj]]. Upon return, he even funded her return journey and offer her supervisory role at Kolhapur's largest hospital[https://old.rcsmgmc.ac.in/]. Foundations[https://anandibai.org/resources/], institutions (i.e., Dr. Anandi Gopal Higher Education & Medical Facilities), awards (i.e., IRDS's[https://ngosindia.org/uttar-pradesh-ngos/irds-institute-for-research-documentation-in-social-sciences-lucknow/] Anandibai Joshi Award for Medicine), and scholarships (i.e., Dr. Anandi Gopal Scholarship Scheme) are named after her in commemoration. (Dr. Anandi Gopal Higher Education & Medical Facilities itself is a collaboration between the U.S. university she graduated in (DUCM[https://drexel.edu/medicine/news-events/publications/pulse/spring-2018/]) and SMCW. She let people know that she was not ashamed of being a Hindu. She was often pressured by Christian missionaries to convert[https://knowledge.lancashire.ac.uk/id/eprint/48487/1/bharadwaj-et-al-2023-journey-across-the-world-to-study-medicine-the-anandi-joshi-story.pdf]. Dr. Anandi had written her thesis, "Obstetrics among the Aryan Hindus", containing references from both the traditional Ayurvedic (''Susruta Samhita'' and ''Charaka Samhita'') and modern American medical literatures. (Mentionable is that although her husband Gopalrao Joshi's relentless, public letter-writing campaigns and essays targeted Lokmanya Tilak for being not liberal enough and Justice Ranade for being too liberal Tilak's ''Kesari'' and ''Mahratta'' newspapers glorified Dr. Joshi as a rolemodel for women.)

===Female upliftment===
:''See also: [[Indian Freedom Fighters]] 
;Theosophical Society wing
[[image:Paris Women's Congress.jpg|right|thumb|200px|Dr. Reddy and 3 Indian women at the Paris Women's Congress (1926.)]]
The top 3 champions who politically improved Indian women's rights in the modern era were foreigners — Dr. Annie Besant, Dorothy Jinarajadasa, and Margaret Cousins. They did not tell Indian women to leave Hinduism but rather they themselves became Hindu in practice and Indian in habit. They then sought to restore the Vedic-era of womanhood wherein women had authority (i.e., to become clerics, scholars, and leaders.) Emma Mitchell (American) and Francesca Arundale (English) greatly contributed to building of Hindu educational institutions (i.e., Central Hindu College.)

Dr. Muthulakshmi Reddy is a big name in female rights, and she was influenced by Dr. Besant in her college years (1907-1912) and was guided by Dr. Besant in both her social reform and political work. She worked with Dr. Besant and others to establish the Women's Indian Association (1917.) After Dr. Besant's death, she took over the presidency of the WIA. Gandhi was another major mentor but Reddy never formally joined the INC but sometimes protested colonial injustices (i.e., Gandhi's arrest.)

;Ramakrishna Mission wing
[[image:Nivedita & Vivekanand.jpg|right|thumb|200px|Nivedita with Vivekanand.]]
[[Niveditā, Sister|Sister Nivedita (Margaret Noble)]], a convert from Ireland became a disciple of [[Swami Vivekananda|Swami Vivekanand]] and joined Aurobindo's Dawn Society and had also founded and ran girls' schools in Kolkata (i.e., Ramakrishna Sarada Mission Sister Nivedita Girls' School[https://www.sisterniveditagirlsschool.org/home.html] in Baghbazar) to educate girls who had little to no access to education (i.e., poorest of the poor.) She advocated for women's intellectual and moral development, influenced by Vivekanand's vision of strong Indian womanhood. Her work included lectures, fundraising (India, England, and U.S.), and writings that promoted gender equality in access to knowledge and opportunities. She had worked with Dr. Annie Besant at times. Likewise, Sister Christine, disciple of Vivekanand, is another example of a Westerner who utilized the Ramakrishna Mission and Vivekanand's circles as vehicles for improving female rights in India.

;INC wing
:''See also: [[Indian Freedom Fighters#INC's Hindu activist roots|INC's Hindu activist roots]] 
[[image:Nellie Sen Gupta.jpg|right|thumb|100px|N.S. Gupta.]]
Nellie Sen Gupta[https://www.thedailystar.net/in-focus/news/deshpriya-jatindra-mohan-nellie-sengupta-2036981] (nee Edith Ellen Gray) had married freedom fighter Jatindra Mohan Sen Gupta, and both joined the INC — she also founded Deepali Sangha, a women's organization aimed at promoting social and political awareness, leadership, training, and empowerment among women. Her husband passed away but she was advised to stay in the-then East Pakistan to take care of Hindu rights, which she did. Umadevi (born Wanda Dynowska), a Polish convert to Sanatan Dharm too championed women's rights in India and translated ''[[Bhagavad Gita]]'', ''[[Mahabharata]]'', ''[[Ramayana]]'', and other [[Hindu Scriptures|Hindu and Bauddh literature]] into Polish. Mira Behn (born Madeleine Slade), the daughter of a British Royal Navy admiral, gave up her affluent lifestyle to become Gandhi's servant in India.
[[image:Sarla Behn Chipko Movement.jpg|right|thumb|200px|Sarla Behn's Chipko act[https://www.adda247.com/school/chipko-movement/].]]
Sarla Behn[https://growbilliontrees.com/blogs/knowledge/sarla-behn-tree-nurturing-nature-and-empowering-communities-for-a-sustainable-future?srsltid=AfmBOoq4h0d0skQBNr4w4zOvISuhYz02_EXtPvD3pUoQYjTlcvNHEbQ-#fullcontent] (born Catherine Mary Heilman) from England setup the Lakshmi Ashram Kausani in 1946 within Uttarakhand to uplift women, after having lived in the Sevagram Ashram[https://gandhiashramsevagram.org/] in Maharashtra. The organization educated rural hill girls academically, trained women of self-reliance and industrial skills (i.e., khadi weaving), taught personal care (i.e., literacy, hygiene, anti-liquor campaigns), and promoted [[Environmentalism|ecological awareness]] (Chipko Movement.) It also worked with the INC to encourage nationalist fervour. Lakshmi Ashram individual units were known as Mahila Mandals. This ashram attracted foreign residents intrigued with Sanatan Dharm even after independence, like David Hopkins, who relocated to there in the 1990's.
[[image:Durgabai Deshmukh.jpg|right|thumb|100px|Dr. D.D.]]
Dr. Durgabai Deshmukh, pupil of Gandhi and freedom fighter in the colonial era, established the Central Social Welfare Board (1953.) She later became president of the All India Women's Conference (1931.) Taraben Premchand is an important mention, as she was an important member of this organization, as well as the Jain Mahila Parishad[https://www.dbjainsabha.com], Jyoti Sangh[https://jyotisangh.org/about-us/] (local women's advancement group in Gujarat), and Shraddhanand Ashram[https://shraddhanandmahilashram.org/].

Madeleine Rolland was Women's International League for Peace and Freedom's[https://www.wilpf.org/] French section and never settled in India. However, upon engaging with Hindu culture in the 1920's, she translated Ananda Coomaraswamy's ''[[Nataraja Dasakam|The Dance of Shiva]]'' into French, introducing Hinduism to the-then residents of France. She also translated Rabindranath Tagore's writings of Sanatan themes and universal humanism, helping popularize them in Europe. She welcomed Gandhi on his visit to Marseille, France. [[image:Kanuparti Varalakshmamma.jpg|right|thumb|100px|'Sarada'.]]
Kanuparti Varalakshmamma (alias 'Sarada'), a devout Gandhian, used Hindu themes like providing ethical refences (i.e., Savitri, Sita) to depict women's morality, dignity, and conduct. She often engaged with the idea of a grihalakshmi (idea woman of the household.) She also founded the Stree Hitaishini Mandali for uplifting women. She used ''Andhra Patrika'', a newspaper created by a promoter of the ''Bhagavad Gita'', Kasinathuni Nageswara Rao, to preach her ideas.
[[image:Vijaya Lakshmi Pandit.jpg|right|thumb|100px|'Vijaya Lakshmi Pandit'.]]
It is also noteworthy that the 1st female head of government in the world was a [[Bauddh Dharm|Bauddh]] (Sirimavo Bandaranaike of Sri Lanka, non-INC member), and 2nd was a Hindu (Indira Gandhi, INC member.) Also Vijaya Lakshmi Pandit[https://news.un.org/en/story/2024/03/1147327] (born Swaroop Rani Nehru) played a significant role in global representation of women, particularly in the United Nations. She was the first woman to serve as the President of the UN General Assembly (1953-1954), a position she held to advocate for decolonization and the independence of countries in Asia and Africa. She was also the first Indian woman to hold a cabinet rank in a provincial government. Hansa Mehta[https://india.un.org/en/311450-hansa-mehta%E2%80%99s-life-story-continues-inspire] had an impact on the UN's constitution wording wherein "''all human beings''" instead of "all men" in the Universal Declaration of Human Rights. (She was also one of only 2 women delegates working alongside Eleanor Roosevelt in the UN Human Rights Commission 1946-48.)
[[image:Nilla Cram Cook.jpg|right|thumb|100px|'Nilla Nagini Devi'.]]
Nilla Cram Cook, an American who settled at Gandhi's ashrams, had [[Conversion|converted to Hinduism]] in the 1930's but identified with the '[[Samyag Darshan#Samadarshan|sarva dharma sambhava]]' ideal, so considered herself a [[Bhakta|devotee]] of not only [[Krishna]] but of Jesus too, and so she later also translated the Quran and engaged with Islamic practices in a syncretic way with her Hindu and Christian customs. Her final literary work was ''The Way of the Swam: Poems of Kashmir'' (1958), which was mostly focused around the [[Saiva|Shaiv]] mystic poetess Lal Ded[https://hindupost.in/society-culture/lal-ded-her-life-and-works/#][https://homegrown.co.in/homegrown-voices/the-poetry-of-lal-ded-mysticism-resistance-the-female-voice-in-14th-century-kashmir] and others from Kashmir syncretic Sanatan-[[Bauddh Dharm|Bauddh]]-[[Sufism with Vaishnavism|Sufi]] tradition. She dedicated the book to Pandit. She didn't work on women's upliftment directly but did participate with Gandhi's Harijan Sevak Sangh. She had also written about Sarojini Naidu (1st Indian woman-president of the INC.)

;Other associations
[[image:Maharani Chimnabai Gaekwad II.jpg|right|thumb|100px|Maharani Chimnabai.]]
[[image:Sethu Parvathi Bayi.jpg|right|thumb|100px|Junior Queen Bayi.]]
The National Council of Women in India[https://www.ncwi.in/], founded 1925, was also a monumental organization to make progress for women — it mainly focused on female literacy, vocational training, public participation, and legal reform. It was primarily the initiative of Lady Meherbai Tata, a Mazdaean icon, and its first president was Maharani Chimnabai Gaekwad II, born Gajrabai Ghatge, a princess of Dewas (M.P.) She supported societal progress of women that did not compromise on Hindu identity (i.e., traditional customs like wearing sari and sindhoor or like celebrating Raksha Bandhan), which is how she framed her ''The Position of Women in Indian Life'' book. She financed schools for girls, as well as Hindu charities and temples. The Gaekwad family also funded libraries and women's institutions and social reform initiatives. She discussed the eradication or the purdah, child marriage, women's restrictions (i.e., obtaining education and employment), and other obstacles towards advancement. Following her presidentship, Sethu Parvathi Bayi took over. She was from the royal family of Travancore (Kerala), and her family was deeply connected to the Padmanabhaswamy Temple[https://spst.in/][https://www.padmanabhaswamytemple.com/]. She financed Hindu institutions as well. It is notable that Sucharu Deo, daughter of Brahmo leader K.C. Sen was a prominent member and she had also helped build the Maharani Girls' High School[https://school.banglarshiksha.gov.in/ws/website/index/19013701705] in Darjeeling (W.B.) together with her sister (Suniti) and Hemlata Sarkar, daughter of Brahmo leader Sibnath Sastri.

From Hindu-based institutions like sociopolitical organizations and schools came a number of philanthropic associations.
;Most influential persons for women's upliftment
{| class="wikitable sortable"
|-
! Area of Contribution
! Meaning
! Steps Taken
! Activists
! Organizations
! Founder's Affiliation(s)
|-
|Political rights and visibility
|1. Women appearing in public political spaces 2. Women being recognized as leaders (not just participants) 3. Changing social norms about women's public roles 4. Symbolic representation
|Helped institutionalize women's leadership through bodies like Women's Indian Association
|Dr. Annie Besant (women's political rights + organizational leadership), Kamaladevi Chattopadhyay (political participation, economic empowerment, cooperatives), Margaret Cousins[https://www.womensmuseumofireland.ie/exhibits/margaret-elizabeth-cousins] (Suffarage, WIA), Sarojini Naidu (mass mobilization of women in politics)
|
|
|-
|Modern institutional equality
|
|Helped institutionalize institutional equality through contributing policy influence (Hansa Mehta) and constitutional rights (Dr. Durgabai Deshmukh)
|Dr. Durgabai Deshmukh (welfare systems), Hansa Mehta
|
|
|-
|Foundational legal reform
|
|
|Raja Ram Mohan Roy (abolition of sati), Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar (widow remarriage)
|
|
|-
|Education
|
|
|Raja Ram Mohan Roy, Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar
|
|
|-
|}

====Hindu influence internationally====
Even outside of India during the 20th century, women's rights were not perfect, and so many women incorporated Hindu symbolism (i.e., worship) and concepts towards promoting societies where women would have equal rights.
[[image:M.J. Gage.jpg|right|thumb|200px|Matilda Joslyn Gage.]]
[[image: Charlotte Despard.jpg|right|thumb|200px|Charlotte Despard, an Anglo-Irish suffragist who supported Indian independence.]]
As [[Worship of God as Mother|worship of God as a female or mother]] has been common in Sanatan Dharm since its foundation, that made validating female upliftment in India quicker. Even in Western nations, prominent women's rights organizations implemented imagery of goddesses from pertinent ancient cultures, like U.K.'s Women's Freedom League and National Union of Women's Suffrage Societies, and the global International Woman Suffrage Alliance, to legitimize female equality and women being in positions of power. Some American and European feminists and women's rights activists, like Matilda Joslyn Gage<ref>"''While the sale of daughters was practiced in England for seven hundred years after the introduction of Christianity, we note that by the ancient law of India, a father was forbidden to sell his daughter in marriage, or receive the smallest present therefor.''" - P. 79-82 ''Woman, Church and State'' (1893) By Matilda Joslyn Gage</ref> (U.S. suffragist) and Helena Petrovna Blavatsky<ref>"''The pre- and post-Vedic woman was as free as man; and no impure terrestrial thought was ever mixed with the religious symbology of the early Aryans.''" 
"''This is proven by the fact that in the Vedic period their women were not placed apart from men in penetralia, or ‘Zenanas.’ Their seclusion began when the Mahomedans … had conquered the land and gradually enforced their ways and customs upon the Hindus.''" 
- P. 379-380 ''The Secret Doctrine: Volume I'' By Helena Blavatsky </ref> (European feminist), even used the examples of [[Worship of God as Mother|Hindu goddess-worship]] and Hindu queens to support their examples. And though Blavatsky did not officially align with any single religion to encourage recruitment for her Theosophical Society, she referenced Sanatan and Bauddh scriptures (Upanishads, and then Gita, then Bauddh shastras) more than others. (M.J. Gage[https://www.smithsonianmag.com/history/the-feminist-inspired-witches-of-oz-180985334/] in her ''Woman, Church, and State'' even highlighted Hindu texts to counter the male-centric theology of the West and referenced ''[[Bhagavad Gita]]'' to validate the concept of a female [[divinity]].) Even feminists of the colonial era like Victoria Woodhull that was skeptical of organized religion, respected "''Christna and Buddha''" (Krishna and Gautama.) Mary Lowe Dickinson at the World's Parliament Circles (1893) was so impressed by [[Swami Vivekananda|Swami Vivekanand]]'s speech, that she developed a fascination with female divinity of Hinduism, and in her editorials and public circles, argued that Hinduism's recognition of a feminine aspect within the divine was spiritually superior to the rigidly patriarchal, all-male Trinity of mainstream American Christianity. Emily Pitts Stevens and Charlotte LeMoyne Wills (wrote about the genderless [[Brahm]]) became disciples of Vivekanand. Laura de Force Gordon wrote about the immortal soul and continuous cycle of life. Alice Moore McComas wrote about the interconnectedness (aikatmyam) of all things. In U.K., Charlotte Despard's specific pamphlets linked [[karma]] to political activism. Margaret Louise Sanger was influenced by Vivekanand and Rabindranath Tagore. Sarah Bull<ref> P. 483 ''Western Admirers of Ramakrishna and His Disciples'' By Gopal Stavig, Swami Shuddhidananda </ref>, who particularly focused on women's education and reform was connected to both Vivekanand and Sister Nivedita. Josephine MacLeod was a major promoter of Vivekanand in the West and was involved in transatlantic reform-intellectual networks. Viktoria Ocampo of Argentina was deeply influenced by Tagore, even hosting him in Argentina and promoting his ideas widely. Gabriela Mistral of Chile was too, and she applied Tagore's ideas to women's education, child welfare, and cultural reform. Mabel Dodge Luhan was fascinated with Sanatan philosophy and influenced by Vivekanand. Mentionable is Emma Calve of France, who wasn't a political feminist leader but influential in women's intellectual-cultural circles, and she was deeply influenced by Vivekanand.
[[image:Carol Patrice Christ.jpg|right|thumb|200px|Carol Patrice Christ.]]
After suffragists had attained complete institutional equality, they them progressed to the next stage of female liberation by ensuring that their own spiritual faith wasn't male-chauvinistic or making them subordinates of males. Feminists were inspired by goddess deity of Hinduism to then promote it within generic spirituality. Valerie Saiving, Isaac Bonewits and Naomi Goldenberg founded in the 1970's, Thealogy, a feminine-specific theology. Carol Patrice Christ launched the Goddess Movement, which provided 4 aspects of Goddess symbolism as reasons to needing a goddess in women's lives; 1) the Goddess as affirmation of female power, 2) the female body, 3) the female will, and 4) women's bond and heritage. She specifically used the Shakti concept to prove that a major global religion (Hinduism) explicitly defined the [[Brahmanda|material universe]]/nature/change ([[Darshana#Sankhya|Prakriti]]) as an inherently active, female, and sacred force. She was an ecofeminist, as were Charlene Spretnak and Miriam Simos were ecofeminists too. Merlin Stone wrote ''Ancient Mirrors of Womanhood: Our Goddess and Heroine Heritage'' (1979) and in a chapter analyzes goddesses like [[Durga]], [[Kali]], [[Lakshmi Puja|Lakshmi]], Parvati, and Saraswati. Devout Christian women feminists too drew on Hindu practices and ideas to support women's advocacy, and they include Ivone Gebara, Pearl Sydenstricker Buck, and Sally McFague.

'Matriarchal religion' is a philosophy stating that societies were Goddess worshippers with females having the same status and rights as men before male gods began being worshipped, and the latter led to patriarchy. Goddesses being worshipped contiguously in Hindu societies for thousands of years was the backing this thought utilized, in addition to feminist archaeology (i.e., ancient idols and temples of goddesses uncovered.)

==Start of modern reforms==
In modern India, most positive social changes within Indian Hindu societies came not first as enforcement or pressure from European rulers but from advocacy of forward-thinking Hindus. Raja Ram Mohan Roy had led the campaign to purge Hindu societies of Sati and caste prejudices. Roy worked with British imperial authority, specifically Lord William Bentinck to have sati outlawed. Roy himself was a religious leader that reiterated Upanishads for their principles.

Other institutions of positive social changes were mainly Hindu ones or were governed by Hindu religious leaders, not secular ones.

The Indian National Social Conference of 1887 was organized by Justice Ranade, Rai Raghunath Rao, Narendra Nath Sen Gupta, and Janki Nath Ghoshal. Ranade was founder of the Prarthana Samaj, a religious group.

Arya Samajis, Brahmo Samajis, and Prarthana Samajis were the most vocal and active forces advocating: 
#Widow Remarriage (i.e., Widow Remarriage Act 1856—initiative of Brahmo Samaj)
#Women's right to divorce (i.e., Native Marriage Act 1872—initiative of Brahmo Samaj) 
#Property rights for women 
#Opposition to child marriages (i.e., Age of Consent Act 1891—initiative of Brahmo Samaj and Prarthana Samaj, Child Marriage Restraint Act 1929—initiative of Arya Samaj) 
#Universal accessible education (built schools, including colleges and gurukuls) 
#Caste-based reservations
[[image:Justice Ranade.jpg|right|thumb|200px|Mahadev Govind Ranade (alias 'Justice Ranade'.)]]
[[image:Jagannath Shankarshet.jpg|right|thumb|200px|Jagannath Shankarshet (alias 'Architect of Modern Mumbai'.)]]
The Indian Factories Act 1881's ratification was a landmark in workers' rights and the credit goes mainly to Sorabjee Shapoorjee Bengalee, and then Prarthana Samaj. He did work alongside the Prarthana Samaj to lobby the British authority through the First Factory Commission in 1875 (made to investigate the brutal conditions of Indian labour.) Prarthana Samaj's ''Subodh Patrika'' newspaper specifically critiqued mill owners. Rahnumai Mazdayasnan Sabha, its newspaper ''Rast Goftar'', and Bengalee himself referenced labour reformers Sasipada Banerji and Protap Chunder Mozumdar, and used the former's methods of worker upliftment as a blueprint for their own legislative arguments. Collaboration between the Sabha and Prarthana Samaj began with the latter's creation of the Theistic Association, on which the Parsi Naoroji Furdonji was its 1st Chairman. Ranade and Bhandarkar drove the Association from discussing only theism to improving society through finding solutions of work hardships. The Night School Initiative was launched, helping workers receive adequate training, particularly in labourer-heavy neighborhoods Byculla, Dongri, Khetwadi, and Thakurdwar. (From 1886-1890 alone, over 2,750 industrial workers successfully studied through this initiative.)

Brahmo Samaj's K.C. Sen’s first visit to Mumbai in March-April 1864 engaged him with Bengalee, Furdonji, Ranade, and Bhandarkar (all then members of Young India.) They all discussed ways to develop India. They also shared strategies on how to bypass orthodox religious resistance—Furdonji within Zoroastrianism and Sen within Sanatan Dharm. Bengalee's First Labor Bill (1878) laid the groundwork for the later Indian Factories Act.

Prior to all of this, Jagannath Shankarshet[https://www.vishwakonkani.org/hall-of-fame/hon-jagannath-shankar-sheth/] spent the 1850s petitioning the British Parliament for local governance. As a result, it codified the Indian Councils Act of 1861, thus creating the Bombay Legislative Council as a political body to better govern the-then Bombay Presidency. Shankarshet was the main founder of Bombay Association. In its first leadership were also Dr. Ramachandra Vitthal Lad (alias 'Dr. Bhau Daji'), a Hindu intellectual who used his Sanskrit knowledge to decipher inscriptions, preserve manuscripts, and help reconstruct the forgotten timelines of ancient Guptas and Western Kshatrapa dynasties. Mentionable is the Parsi Sir Jamsetjee Jeejeebhoy of the group. Shankarshet was a wealthy philanthropist that constructed and financed Sanatan and secular infrastructure, most notably the Bhavani Shankar Mandir[https://www.mcgm.gov.in/irj/go/km/docs/documents/D%20Ward/Heritage-Sites/73_Legacy%20of%20D%20Ward_Article_Bhavani%20Shankar%20Temple.pdf] (Mumbai), Sanskrit Seminary and Sanskrit Library (both in Mumbai too.) Elphinstone Educational Institution[https://elphinstone.ac.in/index.php] and Grant Medical College[https://gmcjjh.edu.in/] were his creations too. (Jeejeebhoy contributed to constructing the Grant Medical College.)

===Shahu's royal authority to implement reforms===
[[image:Shahu adoption.jpg|right|thumb|200px|Prince Yeshwantrao Ghatge being adopted by the royal family of Kohlapur.]]
[[image:Rajarshi.jpg|right|thumb|200px|Rajarshi Chhatrapati Shahu Maharaj.]]
[[image:School foundation.jpg|right|thumb|200px|Foundation of Shri Shahu Chhatrapati Shikshan Sanstha.]]
The greatest champion on all of these sections for reforms was Chhatrapati Shahu Maharaj[https://aissms.org/breaking-barriers-chhatrapati-shahu-maharaj-and-his-enduring-impact-on-progress-and-modernity/] (born Yeshwantrao Ghatge), '[[Rta and Spiritual Authority#Rishis|Rajarshi]]', the ruler of Kohlapur Kingdom who affiliated with organizations but probably the Arya Samaj[https://thearyasamaj.org] more than any other. Shahu definitely was not shy to publicly perform prayers, as he famously attended temples of goddesses Ambabai[https://www.mahalaxmikolhapur.com/home] and Bhavani[https://shrituljabhavani.org/] when having returned from his Europe trip in 1902. Also in 1902, Pratap Singh Maharaj of Idhar (Gujarat) introduced and educated him about the Arya Samaj. He provided patronage to the Arya Samaj.[https://navjyot.net/wp-content/uploads/2022/12/10.pdf]

The king passed many policies for for the upliftment of untouchable, nomadic, non-Brahmin communities and for females.<ref>Act of Free and Compulsory Primary Education (1917), Widow remarriage Act (1917), End of Balutedari (1918), Repeal of Kulkarni Watan (1918), Intercaste and Interreligious Marriages and Sanctioning of Registered Marriage Act (1919), Act relating to protection of Harassment of Women (1919), Divorce act (1919), Order on prohibition of Untouchability practice (1919), Illegitimate Children's Rights and Devadasi Prohibition Act (1920); 
[https://www.indiejournal.in/article/rajarshi-shahu-maharaj-and-his-tryst-with-the-arya-samaj "Rajarshi Shahu Maharaj & his tryst with the Arya Samaj Lessons for our times"] By Devkumar Ahire (Jun 26, 2023 6:42 PM)</ref>

;Prejudiced disgruntled castists promoting anti-Brahman hate, not universalism
While Shahu was affiliated with the Satyashodhak Samaj (SS) because it wanted to uplift the non-dwija castes, he did not feel they had any religious foundations, whereas the Arya Samaj was encompassed both a spiritual and social movement.<ref>"Beyond Reformism: Chhatrapati Shahu and Hinduism Reimagined" By Surajkumar Thube P. 124-144 ''Nidān: International Journal for Indian Studies, Volume 8'', Issue 1 (July 2023)</ref> Also, the SS of Pune was antithetical to social cohesion because it targeted the Brahman caste as an enemy, and while its main founder (Jyotirao Phule) made absurd claims like 'Shiv-Dharma'<ref>"''The real Shiv-Dharma that is ours, we are re-establishing it as Sarvajanik Satya Dharma.''" Chapter 4, ''Sarvajanik Satya Pustak''</ref> or 'Mahadev-Dharma' (worship of [[Shiva|Shiv]] as God and some local gods like Khandoba as avatars) being the true religion of Indians whereas every other Hindu belief and practice was an imposition by 'non-Indian Brahman invaders'. Being a chauvinist, he also criticized freedom fighter martyrs Lakshmi Bai, Nana Sahib, Tantia Tope for being Brahmans. He also wrote positively that freedom fighters lost the 1857 War of Independence against the British colonialists. He was also openly criticized by his own relative Baburao Phule, who accused the former of being a Christian convert who destroyed the Hindu religion.<ref>P. 58-59 ''The Caste Question: Dalits and the Politics of Modern India'' (2009) By Anupama Rao </ref>

Phule though anti-Brahman, was influenced by some Brahmans, such as Balshastri Jambhekar (a Hindu activist) who pushed scientific knowledge and history through Marathi, criticized caste segregation, and attacked other or kinds or orthodoxy like widowhood. He was also influenced by some Hindu activists who were not anti-Brahman (i.e., Karsandas Mulji.)

The organization would receive the most aid from Shahu (financial and social work), Karmvir (social work), and Padval (intellectual) but they themselves always kept a distance from the SS because of its explicitly castist vitriol. People would choose to align or become members of other associations for their inclusivity and harmonious vision for the future.

;Satyashodhak Samaj becoming less anti-Brahman
"''All Hindus are equal. No one is superior, no one is inferior. Let all flesh and blood be one. Four varnas are a real deceit. It's a tool to keep the non-Brahmins in slavery. There is no difference among the Hindus. Hindu is the only varna. If a Hindu eats or marries with another Hindu that's not ''[[adharma]].'' In contrast, what divide Hindus in the name of religion is not a dharma, but a trick by Brahmins. One who calls themselves a Hindu, whether they are Europeans or Africans, they are our coreligionists.''" - P. 39 ''Deshache Dushman'' (1925) By Dinkarrao Javalkar
[[image:Sasipada Banerji.jpg|right|thumb|100px|Sasipada Banerji (alias 'Sevabrata'.)]]
Notable is that Phule's friend Narayan Meghaji Lokhande, a labour organization leader, was close friends with Phule and used Khandoba-worship and the reverence of Sundays for Khandoba in his petition to British authority to achieve Sunday as a holiday for factory labourers. Phule and Lokhande emulated Brahmans, like forming the political lobby group Deenbandhu Sarvajanik Sabha after Ranade's Poona Sarvajanik Sabha and forming the Bombay Mill Hands Association based and its mouthpiece ''Deenbandhu'' on the Working Men's Club (India's 1st labour welfare platform) and its mouthpiece ''Bharat Sramajibi'' (India's 1st labour journal) of Sasipada Banerji (Brahmo Samaji.)

Though Dinkarrao Javalkar portrayed himself as pan-Hindu when discussing the specific topic of Hindu unity, he still prejudicially criticized the Brahman caste in general<ref>"''This day will be counted among the most important days in the history of Hindus. There is no reason for you to fear jail. The Brahmans who eat ghee and roti should have that fear. To make the touchable people behave is in your hands. You are the sons of Hindus. You capture the tank saying 'har har Mahadev' and follow the advice of your leader Dr. Ambedkar Saheb. This is my own position.''" -Dinkarrao Javalkar at satyagraha with Keshavrao Jedhe and Dr. Ambedkar among a Mahar crowd</ref> and targeted some prominent Brahmans like Lokmanya Tilak. (Javalkar and Keshavrao Jedhe also portrayed themselves as pro-woman but derogatory remarks about women from the Brahman and certain other castes<ref>P. 44 ''19th Century Maharashtra: A Reassessment'' (2020) By Shraddha Kumbhojkar </ref> and both appealed to Dr. B.R. Ambedkar in 1927 to exclude Brahmans from the Mahad Satyagraha<ref> P. 27 ''Social Reform Movements in India: A Historical Perspective'' (1991) By V.D. Divekar</ref>.) Jedhe did protest with other activists (including Brahmans like Narhar Vishnu Gadgil, Seshdas Ranade, Shreedhar Mahadev Joshi, and members of Arya Samaj) for the right of Dalits to worship at Pune's Devdeveshwar Mandir[https://devdeveshwarsanthan.org/home.html]. Javalkar did write favourably about some like Ranade, Gopal Ganesh Agarkar, and Krishna Gopal Gokhale but even they were rarely mentioned. He rightfully partook in the Kalaram Mandir[https://www.shrikalaramsansthannasik.org/] Satyagraha in Nasik that protested for Dalits to be able to enter the temple. He was a communist and 10 years after his death, the Peasants and Workers Party (PWP) was formed.

SS branches outside of Pune were less hateful of Brahmans. It is also noteworthy, however, is that Nana Patil, a founder of the PWP, was affiliated with both the Satyashodhak and Prarthana associations [meaning that he, like most other Satyashodhaks didn't believe in Phule's religious ideology.] Some other PWP founders like Jedhe and Madhavrao Bagal were Satyashodhaks, they popularized Shiv Jayanti and Ganesh Chathuri. The latter and his son Vasantrao even wrote devotional pieces inspired from Bhakti Era saints (i.e., [[Tukaram]], [[Eknath]]) and valourizing pieces about Shahu. Tulshidas Jadhav, a Gandian within the PWP, championed the Bhakti Era's Warkari Movement, which was still popular in his time, because it was based on social equality and public seva. Also noteworthy is, that even some prominent members supported the Arya Samaj, like Krishnarao Bhalekar (1 of the founders of SS with Phule) defended Dayanand Saraswati (Arya Samaj’s founder), when the latter’s procession was opposed by some orthodox Hindus in Pune, and Bhalekar organized a speech to be delivered by Saraswati at a dharmshal near a Rokdoba Temple in Pune.

Bhalekar himself made the claim that the SS is the true follower of Sant Tukaram's [[Bhāgavata-dharma|Bhagwat Dharma]] ([[Krishna|Krishnaite]] [[Vaishnava|Vaishnavism]].) His son was Mukundrao Patil, who made the claim, "''The Satyasodhak Samaj is the true heir of the Hindu religion. Brahmanism is not Hinduism.''"<ref>''Dinmitra'' newspaper (1920s)</ref> Javalkar claimed SS is the true representative of the Hindu religion and that SS members are liberating Hinduism from the supremacy of the Brahmins. Shivram Janma Kamble stated the SS is a revival movement of the true Hinduism. Kisan Faguji Bansode argued "Shivdharma" was the true Hindu religion and that the SS advocates that version.

There were those in his organization that promoted about how in ancient Sanatan society, there were no caste distinctions and that people were recognized by their merits. Their view was promoted by Tukaram Tatya Padval, who wrote ''Jatibhed Vivekshar'' (1861) after being inspired by Ashwaghosha's ''Vajrasuchi''. Phule republished copies of Padval's books, and the 2 developed a friendship. He did write at that in ancient India, certain sages were had Sudra or Avarna status but rose to the rank of a Brahman through their intellect, and used examples of Valmiki (wrote a ''Ramayan''), Sankhya, and Kabilar rishis. He also published copies of the ''Bhagavad Gita'', ''Yogasutra'', and compilations of the ''Rajayoga'' and ''Sankhya Karika.'' He further compiled the ''Tukarambaba ani Tyanche Shisya Yanchi Abhanga Gatha'' (1889) and ''Eknath Maharajancha Abhangachi Gatha'' (1903.) Padval, however, never became a member of Phule's organization and instead became a member of the Theosophical Society.

;Shahu forming his own Satyashodhak Samaj focused on upliftment (free of anti-Brahman distractions)
As a result of the Satyashodhak Samaj of Pune being too antagonistic of Brahmans, Shahu had instead founded his own branch in 1911 — Shri Shahu Satyashodhak Samaj. By an order, Shahu replaced the Brahman priests in the Patgaon Sansthan (Mauni Maharaj Math[https://durgbharari.in/maunibaba-patgaon/]) and Jyotiba Devasthan[https://shreejyotiba.com/?lang=E][https://maharashtratourism.gov.in/temple/jyotiba/] with Maratha priests. Bhaskarrao Jadhav and Anna Babaji Latthe were leaders of Shahu's Kolhapur Satyashodhak Samaj. Whereas Phule mostly only wrote positively of Shiva and local-born gods, Jadhav in his ''Marathas and their Religion'' wrote positively about Krishna and the ''Bhagavad Gita''. He further worked with Shahu to aid Arya Samaj in its activities and goals (i.e., train non-Brahmans to become priests too.) Noteworthy is that Latthe, who worked personally with Shahu Maharaj, was its first VP and that he worked to dismantle priestly (Jain priests, not usually Brahmans) intermediation within the Jain clergy. (He was a big-time activist for general upliftment and for reform within the Jain community (i.e., wrote ''Jain Dharmacha Parichay''.)

Latthe founded the Dakshin Bharat Jain Sabha[https://dbjainsabha.com/], of which Dr. Bhaurao Patil (from a Jain family) became a member and through he wasn't a member of any SS branch, he did sometimes participate in its activities and himself founded the Rayat Shikshan Sansthan[https://rayatshikshan.edu/], which educated students in a multitude of topics, including Sanskrit. Patil (alias 'Karmvir Anna') was deeply influenced by Mahatma Gandhi and Vitthal Ramji Shinde.

;Shahu distancing himself formally from Satyashodhak Samaj
The SS had earned a bad reputation in Maharashtra with the general public, particularly for the outright anti-Brahman vitriol spewed in the SS's publications and events. Because the goal of Shahu and true reformers was to achieve a harmonious society with all people cooperating, it would not make sense to support an organization that's known for abusing persons (i.e., Brahmans) specifically over their caste identity.

In 1921, Shahu made a public statement in a Baroda newspaper that even though he granted significant support to the non-Brahman movement and introduced measures to eliminate Brahman dominance, he had never been affiliated with Phule's SS, and that he always accepted [[Rta and Spiritual Authority#Rishis|Vedic ritual authority]].

;Granting, accommodating, and expanding Arya Samaj
Shahu attended Arya Samaj sessions like the one at Navsari in 1918 and another at Bhavnagar in 1920<ref>P. 6. ''People's Raj Volume 30'' (1974) By Directorate-General of Information and Public Relations </ref>. He provided funding for Gurukul Boarding House to be built at Kerle, wherein large buildings and well-irrigated lands were granted to the Arya Samaj. Later, the Rajaram Anathalaya orphanage was added to this grant. He also brought educational institutions in his domain under the leadership of Arya Pratinidhi Sabha. Rajaram College's administration was also granted to the Arya Samaj.

;Spiritual Authority as Rajarshi
Shahu Maharaj, being a devout Sanatan wanted to proclaim the rights that warriors of history had and so participated in important ceremonies and worked with priests (i.e., Brahmans) to achieve the rights to learn and perform Vedic ceremonies. He established the Vedokta Committee for Marathas to be able to perform Vedic rites without requiring priests. In 1905, the Karveer Peeth's (or Kolhapur Math's) Shankaracharya declared full rights of Vedokta to Chhatrapati Shahu.

Tatyarao Joshirao was appointed by Shahu Maharaj as new royal purohit, replacing the Rajopadhye (creator of the infamous 'Vedokta Controversy'), who denied the Maharaj to perform Vedic rites. Joshirao was from a family that had traditional ownership of the historic Binkhambi Ganapati Mandir in Kolhapur.

Rajaram Shastri (alias 'Bhagavata'), a Brahman scholar, linguist, and researcher, openly challenged the religious orthodoxy, arguing from scripture that Shahu Maharaj had full rights to the Vedas. Vishnu Topkhane was another Brahman who greatly helped the Chhatrapati with his progressive reforms. Topkhane the educationalist helped the latter establish the Vidyapeeth High School near the Shri Karveer Niwasini Ambabai Mahalakshmi Temple. Freedom fighter Gokhale was someone who worked with Shahu. When the Vedokta Controversy broke out and the conservative press attacked the Maharaja, Gokhale privately and publicly validated Shahu Maharaj's stance, recognizing that social reform was a prerequisite for true political freedom. Ranade, though passed away before much Shahu's reforms began, was admired by the latter for his progressive ideals and actions.

Chhatrapati Shahu founded the Satyashodhak School for spiritual training in 1913, in which seminarians (predominantly from castes such as Marathas, Mahars, and Chambhars) were taught to recite and preach the poems (i.e., abhangs of Tukaram) of sants. He also created the Shivaji Vedic School (aliases 'Shahu Vedic School', 'Shahu Vedic Pathshala', 'Shri Shahu Vaidik Vidyalay') in 1920 and had invited scholars from Varanasi (spiritual capital of Sanatan Dharm) to ensure the highest standard of scriptural and linguistic training. The school trained seminarians (of all castes) to learn Sanskrit and become priests and conduct ceremonies. He further established and financed the office of the Kshatra Jagadguru (''Warrior Universal Teacher''), a pontiff seat open to anyone of any caste. The first Kshatra Jagadguru was Sadashivrao Lakshmanrao Sankpal Patil Benadikar, was an accomplished Sanskrit scholar who received his formal higher education at Rajaram College in Kolhapur. The Kshatra Jagadguru Peeth was the pontiff's seat at Patgaon (in the Bhudargad region of Kolhapur.) Patgaon was chosen because it was the historic site of the Mauni Maharaj Math, a highly respected spiritual center that had historically blessed Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj[https://pilgrimdata.in/temple/mouni-maharaj-math-temple-patgaon-bhudargarh-dist-kolhapur/]. The Kshatra Jagadguru had the Shri Sadashivrao Patil Shikshan Sanstha educationalist association named after him, and it runs schools[https://www.mwssm.org/][https://sspiop.com/] in Maharashtra still. Other organizations too use his name for schools like Sadashivrao Mandlik Mahavidyalaya (Kolhapur) of the ⁠Jay Shivray Education Society.

===Successive associations===
From Hindu-based institutions like sociopolitical organizations and schools came a number of philanthropic associations. Even other humanitarian associations that were not established by Hindu activists, were established by their influence. For example, Krishna Gopal Gokhale had participated in many sessions of the Prarthana Samaj as he was Ranade's pupil, and he later joined the Deccan Education Society, which he left to establish the Servants of India Society. Narayan Malhar Joshi was a member of Gokhale's group and later formed his own Social Service League[https://socialserviceleague.org.in/]. Hriday Nath Kunzru too was part of Gokhale's group and left to establish the Seva Samiti.

{| class="wikitable sortable"
|-
! Organization
! Demographic of Focus
! Region(s)
! Founder
! Founder's Affiliation(s)
! Achievement
|-
|Anath Balikashram Society
|Widows
|Maharashtra
|Dhondo Keshav Karve
|Educated at BHU
|
|-
|Andhra Mahila Sabha
|Females
|Andhra Pradesh
|Durgabai Deshmukh
|
|
|-
|Bharat Stree Mahamandal
|Females
|Bengal, Bihar, Punjab, Sindh, U.P.
|Sarala Devi Chaudhurani
|Arya Samaji, Brahmo Samaji, accepted Bijoy Krishna Chattopadhyaya as her guru
|
|-
|Buddhi Vardhak Sabha
|General public
|Gujarat
|Narmadashankar Labheshankar Dave
|
|Exposed people in positions of power that abused their privileges, build schools for girls
|-
|Central Social Welfare Board
|Females and children
|
|Dr. Durgabai Deshmukh
|
|
|-
|Hindu Widow Marriage Association
|Females
|Maharashtra
|Dhondo Keshav Karve
|Educated at BHU
|
|-
|Hindustani Seva Dal
|Females
|Every province
|Dr. Narayan Subbarao Hardikar
|
|Established the Hindustani Seva Mandal (later became Rashtriya Seva Dal) in 1923, established the Arya Bala Sabha, taught the Gita during his student days in Kolkata, was a fan of Lokmanya Tilak, and had enthusiastically worked with Lala Rai
|-
|Indian Reform Association
|Females
|West Bengal
|Keshub Chandra Sen
|
|Brahmo Samaji, founded ''Sulabh Samachar'' as weekly newspaper of group
|-
|Kasthurbha Gandhi Kanya Gurukulam[http://www.kgkgurukulam.org/]
|Girls
|Tamil Nadu (Vedaranyam)
|Vedaratnam Pillai
|
|Involved in temple-based philanthropy and donated to Sri Ramakrishna Mission too
|-
|Lakshmi Ashram
|Females
|Uttarakhand
|Sarla Behn
|
|Established individual Mahila Mandals throughout Uttarakhand and promoted important skills as well as ecological awareness
|-
|Lokahitawadi Mandal
|General public
|Maharashtra
|Vishnu Vaman Shirwadkar
|
|Wrote about Hindu themes, including persons from scriptures and about Shivaji poetically, philosophically, and nationally
|-
|Maharshi Karve Stree Shikshan Samstha
|Females
|Maharashtra
|Dhondo Keshav Karve
|Educated at BHU
|
|-
|Mahila Vidyalaya (Pune)
|Females
|Maharashtra
|Dhondo Keshav Karve
|Educated at BHU
|
|-
|Nishkam Karma Math
|Females
|Maharashtra
|Dhondo Keshav Karve
|Educated at BHU
|
|-
|Poona Seva Sadan
|Females
|Maharashtra (at its peak, included M.P. and T.N.)
|Ramabai Ranade
|
|
|-
|Samata Sangh
|General public
|Maharashtra
|Dhondo Keshav Karve
|Educated at BHU
|
|-
|Self Employed Women's Association (SEWA)
|Females
|18 states
|Ela Bhatt
|Gandhian Textile Labour Association
|Established: own bank (Shri Mahila Sewa Sahakari Bank, or 'SEWA Cooperative Bank'), SEWA Mahila Housing Trust
|-
|Servants of the People Society
|Females
|Kerala, Maharashtra, M.P., Odisha T.N., Uttarakhand U.P.
|
|
|
|-
|Shraddhanand Ashram[https://shraddhanandmahilashram.org] (alias Hindu Women's Welfare Society)
|Females and boys
|Maharashtra (Mumbai)
|Swami Shraddhanand
|
|Has cared for thousands of destitute women and orphans, and educated them and provided skills development, as well as fostered personal development
|-
|Stree Hitaishini Mandali
|Females
|Andhra Pradesh
|Kanuparti Varalakshmamma
|
|Educated many females
|-
|Widow Marriage Association
|Females
|Maharashtra
|Dhondo Keshav Karve
|Educated at BHU
|
|-
|}

==Inspiration to Madras Presidency==
[[image:M.C. Rajah.jpg|right|thumb|200px|Mylai Chinna Thambi Pillai Rajah (the real 'Periyar'.)]]
While the Arya Samaj, Brahmo Samaj, Prarthana Samaj, and a host of other Hindu-based humanitarian and sociopolitical institutions existed in the-then Madras Presidency of southern India, they inspired local organizations as well. Shahu Maharaj had friends in the-then Justice Party (JP, est. 1916), like Arcot Ramasamy Mudaliar and Panaganti Ramarayaningar. While some ethnic groups, like certain castes even falsely supported the idea of an 'Aryan Invasion Theory' and themselves (Dravidian-languages speakers) as indigenous, they still appreciated Hinduism and did not consider it alien.

The biggest uplifter of the party was M.C. Rajah, who had the highest influence upon the policies that improved the lives of the Dalits in Madras Presidency. The party itself was founded primarily by 3 individuals — Sir Pitti Theagaraya Chetty (political founder who built the political machine), Dr. Taravath Madhavan Nair (ideological co-founder), and Dr. Chintadripet Natesa Mudaliar (cultural/grassroots mobilizer who helped shape cultural legitimacy.) Dr. Nair had said that Hindu society had originally possessed broader equality before caste dominance hardened it. Chetty occasionally used dharm-based ethical framing. He is consistently described as arguing that governance must align with "''dharma and justice''". The Dr. Mudaliar was a devout Shaiva that infused into the party Shaivism as a cultural identity for southerners.
[[image:P.T. Rajan.jpg|right|thumb|200px|P.T. Rajan (centre-right, wearing glasses next to priest), touring with the idol of [[Ayyappan|Ayyappa]] he had made at Swamimalai Temple[https://swamimalaiswaminathar.hrce.tn.gov.in/] and it was placed in the Sabarimala Temple[https://www.sabarimalauptodate.in/].]]
An ideologue of influence to the JP and Self-Respect Movement was Maraimalai Adigal, a Shaiv preacher and writer, who claimed that both the JP and Self-Respect Movement were from his teachings and that militant atheist Erode Venkatappa Ramasami Naicker had hijacked them. JP founder Dr. Nair died in 1919 and Chetty in 1925, so had no interaction Naicker. Ponnambala Thiaga Rajan was an active party member and disagreed with Naicker's ideology, so joined Congress-aligned politics. Mudaliar died in 1935 around the time Naicker entered the JP. Naicker was also a prejudiced castist that criticized but did not contribute to build schools and shelters for women and children, as Rajah[https://www.news18.com/opinion/opinion-m-c-rajah-the-forgotten-hindu-mahasabha-dalit-8937192.html][https://vskbharat.com/m-c-rajah-a-staunch-hindu-leader/?lang=en][https://thecommunemag.com/m-c-rajah-the-hindu-mahasabha-dalit/], a practicing Hindu of the party did. Rajah even once formed a political alliance with the Hindu Mahasabha, was the contributor. Before Rajah, the party's caste disparity was mainly about civil service occupations and education access for underprivileged castes. Rajah was recommended by Ambedkar to convert but Rajah replied there's no religion better than Hinduism.<ref>P. 92 ''The Political Evolution of Muslims in Tamilnadu and Madras, 1930-1947'' By J.B. Prashant More (1997) </ref><ref> In a public meeting of the All India Adi Dravida Mahajana Sabha in Nungambakkam, Chennai he said, "''The president (of this meeting) mentioned that no other community other than us has more right to be called Hindus. Conversion will not bring about any good. By saying so, I am not undermining or wishing away the oppression and ills we have faced. We need to fight for our rights. The speed at which reforms are happening might be slow. But think about our current situation and how much it has improved. I beseech you to please abandon any move that will weaken us. I request the government to bring about the Untouchability Abolition Bill and pass it quickly. The Harijans are proud Hindus. That is the only reason why even after years of oppression by higher castes and a barrage of proselytization efforts by other religions hasn't changed their resolve being Hindus.''" P. 123 ''Evolution of Hindu Nationalism - Icons of HMS, RSS & BJS'' By Sankara Narayanan T (2025)</ref> Adigal's writings had a profound impact on Subramania Ramanathan, the founder of the Self-Respect Movement, and on the Naicker but the latter only wanted pro-Tamil and castist societal changes, not promotion of Shaivism. Naicker would later break away from the party and form his own Dravidar Kazhagam, a title he copied from Adigal's Shaiv association (Podhunilak Kazhagam.) (His own pupil, Conjeevaram Natarajan Annadurai, would eventually disown him after he married his own adopted daughter, and Annadurai would leave his group.)
[[image:Alamelu.jpg|right|thumb|200px|Alamelu Mangai Thayarammal, a Brahmo Samaji, was co-founder of the party among 29 others (all men.)]]
The Hindu sentiment was definitely present in the JP. Many left after Naicker's hijacking. Important members bothered by Naicker's rhetoric apart from Rajan were Ananda Prasad Patro, Arunachalam Thamaraiselvam Panneerselvam, Muthiah Annamalai Chettiar, Ramasamy Kandasamy Shanmukham Chetty, and Subbarayalu Kumaraswami Reddiar. Chettiar even personally regularly donated to temple renovations, endowing temple lands or festivals, supporting pilgrimage facilities, and Hindu-managed schools. Rajan, the last leader of the JP, was the head-of-government of the Presidency, and was a big devotee a [[Ayyappan|Swami Ayyappa]]. Rajan even solemnized a marriage of a German couple converted to Hinduism in Coimbatore (Oct 31, 1962.) He further discouraged conversion of Dalits from Hinduism to another religion<ref>"''If by mass conversion you expect to achieve your object, you will be disappointed, because of a mere change of religion it will not give you all that you want.''" 
P. 147 ''Sir P. T. Rajan's Eighty Second Birthday Souvenir, 1973'' By P.T. Rajan and K. Paramasivam</ref> while encouraging caste-Hindus to better treat Dalits. His family had deep ties to the Meenakshi Amman Temple[https://maduraimeenakshi.hrce.tn.gov.in/] in Madurai, with his son (Palanivel Rajan), serving as a minister, and his daughter-in-law (Rukmani), serving as the first female chairperson of the temple's board of trustees. His predecessor Ramakrishna Ranga Rao denied that the JP was anti-Hindu and declared that it aimed to purify Hindu society from "''absurdities''" and return "''Hinduism greater and more glorious than it was in the past...''"<ref>"''As I understand it, the Self-Respect movement stands for certain great ideals to make Hinduism greater and more glorious than it was in the past, to rid it of all those absurdities which are the accretions of an unfortunate era of the past, and unite us in a solid federation so that all those who profess to follow the Hindu faith may feel that they are brethren following one of the most ancient and glorious religions of the world. No longer should the foreigner point his finger of scorn at this or that particular phase of Hinduism which belies its cosmopolitan tendency by inflicting personal hardship on classes or communities. If a few youths in their exuberant enthusiasm have been carried away beyond the bounds of Hinduism it will not do to fight shy of the new movements, but political wisdom and sagacity lie in taking them into our fold and guiding them aright along the paths of duty and rectitude.''" 
P. 289 ''The Indian Annual Register An Annual Digest of Public Affairs of India Recording the Nation's Activities Each Year in Matters Political, Economic, Industrial, Educational, Social, Etc · Volume 2'' By Nipendra Nath Mitra (1934)</ref> Alamelu Mangai Thayarammal, conferred 'Pandithai' title by Saiva Sabha in Palamcottah, was a JP co-founder [with 29 co-founders being men] who was a Brahmo Samaji, meaning the influence of the Hindu-based organizations wasn't insignificant. Paramasivan Subbarayan Gounder, while not technically a JP member, worked with it closely, and both he and his women's rights activist wife Kailash Radhabai Kulmud were Brahmos. It is also noteworthy that [[Ascetics|ascetic]] Swamiyar Kaivalyar who supported the party without being a member wrote pro-Shaiv material. Cattamanchi Ramalinga Reddy, an ex-member who formed his own party in 1923 was a close friend of Dr. Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan, and he himself engaged with Hindu texts on a literary artistic level. As Hinduism isn't a scripture-dependent religion, some JP members like A.R. Mudaliar heavily criticized certain scriptures but were devout Hindus ([[Vaiśnava|Vaishnav]] in his case.) And while orthodox opposition was present, the majority of Indians, including religious leaders, supported reforms, like when Shankaracharya of Kanchi[https://www.kamakoti.org/] supported the "Hindu Religious Endowments Bill" (1921) even while voicing some concerns in within. Mentionable is that [[Shatata-Unnati#Female upliftment|Dr. Muthulakshmi Reddy]] wasn't part of the JP but it still nominated her in 1926 for the Madras Legislative Council to bring about positive changes.

==Related articles==
*[[Women]]
*[[Women as Rishikas in the Vedas]]
*[[Worship of God as Mother]]

==External resources==
*[https://www.ijhsss.com/files/08.-ABHISEK-KARMAKAR_6813z4a4.pdf "Changing status of women in Indian politics (1917-1947): the role of civil society"], P. 42-45 ''International Journal of Humanities & Social Science Studies'' Volume-I, Issue-II (September 2014) By Abhisek Karmakar
*[https://www.besanthill.org/about/history-heritage/annie-besant/ Besant Hill School of Happy Valley in Ojai, California]
*[https://www.anniebesant.org Annie Besant Women's College in Hyderabad, Telangana]
*[https://www.aryasabha.mu/cultural-programme-arya-mahila-mandal-in-the-context-of-the-200th-birth-anniversary-of-swami-dayananda-saraswati/ Arya Mahila Mandal (Mauritius)]
*[https://www.thearyasamaj.org/ammkarolbagh Arya Mahila Mandal Karol Bagh]
*[https://vatikashaktipeeth.com/seven-agitations/women-awakening.html Vatika Shakti Peeth]

==References==
{{reflist}}

[[Category: History]]
[[Category: Economics]]
[[Category: Societal altruism]]

Shatata-Unnati

2026-06-15T05:35:10Z

Himanshu Bhatt: /* Hindu influence internationally */

{{Author|Himanshu Bhatt}}
'Shatata-Unnati' is ''continual change'', 'abhyas' means improvement, 'kram-parivartanam' is ''incremental reformation'', while 'shodhanam' is ''refinement''. All of these terms are descriptive of Hindu society throughout the ages.

Continual social betterment has been one of the defining characteristics of Hindu society. All major cultures have had evils in their histories, including Hindu societies, but the shining examples to enforce positive changes and adaptability to a changing world are the Hinduism, Christianity, and Judaism.

In an era wherein colonial norms meant imprisonment or executions for speaking out against imperial rule, Mahatma Gandhi challenged the ideas of forcing nations to be subservient, fighting oppression by violence, and purging one's own nation of evils (i.e., inequality and superstition.) Today, much of the world still looks to Gandhi's perseverance to bring positive change into society.

Transformation of India's political systems made India into the world's largest democracy, and for accomplishing that, [[Indian Freedom Fighters#INC's Hindu activist roots|Hindu doctrines were rationalize to promote democracy]]. Even in India's political spectrum, Hindu principles were used to make liberalism and communism resonate with people, like Ram Rajya being a communist utopia. Some of the Communist Party of India's [[Indian Freedom Fighters#CPI's Hindu activist roots|founders were idealogues for both communism and Hinduism]], such as Swami Kumaranand, Swami Satyabhakt, and Swami Sahajanand Saraswati, as well as Keezhedathu Damodaran, Radhamohan Gokulji, and Rahul Sankrityayan.

==Comparison in societal reformation (India and Europe)==
:''See also: [[Contribution of Hindu Diaspora]]''
Whereas even in modern times, in most European Christian societies, witch-hunts and slavery were the norm, in Indian Hindu societies, widow-burning was the norm among certain communities (usually northwestern) and caste prejudice was prevalent. Both the Christian and Hindu communities worked to extinguish these and other evils.

Historical societal injustices have been acknowledged and reconciled. Even today, the lasting legacy of important Hindu reformers is visible wherein quotas employment and educational quotas are implemented for social upward mobility to ensure poorer castes and women do not fall behind.

During the colonial era, as human rights improved in Western societies as results from agricultural/economic advancements, Western writers of non-Christian societies took a chauvinistic, parochialist, and Eurocentric approach towards Hindu societies, claiming that they:
#Would never improve in human rights, morality, or rationality
#Are permanently stagnant
#Cannot produce modern or political economic institutions

Critics of the colonial era were proven wrong in these concrete ways:
#Large-scale societal reforms led by Hindu activists themselves improved Hindu societies — i.e., promoting window remarriage and caste integration while also creating quotas for females and historically-disadvantaged castes
#Rapid expansion of education and intellectual mobility — i.e., growth of global Hindu academic presence
#Global economic and corporate leadership — i.e., entrepreneurship and CEOs of major multinational companies like Adobe, Google, and Microsoft
#Democratic political evolution — i.e., maintaining electoral democracies like Hindu-majority nations, providing peaceful transfers of power, and granting significant autonomy to judiciary, press, and civil societies
#Religious and philosophical continuity + adaptation
#Ritual practice has diversified massively by religion and class — i.e., clerics ([[Rta and Spiritual Authority|priests]] and [[ascetics|monks]]) are from many backgrounds
#Reinterpretation of scriptures became internationally influential — i.e., Aldous Huxley loved the perennialism of Upanishads, Erwin Schrödinger the idea of aikatmyam, and Henry David Thoreau that of Ishavasyam
#Non-Hindus from outside of the Indian Subcontinent have converted to Sanatan Dharm and have promoted the religion — James Donald Walters who founded Ananda Sangha, Richard Alpert who founded Hanuman Foundation, John Edwin Favors who founded iFast[https://ifastdc.com/][https://ifastglobal.com/], and Robert Hansen who founded Saiva Siddhanta Church[https://www.himalayanacademy.com/]
#Hindu-based intellectual practices have popularized globally — i.e., [[Ayurveda|Ayurvedic medicine]], divination, political activism, [[Animal rights#Influence upon Westerners|animal rights]], [[Animal_rights#Vegetarianism|vegetarianism]], and [[yoga]]

==Hindu-led social betterment==
What is extraordinary in the case of India is that it was the religious institutions ([[Organizations|Hindu organizations]] and [[Hindu Post-Secondary Institutes|schools]]) that made revolutionary changes, not normally secular or non-Hindu ones. Practicing Hindus saw that superstitious and chauvinistic practices had become institutionalized (caste system and misogyny) within Hindu society, so they formed associations to help, uplift, educate the destitute. They would even go steps further to privilege the marginalized through reservations.

Even women who were more exploratory and not members of specific religions engaged with Hinduism positively. The best example might be Annette Beveridge, an Englishwoman who was the daughter of a Unitarian Christian herself became affiliated with Keshub Chandra Sen in England. She was drawn to his lectures and this fascination with his philosophy inspired her to begin life in India, where she even established<ref>Its expenses were financed by Ananda Mohan Bose and Durga Mohan Das, Dwarkanath Ganguly was its headmaster, and others Brahmos involved with the school were Sibnath Sastri and Monomohun Ghose.</ref> the Hindu Mahila Vidyalaya (''Hindu Women's School''.) Her husband Henry Beveridge was an orientalist (westerners intrigued with Asian cultures) working in India, meaning they were not Westerners critical of Hindu identity. Mrs. Emily Phear was an honorary teacher, and she too was involved in Brahmo Samaji circles for societal development. (Her husband Sir John Budd Phear helped Brahmo Samaj legally.) A non-Hindu that likewise began a girls school (Hindu Female School[https://www.bethunecollegiateschool.com/]) with Brahmos and other Hindus was John Bethune, whose accomplices were Dakshinaranjan Mukherjee, Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar, Ramgopal Ghosh, and Madanmohan Tarkalanka (the last even taught at the school without pay.) Others foreign women in India that engaged positively with Hindu activist organizations were Mary Carpenter[https://southasianbritain.org/people/mary-carpenter/] and Sophia Dobson Collet with Brahmo Samaj, Alma B.R.A. with Arya Samaj, and Mary Hobson with Prarthana Samaj[https://puneprarthanasamaj.org/].

Hindu women that set women's rights activism into motion were Arya Samaj's Lajwanti Sood and Satyavati Devi, and Brahmo Samaj's Kadambini Ganguly and Sarala Devi Chaudhurani. Swarnakumari Devi was both an Arya Samaji and a Brahmo Samaji.
[[image:Dr. Anandi Gopal Joshi.jpg|right|thumb|200px|Dr. Anandi Gopal Joshi in 1886 marking a milestone with 2 other Asian women.]]
What is also worth mentioning is that there were women not members of sociopolitical organizations who pursued and achieved new societal achievements, showing that many Hindu women thought for themselves. Dr. Anandibai Joshi was India's first female doctor to trained in Western medicine. Her education and trip to U.S. was funded by [[Shatata-Unnati#Shahu's royal authority to implement reforms|Chhatrapati Shahu Maharaj]]. Upon return, he even funded her return journey and offer her supervisory role at Kolhapur's largest hospital[https://old.rcsmgmc.ac.in/]. Foundations[https://anandibai.org/resources/], institutions (i.e., Dr. Anandi Gopal Higher Education & Medical Facilities), awards (i.e., IRDS's[https://ngosindia.org/uttar-pradesh-ngos/irds-institute-for-research-documentation-in-social-sciences-lucknow/] Anandibai Joshi Award for Medicine), and scholarships (i.e., Dr. Anandi Gopal Scholarship Scheme) are named after her in commemoration. (Dr. Anandi Gopal Higher Education & Medical Facilities itself is a collaboration between the U.S. university she graduated in (DUCM[https://drexel.edu/medicine/news-events/publications/pulse/spring-2018/]) and SMCW. She let people know that she was not ashamed of being a Hindu. She was often pressured by Christian missionaries to convert[https://knowledge.lancashire.ac.uk/id/eprint/48487/1/bharadwaj-et-al-2023-journey-across-the-world-to-study-medicine-the-anandi-joshi-story.pdf]. Dr. Anandi had written her thesis, "Obstetrics among the Aryan Hindus", containing references from both the traditional Ayurvedic (''Susruta Samhita'' and ''Charaka Samhita'') and modern American medical literatures. (Mentionable is that although her husband Gopalrao Joshi's relentless, public letter-writing campaigns and essays targeted Lokmanya Tilak for being not liberal enough and Justice Ranade for being too liberal Tilak's ''Kesari'' and ''Mahratta'' newspapers glorified Dr. Joshi as a rolemodel for women.)

===Female upliftment===
:''See also: [[Indian Freedom Fighters]] 
;Theosophical Society wing
[[image:Paris Women's Congress.jpg|right|thumb|200px|Dr. Reddy and 3 Indian women at the Paris Women's Congress (1926.)]]
The top 3 champions who politically improved Indian women's rights in the modern era were foreigners — Dr. Annie Besant, Dorothy Jinarajadasa, and Margaret Cousins. They did not tell Indian women to leave Hinduism but rather they themselves became Hindu in practice and Indian in habit. They then sought to restore the Vedic-era of womanhood wherein women had authority (i.e., to become clerics, scholars, and leaders.) Emma Mitchell (American) and Francesca Arundale (English) greatly contributed to building of Hindu educational institutions (i.e., Central Hindu College.)

Dr. Muthulakshmi Reddy is a big name in female rights, and she was influenced by Dr. Besant in her college years (1907-1912) and was guided by Dr. Besant in both her social reform and political work. She worked with Dr. Besant and others to establish the Women's Indian Association (1917.) After Dr. Besant's death, she took over the presidency of the WIA. Gandhi was another major mentor but Reddy never formally joined the INC but sometimes protested colonial injustices (i.e., Gandhi's arrest.)

;Ramakrishna Mission wing
[[image:Nivedita & Vivekanand.jpg|right|thumb|200px|Nivedita with Vivekanand.]]
[[Niveditā, Sister|Sister Nivedita (Margaret Noble)]], a convert from Ireland became a disciple of [[Swami Vivekananda|Swami Vivekanand]] and joined Aurobindo's Dawn Society and had also founded and ran girls' schools in Kolkata (i.e., Ramakrishna Sarada Mission Sister Nivedita Girls' School[https://www.sisterniveditagirlsschool.org/home.html] in Baghbazar) to educate girls who had little to no access to education (i.e., poorest of the poor.) She advocated for women's intellectual and moral development, influenced by Vivekanand's vision of strong Indian womanhood. Her work included lectures, fundraising (India, England, and U.S.), and writings that promoted gender equality in access to knowledge and opportunities. She had worked with Dr. Annie Besant at times. Likewise, Sister Christine, disciple of Vivekanand, is another example of a Westerner who utilized the Ramakrishna Mission and Vivekanand's circles as vehicles for improving female rights in India.

;INC wing
:''See also: [[Indian Freedom Fighters#INC's Hindu activist roots|INC's Hindu activist roots]] 
[[image:Nellie Sen Gupta.jpg|right|thumb|100px|N.S. Gupta.]]
Nellie Sen Gupta[https://www.thedailystar.net/in-focus/news/deshpriya-jatindra-mohan-nellie-sengupta-2036981] (nee Edith Ellen Gray) had married freedom fighter Jatindra Mohan Sen Gupta, and both joined the INC — she also founded Deepali Sangha, a women's organization aimed at promoting social and political awareness, leadership, training, and empowerment among women. Her husband passed away but she was advised to stay in the-then East Pakistan to take care of Hindu rights, which she did. Umadevi (born Wanda Dynowska), a Polish convert to Sanatan Dharm too championed women's rights in India and translated ''[[Bhagavad Gita]]'', ''[[Mahabharata]]'', ''[[Ramayana]]'', and other [[Hindu Scriptures|Hindu and Bauddh literature]] into Polish. Mira Behn (born Madeleine Slade), the daughter of a British Royal Navy admiral, gave up her affluent lifestyle to become Gandhi's servant in India.
[[image:Sarla Behn Chipko Movement.jpg|right|thumb|200px|Sarla Behn's Chipko act[https://www.adda247.com/school/chipko-movement/].]]
Sarla Behn[https://growbilliontrees.com/blogs/knowledge/sarla-behn-tree-nurturing-nature-and-empowering-communities-for-a-sustainable-future?srsltid=AfmBOoq4h0d0skQBNr4w4zOvISuhYz02_EXtPvD3pUoQYjTlcvNHEbQ-#fullcontent] (born Catherine Mary Heilman) from England setup the Lakshmi Ashram Kausani in 1946 within Uttarakhand to uplift women, after having lived in the Sevagram Ashram[https://gandhiashramsevagram.org/] in Maharashtra. The organization educated rural hill girls academically, trained women of self-reliance and industrial skills (i.e., khadi weaving), taught personal care (i.e., literacy, hygiene, anti-liquor campaigns), and promoted [[Environmentalism|ecological awareness]] (Chipko Movement.) It also worked with the INC to encourage nationalist fervour. Lakshmi Ashram individual units were known as Mahila Mandals. This ashram attracted foreign residents intrigued with Sanatan Dharm even after independence, like David Hopkins, who relocated to there in the 1990's.
[[image:Durgabai Deshmukh.jpg|right|thumb|100px|Dr. D.D.]]
Dr. Durgabai Deshmukh, pupil of Gandhi and freedom fighter in the colonial era, established the Central Social Welfare Board (1953.) She later became president of the All India Women's Conference (1931.) Taraben Premchand is an important mention, as she was an important member of this organization, as well as the Jain Mahila Parishad[https://www.dbjainsabha.com], Jyoti Sangh[https://jyotisangh.org/about-us/] (local women's advancement group in Gujarat), and Shraddhanand Ashram[https://shraddhanandmahilashram.org/].

Madeleine Rolland was Women's International League for Peace and Freedom's[https://www.wilpf.org/] French section and never settled in India. However, upon engaging with Hindu culture in the 1920's, she translated Ananda Coomaraswamy's ''[[Nataraja Dasakam|The Dance of Shiva]]'' into French, introducing Hinduism to the-then residents of France. She also translated Rabindranath Tagore's writings of Sanatan themes and universal humanism, helping popularize them in Europe. She welcomed Gandhi on his visit to Marseille, France. [[image:Kanuparti Varalakshmamma.jpg|right|thumb|100px|'Sarada'.]]
Kanuparti Varalakshmamma (alias 'Sarada'), a devout Gandhian, used Hindu themes like providing ethical refences (i.e., Savitri, Sita) to depict women's morality, dignity, and conduct. She often engaged with the idea of a grihalakshmi (idea woman of the household.) She also founded the Stree Hitaishini Mandali for uplifting women. She used ''Andhra Patrika'', a newspaper created by a promoter of the ''Bhagavad Gita'', Kasinathuni Nageswara Rao, to preach her ideas.
[[image:Vijaya Lakshmi Pandit.jpg|right|thumb|100px|'Vijaya Lakshmi Pandit'.]]
It is also noteworthy that the 1st female head of government in the world was a [[Bauddh Dharm|Bauddh]] (Sirimavo Bandaranaike of Sri Lanka, non-INC member), and 2nd was a Hindu (Indira Gandhi, INC member.) Also Vijaya Lakshmi Pandit[https://news.un.org/en/story/2024/03/1147327] (born Swaroop Rani Nehru) played a significant role in global representation of women, particularly in the United Nations. She was the first woman to serve as the President of the UN General Assembly (1953-1954), a position she held to advocate for decolonization and the independence of countries in Asia and Africa. She was also the first Indian woman to hold a cabinet rank in a provincial government. Hansa Mehta[https://india.un.org/en/311450-hansa-mehta%E2%80%99s-life-story-continues-inspire] had an impact on the UN's constitution wording wherein "''all human beings''" instead of "all men" in the Universal Declaration of Human Rights. (She was also one of only 2 women delegates working alongside Eleanor Roosevelt in the UN Human Rights Commission 1946-48.)
[[image:Nilla Cram Cook.jpg|right|thumb|100px|'Nilla Nagini Devi'.]]
Nilla Cram Cook, an American who settled at Gandhi's ashrams, had [[Conversion|converted to Hinduism]] in the 1930's but identified with the '[[Samyag Darshan#Samadarshan|sarva dharma sambhava]]' ideal, so considered herself a [[Bhakta|devotee]] of not only [[Krishna]] but of Jesus too, and so she later also translated the Quran and engaged with Islamic practices in a syncretic way with her Hindu and Christian customs. Her final literary work was ''The Way of the Swam: Poems of Kashmir'' (1958), which was mostly focused around the [[Saiva|Shaiv]] mystic poetess Lal Ded[https://hindupost.in/society-culture/lal-ded-her-life-and-works/#][https://homegrown.co.in/homegrown-voices/the-poetry-of-lal-ded-mysticism-resistance-the-female-voice-in-14th-century-kashmir] and others from Kashmir syncretic Sanatan-[[Bauddh Dharm|Bauddh]]-[[Sufism with Vaishnavism|Sufi]] tradition. She dedicated the book to Pandit. She didn't work on women's upliftment directly but did participate with Gandhi's Harijan Sevak Sangh. She had also written about Sarojini Naidu (1st Indian woman-president of the INC.)

;Other associations
[[image:Maharani Chimnabai Gaekwad II.jpg|right|thumb|100px|Maharani Chimnabai.]]
[[image:Sethu Parvathi Bayi.jpg|right|thumb|100px|Junior Queen Bayi.]]
The National Council of Women in India[https://www.ncwi.in/], founded 1925, was also a monumental organization to make progress for women — it mainly focused on female literacy, vocational training, public participation, and legal reform. It was primarily the initiative of Lady Meherbai Tata, a Mazdaean icon, and its first president was Maharani Chimnabai Gaekwad II, born Gajrabai Ghatge, a princess of Dewas (M.P.) She supported societal progress of women that did not compromise on Hindu identity (i.e., traditional customs like wearing sari and sindhoor or like celebrating Raksha Bandhan), which is how she framed her ''The Position of Women in Indian Life'' book. She financed schools for girls, as well as Hindu charities and temples. The Gaekwad family also funded libraries and women's institutions and social reform initiatives. She discussed the eradication or the purdah, child marriage, women's restrictions (i.e., obtaining education and employment), and other obstacles towards advancement. Following her presidentship, Sethu Parvathi Bayi took over. She was from the royal family of Travancore (Kerala), and her family was deeply connected to the Padmanabhaswamy Temple[https://spst.in/][https://www.padmanabhaswamytemple.com/]. She financed Hindu institutions as well. It is notable that Sucharu Deo, daughter of Brahmo leader K.C. Sen was a prominent member and she had also helped build the Maharani Girls' High School[https://school.banglarshiksha.gov.in/ws/website/index/19013701705] in Darjeeling (W.B.) together with her sister (Suniti) and Hemlata Sarkar, daughter of Brahmo leader Sibnath Sastri.

From Hindu-based institutions like sociopolitical organizations and schools came a number of philanthropic associations.
;Most influential persons for women's upliftment
{| class="wikitable sortable"
|-
! Area of Contribution
! Meaning
! Steps Taken
! Activists
! Organizations
! Founder's Affiliation(s)
|-
|Political rights and visibility
|1. Women appearing in public political spaces 2. Women being recognized as leaders (not just participants) 3. Changing social norms about women's public roles 4. Symbolic representation
|Helped institutionalize women's leadership through bodies like Women's Indian Association
|Dr. Annie Besant (women's political rights + organizational leadership), Kamaladevi Chattopadhyay (political participation, economic empowerment, cooperatives), Margaret Cousins[https://www.womensmuseumofireland.ie/exhibits/margaret-elizabeth-cousins] (Suffarage, WIA), Sarojini Naidu (mass mobilization of women in politics)
|
|
|-
|Modern institutional equality
|
|Helped institutionalize institutional equality through contributing policy influence (Hansa Mehta) and constitutional rights (Dr. Durgabai Deshmukh)
|Dr. Durgabai Deshmukh (welfare systems), Hansa Mehta
|
|
|-
|Foundational legal reform
|
|
|Raja Ram Mohan Roy (abolition of sati), Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar (widow remarriage)
|
|
|-
|Education
|
|
|Raja Ram Mohan Roy, Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar
|
|
|-
|}

====Hindu influence internationally================================================================
Even outside of India during the 20th century, women's rights were not perfect, and so many women incorporated Hindu symbolism (i.e., worship) and concepts towards promoting societies where women would have equal rights.
[[image:M.J. Gage.jpg|right|thumb|200px|Matilda Joslyn Gage.]]
[[image: Charlotte Despard.jpg|right|thumb|200px|Charlotte Despard, an Anglo-Irish suffragist who supported Indian independence.]]
As [[Worship of God as Mother|worship of God as a female or mother]] has been common in Sanatan Dharm since its foundation, that made validating female upliftment in India quicker. Even in Western nations, prominent women's rights organizations implemented imagery of goddesses from pertinent ancient cultures, like U.K.'s Women's Freedom League and National Union of Women's Suffrage Societies, and the global International Woman Suffrage Alliance, to legitimize female equality and women being in positions of power. Some American and European feminists and women's rights activists, like Matilda Joslyn Gage<ref>"''While the sale of daughters was practiced in England for seven hundred years after the introduction of Christianity, we note that by the ancient law of India, a father was forbidden to sell his daughter in marriage, or receive the smallest present therefor.''" - P. 79-82 ''Woman, Church and State'' (1893) By Matilda Joslyn Gage</ref> (U.S. suffragist) and Helena Petrovna Blavatsky<ref>"''The pre- and post-Vedic woman was as free as man; and no impure terrestrial thought was ever mixed with the religious symbology of the early Aryans.''" 
"''This is proven by the fact that in the Vedic period their women were not placed apart from men in penetralia, or ‘Zenanas.’ Their seclusion began when the Mahomedans … had conquered the land and gradually enforced their ways and customs upon the Hindus.''" 
- P. 379-380 ''The Secret Doctrine: Volume I'' By Helena Blavatsky </ref> (European feminist), even used the examples of [[Worship of God as Mother|Hindu goddess-worship]] and Hindu queens to support their examples. And though Blavatsky did not officially align with any single religion to encourage recruitment for her Theosophical Society, she referenced Sanatan and Bauddh scriptures (Upanishads, and then Gita, then Bauddh shastras) more than others. (M.J. Gage[https://www.smithsonianmag.com/history/the-feminist-inspired-witches-of-oz-180985334/] in her ''Woman, Church, and State'' even highlighted Hindu texts to counter the male-centric theology of the West and referenced ''[[Bhagavad Gita]]'' to validate the concept of a female [[divinity]].) Even feminists of the colonial era like Victoria Woodhull that was skeptical of organized religion, respected "''Christna and Buddha''" (Krishna and Gautama.) Mary Lowe Dickinson at the World's Parliament Circles (1893) was so impressed by [[Swami Vivekananda|Swami Vivekanand]]'s speech, that she developed a fascination with female divinity of Hinduism, and in her editorials and public circles, argued that Hinduism's recognition of a feminine aspect within the divine was spiritually superior to the rigidly patriarchal, all-male Trinity of mainstream American Christianity. Emily Pitts Stevens and Charlotte LeMoyne Wills (wrote about the genderless [[Brahm]]) became disciples of Vivekanand. Laura de Force Gordon wrote about the immortal soul and continuous cycle of life. Alice Moore McComas wrote about the interconnectedness (aikatmyam) of all things. In U.K., Charlotte Despard's specific pamphlets linked [[karma]] to political activism. Margaret Louise Sanger was influenced by Vivekanand and Rabindranath Tagore. Sarah Bull<ref> P. 483 ''Western Admirers of Ramakrishna and His Disciples'' By Gopal Stavig, Swami Shuddhidananda </ref>, who particularly focused on women's education and reform was connected to both Vivekanand and Sister Nivedita. Josephine MacLeod was a major promoter of Vivekanand in the West and was involved in transatlantic reform-intellectual networks. Viktoria Ocampo of Argentina was deeply influenced by Tagore, even hosting him in Argentina and promoting his ideas widely. Gabriela Mistral of Chile was too, and she applied Tagore's ideas to women's education, child welfare, and cultural reform. Mabel Dodge Luhan was fascinated with Sanatan philosophy and influenced by Vivekanand. Mentionable is Emma Calve of France, who wasn't a political feminist leader but influential in women's intellectual-cultural circles, and she was deeply influenced by Vivekanand.
[[image:Carol Patrice Christ.jpg|right|thumb|200px|Carol Patrice Christ.]]
After suffragists had attained complete institutional equality, they them progressed to the next stage of female liberation by ensuring that their own spiritual faith wasn't male-chauvinistic or making them subordinates of males. Feminists were inspired by goddess deity of Hinduism to then promote it within generic spirituality. Valerie Saiving, Isaac Bonewits and Naomi Goldenberg founded in the 1970's, Thealogy, a feminine-specific theology. Carol Patrice Christ launched the Goddess Movement, which provided 4 aspects of Goddess symbolism as reasons to needing a goddess in women's lives; 1) the Goddess as affirmation of female power, 2) the female body, 3) the female will, and 4) women's bond and heritage. She specifically used the Shakti concept to prove that a major global religion (Hinduism) explicitly defined the [[Brahmanda|material universe]]/nature/change ([[Darshana#Sankhya|Prakriti]]) as an inherently active, female, and sacred force. She was an ecofeminist, as were Charlene Spretnak and Miriam Simos were ecofeminists too. Merlin Stone wrote ''Ancient Mirrors of Womanhood: Our Goddess and Heroine Heritage'' (1979) and in a chapter analyzes goddesses like [[Durga]], [[Kali]], [[Lakshmi Puja|Lakshmi]], Parvati, and Saraswati. Devout Christian women feminists too drew on Hindu practices and ideas to support women's advocacy, and they include Ivone Gebara, Pearl Sydenstricker Buck, and Sally McFague.

'Matriarchal religion' is a philosophy stating that societies were Goddess worshippers with females having the same status and rights as men before male gods began being worshipped, and the latter led to patriarchy. Goddesses being worshipped contiguously in Hindu societies for thousands of years was the backing this thought utilized, in addition to feminist archaeology (i.e., ancient idols and temples of goddesses uncovered.)

==Start of modern reforms==
In modern India, most positive social changes within Indian Hindu societies came not first as enforcement or pressure from European rulers but from advocacy of forward-thinking Hindus. Raja Ram Mohan Roy had led the campaign to purge Hindu societies of Sati and caste prejudices. Roy worked with British imperial authority, specifically Lord William Bentinck to have sati outlawed. Roy himself was a religious leader that reiterated Upanishads for their principles.

Other institutions of positive social changes were mainly Hindu ones or were governed by Hindu religious leaders, not secular ones.

The Indian National Social Conference of 1887 was organized by Justice Ranade, Rai Raghunath Rao, Narendra Nath Sen Gupta, and Janki Nath Ghoshal. Ranade was founder of the Prarthana Samaj, a religious group.

Arya Samajis, Brahmo Samajis, and Prarthana Samajis were the most vocal and active forces advocating: 
#Widow Remarriage (i.e., Widow Remarriage Act 1856—initiative of Brahmo Samaj)
#Women's right to divorce (i.e., Native Marriage Act 1872—initiative of Brahmo Samaj) 
#Property rights for women 
#Opposition to child marriages (i.e., Age of Consent Act 1891—initiative of Brahmo Samaj and Prarthana Samaj, Child Marriage Restraint Act 1929—initiative of Arya Samaj) 
#Universal accessible education (built schools, including colleges and gurukuls) 
#Caste-based reservations
[[image:Justice Ranade.jpg|right|thumb|200px|Mahadev Govind Ranade (alias 'Justice Ranade'.)]]
[[image:Jagannath Shankarshet.jpg|right|thumb|200px|Jagannath Shankarshet (alias 'Architect of Modern Mumbai'.)]]
The Indian Factories Act 1881's ratification was a landmark in workers' rights and the credit goes mainly to Sorabjee Shapoorjee Bengalee, and then Prarthana Samaj. He did work alongside the Prarthana Samaj to lobby the British authority through the First Factory Commission in 1875 (made to investigate the brutal conditions of Indian labour.) Prarthana Samaj's ''Subodh Patrika'' newspaper specifically critiqued mill owners. Rahnumai Mazdayasnan Sabha, its newspaper ''Rast Goftar'', and Bengalee himself referenced labour reformers Sasipada Banerji and Protap Chunder Mozumdar, and used the former's methods of worker upliftment as a blueprint for their own legislative arguments. Collaboration between the Sabha and Prarthana Samaj began with the latter's creation of the Theistic Association, on which the Parsi Naoroji Furdonji was its 1st Chairman. Ranade and Bhandarkar drove the Association from discussing only theism to improving society through finding solutions of work hardships. The Night School Initiative was launched, helping workers receive adequate training, particularly in labourer-heavy neighborhoods Byculla, Dongri, Khetwadi, and Thakurdwar. (From 1886-1890 alone, over 2,750 industrial workers successfully studied through this initiative.)

Brahmo Samaj's K.C. Sen’s first visit to Mumbai in March-April 1864 engaged him with Bengalee, Furdonji, Ranade, and Bhandarkar (all then members of Young India.) They all discussed ways to develop India. They also shared strategies on how to bypass orthodox religious resistance—Furdonji within Zoroastrianism and Sen within Sanatan Dharm. Bengalee's First Labor Bill (1878) laid the groundwork for the later Indian Factories Act.

Prior to all of this, Jagannath Shankarshet[https://www.vishwakonkani.org/hall-of-fame/hon-jagannath-shankar-sheth/] spent the 1850s petitioning the British Parliament for local governance. As a result, it codified the Indian Councils Act of 1861, thus creating the Bombay Legislative Council as a political body to better govern the-then Bombay Presidency. Shankarshet was the main founder of Bombay Association. In its first leadership were also Dr. Ramachandra Vitthal Lad (alias 'Dr. Bhau Daji'), a Hindu intellectual who used his Sanskrit knowledge to decipher inscriptions, preserve manuscripts, and help reconstruct the forgotten timelines of ancient Guptas and Western Kshatrapa dynasties. Mentionable is the Parsi Sir Jamsetjee Jeejeebhoy of the group. Shankarshet was a wealthy philanthropist that constructed and financed Sanatan and secular infrastructure, most notably the Bhavani Shankar Mandir[https://www.mcgm.gov.in/irj/go/km/docs/documents/D%20Ward/Heritage-Sites/73_Legacy%20of%20D%20Ward_Article_Bhavani%20Shankar%20Temple.pdf] (Mumbai), Sanskrit Seminary and Sanskrit Library (both in Mumbai too.) Elphinstone Educational Institution[https://elphinstone.ac.in/index.php] and Grant Medical College[https://gmcjjh.edu.in/] were his creations too. (Jeejeebhoy contributed to constructing the Grant Medical College.)

===Shahu's royal authority to implement reforms===
[[image:Shahu adoption.jpg|right|thumb|200px|Prince Yeshwantrao Ghatge being adopted by the royal family of Kohlapur.]]
[[image:Rajarshi.jpg|right|thumb|200px|Rajarshi Chhatrapati Shahu Maharaj.]]
[[image:School foundation.jpg|right|thumb|200px|Foundation of Shri Shahu Chhatrapati Shikshan Sanstha.]]
The greatest champion on all of these sections for reforms was Chhatrapati Shahu Maharaj[https://aissms.org/breaking-barriers-chhatrapati-shahu-maharaj-and-his-enduring-impact-on-progress-and-modernity/] (born Yeshwantrao Ghatge), '[[Rta and Spiritual Authority#Rishis|Rajarshi]]', the ruler of Kohlapur Kingdom who affiliated with organizations but probably the Arya Samaj[https://thearyasamaj.org] more than any other. Shahu definitely was not shy to publicly perform prayers, as he famously attended temples of goddesses Ambabai[https://www.mahalaxmikolhapur.com/home] and Bhavani[https://shrituljabhavani.org/] when having returned from his Europe trip in 1902. Also in 1902, Pratap Singh Maharaj of Idhar (Gujarat) introduced and educated him about the Arya Samaj. He provided patronage to the Arya Samaj.[https://navjyot.net/wp-content/uploads/2022/12/10.pdf]

The king passed many policies for for the upliftment of untouchable, nomadic, non-Brahmin communities and for females.<ref>Act of Free and Compulsory Primary Education (1917), Widow remarriage Act (1917), End of Balutedari (1918), Repeal of Kulkarni Watan (1918), Intercaste and Interreligious Marriages and Sanctioning of Registered Marriage Act (1919), Act relating to protection of Harassment of Women (1919), Divorce act (1919), Order on prohibition of Untouchability practice (1919), Illegitimate Children's Rights and Devadasi Prohibition Act (1920); 
[https://www.indiejournal.in/article/rajarshi-shahu-maharaj-and-his-tryst-with-the-arya-samaj "Rajarshi Shahu Maharaj & his tryst with the Arya Samaj Lessons for our times"] By Devkumar Ahire (Jun 26, 2023 6:42 PM)</ref>

;Prejudiced disgruntled castists promoting anti-Brahman hate, not universalism
While Shahu was affiliated with the Satyashodhak Samaj (SS) because it wanted to uplift the non-dwija castes, he did not feel they had any religious foundations, whereas the Arya Samaj was encompassed both a spiritual and social movement.<ref>"Beyond Reformism: Chhatrapati Shahu and Hinduism Reimagined" By Surajkumar Thube P. 124-144 ''Nidān: International Journal for Indian Studies, Volume 8'', Issue 1 (July 2023)</ref> Also, the SS of Pune was antithetical to social cohesion because it targeted the Brahman caste as an enemy, and while its main founder (Jyotirao Phule) made absurd claims like 'Shiv-Dharma'<ref>"''The real Shiv-Dharma that is ours, we are re-establishing it as Sarvajanik Satya Dharma.''" Chapter 4, ''Sarvajanik Satya Pustak''</ref> or 'Mahadev-Dharma' (worship of [[Shiva|Shiv]] as God and some local gods like Khandoba as avatars) being the true religion of Indians whereas every other Hindu belief and practice was an imposition by 'non-Indian Brahman invaders'. Being a chauvinist, he also criticized freedom fighter martyrs Lakshmi Bai, Nana Sahib, Tantia Tope for being Brahmans. He also wrote positively that freedom fighters lost the 1857 War of Independence against the British colonialists. He was also openly criticized by his own relative Baburao Phule, who accused the former of being a Christian convert who destroyed the Hindu religion.<ref>P. 58-59 ''The Caste Question: Dalits and the Politics of Modern India'' (2009) By Anupama Rao </ref>

Phule though anti-Brahman, was influenced by some Brahmans, such as Balshastri Jambhekar (a Hindu activist) who pushed scientific knowledge and history through Marathi, criticized caste segregation, and attacked other or kinds or orthodoxy like widowhood. He was also influenced by some Hindu activists who were not anti-Brahman (i.e., Karsandas Mulji.)

The organization would receive the most aid from Shahu (financial and social work), Karmvir (social work), and Padval (intellectual) but they themselves always kept a distance from the SS because of its explicitly castist vitriol. People would choose to align or become members of other associations for their inclusivity and harmonious vision for the future.

;Satyashodhak Samaj becoming less anti-Brahman
"''All Hindus are equal. No one is superior, no one is inferior. Let all flesh and blood be one. Four varnas are a real deceit. It's a tool to keep the non-Brahmins in slavery. There is no difference among the Hindus. Hindu is the only varna. If a Hindu eats or marries with another Hindu that's not ''[[adharma]].'' In contrast, what divide Hindus in the name of religion is not a dharma, but a trick by Brahmins. One who calls themselves a Hindu, whether they are Europeans or Africans, they are our coreligionists.''" - P. 39 ''Deshache Dushman'' (1925) By Dinkarrao Javalkar
[[image:Sasipada Banerji.jpg|right|thumb|100px|Sasipada Banerji (alias 'Sevabrata'.)]]
Notable is that Phule's friend Narayan Meghaji Lokhande, a labour organization leader, was close friends with Phule and used Khandoba-worship and the reverence of Sundays for Khandoba in his petition to British authority to achieve Sunday as a holiday for factory labourers. Phule and Lokhande emulated Brahmans, like forming the political lobby group Deenbandhu Sarvajanik Sabha after Ranade's Poona Sarvajanik Sabha and forming the Bombay Mill Hands Association based and its mouthpiece ''Deenbandhu'' on the Working Men's Club (India's 1st labour welfare platform) and its mouthpiece ''Bharat Sramajibi'' (India's 1st labour journal) of Sasipada Banerji (Brahmo Samaji.)

Though Dinkarrao Javalkar portrayed himself as pan-Hindu when discussing the specific topic of Hindu unity, he still prejudicially criticized the Brahman caste in general<ref>"''This day will be counted among the most important days in the history of Hindus. There is no reason for you to fear jail. The Brahmans who eat ghee and roti should have that fear. To make the touchable people behave is in your hands. You are the sons of Hindus. You capture the tank saying 'har har Mahadev' and follow the advice of your leader Dr. Ambedkar Saheb. This is my own position.''" -Dinkarrao Javalkar at satyagraha with Keshavrao Jedhe and Dr. Ambedkar among a Mahar crowd</ref> and targeted some prominent Brahmans like Lokmanya Tilak. (Javalkar and Keshavrao Jedhe also portrayed themselves as pro-woman but derogatory remarks about women from the Brahman and certain other castes<ref>P. 44 ''19th Century Maharashtra: A Reassessment'' (2020) By Shraddha Kumbhojkar </ref> and both appealed to Dr. B.R. Ambedkar in 1927 to exclude Brahmans from the Mahad Satyagraha<ref> P. 27 ''Social Reform Movements in India: A Historical Perspective'' (1991) By V.D. Divekar</ref>.) Jedhe did protest with other activists (including Brahmans like Narhar Vishnu Gadgil, Seshdas Ranade, Shreedhar Mahadev Joshi, and members of Arya Samaj) for the right of Dalits to worship at Pune's Devdeveshwar Mandir[https://devdeveshwarsanthan.org/home.html]. Javalkar did write favourably about some like Ranade, Gopal Ganesh Agarkar, and Krishna Gopal Gokhale but even they were rarely mentioned. He rightfully partook in the Kalaram Mandir[https://www.shrikalaramsansthannasik.org/] Satyagraha in Nasik that protested for Dalits to be able to enter the temple. He was a communist and 10 years after his death, the Peasants and Workers Party (PWP) was formed.

SS branches outside of Pune were less hateful of Brahmans. It is also noteworthy, however, is that Nana Patil, a founder of the PWP, was affiliated with both the Satyashodhak and Prarthana associations [meaning that he, like most other Satyashodhaks didn't believe in Phule's religious ideology.] Some other PWP founders like Jedhe and Madhavrao Bagal were Satyashodhaks, they popularized Shiv Jayanti and Ganesh Chathuri. The latter and his son Vasantrao even wrote devotional pieces inspired from Bhakti Era saints (i.e., [[Tukaram]], [[Eknath]]) and valourizing pieces about Shahu. Tulshidas Jadhav, a Gandian within the PWP, championed the Bhakti Era's Warkari Movement, which was still popular in his time, because it was based on social equality and public seva. Also noteworthy is, that even some prominent members supported the Arya Samaj, like Krishnarao Bhalekar (1 of the founders of SS with Phule) defended Dayanand Saraswati (Arya Samaj’s founder), when the latter’s procession was opposed by some orthodox Hindus in Pune, and Bhalekar organized a speech to be delivered by Saraswati at a dharmshal near a Rokdoba Temple in Pune.

Bhalekar himself made the claim that the SS is the true follower of Sant Tukaram's [[Bhāgavata-dharma|Bhagwat Dharma]] ([[Krishna|Krishnaite]] [[Vaishnava|Vaishnavism]].) His son was Mukundrao Patil, who made the claim, "''The Satyasodhak Samaj is the true heir of the Hindu religion. Brahmanism is not Hinduism.''"<ref>''Dinmitra'' newspaper (1920s)</ref> Javalkar claimed SS is the true representative of the Hindu religion and that SS members are liberating Hinduism from the supremacy of the Brahmins. Shivram Janma Kamble stated the SS is a revival movement of the true Hinduism. Kisan Faguji Bansode argued "Shivdharma" was the true Hindu religion and that the SS advocates that version.

There were those in his organization that promoted about how in ancient Sanatan society, there were no caste distinctions and that people were recognized by their merits. Their view was promoted by Tukaram Tatya Padval, who wrote ''Jatibhed Vivekshar'' (1861) after being inspired by Ashwaghosha's ''Vajrasuchi''. Phule republished copies of Padval's books, and the 2 developed a friendship. He did write at that in ancient India, certain sages were had Sudra or Avarna status but rose to the rank of a Brahman through their intellect, and used examples of Valmiki (wrote a ''Ramayan''), Sankhya, and Kabilar rishis. He also published copies of the ''Bhagavad Gita'', ''Yogasutra'', and compilations of the ''Rajayoga'' and ''Sankhya Karika.'' He further compiled the ''Tukarambaba ani Tyanche Shisya Yanchi Abhanga Gatha'' (1889) and ''Eknath Maharajancha Abhangachi Gatha'' (1903.) Padval, however, never became a member of Phule's organization and instead became a member of the Theosophical Society.

;Shahu forming his own Satyashodhak Samaj focused on upliftment (free of anti-Brahman distractions)
As a result of the Satyashodhak Samaj of Pune being too antagonistic of Brahmans, Shahu had instead founded his own branch in 1911 — Shri Shahu Satyashodhak Samaj. By an order, Shahu replaced the Brahman priests in the Patgaon Sansthan (Mauni Maharaj Math[https://durgbharari.in/maunibaba-patgaon/]) and Jyotiba Devasthan[https://shreejyotiba.com/?lang=E][https://maharashtratourism.gov.in/temple/jyotiba/] with Maratha priests. Bhaskarrao Jadhav and Anna Babaji Latthe were leaders of Shahu's Kolhapur Satyashodhak Samaj. Whereas Phule mostly only wrote positively of Shiva and local-born gods, Jadhav in his ''Marathas and their Religion'' wrote positively about Krishna and the ''Bhagavad Gita''. He further worked with Shahu to aid Arya Samaj in its activities and goals (i.e., train non-Brahmans to become priests too.) Noteworthy is that Latthe, who worked personally with Shahu Maharaj, was its first VP and that he worked to dismantle priestly (Jain priests, not usually Brahmans) intermediation within the Jain clergy. (He was a big-time activist for general upliftment and for reform within the Jain community (i.e., wrote ''Jain Dharmacha Parichay''.)

Latthe founded the Dakshin Bharat Jain Sabha[https://dbjainsabha.com/], of which Dr. Bhaurao Patil (from a Jain family) became a member and through he wasn't a member of any SS branch, he did sometimes participate in its activities and himself founded the Rayat Shikshan Sansthan[https://rayatshikshan.edu/], which educated students in a multitude of topics, including Sanskrit. Patil (alias 'Karmvir Anna') was deeply influenced by Mahatma Gandhi and Vitthal Ramji Shinde.

;Shahu distancing himself formally from Satyashodhak Samaj
The SS had earned a bad reputation in Maharashtra with the general public, particularly for the outright anti-Brahman vitriol spewed in the SS's publications and events. Because the goal of Shahu and true reformers was to achieve a harmonious society with all people cooperating, it would not make sense to support an organization that's known for abusing persons (i.e., Brahmans) specifically over their caste identity.

In 1921, Shahu made a public statement in a Baroda newspaper that even though he granted significant support to the non-Brahman movement and introduced measures to eliminate Brahman dominance, he had never been affiliated with Phule's SS, and that he always accepted [[Rta and Spiritual Authority#Rishis|Vedic ritual authority]].

;Granting, accommodating, and expanding Arya Samaj
Shahu attended Arya Samaj sessions like the one at Navsari in 1918 and another at Bhavnagar in 1920<ref>P. 6. ''People's Raj Volume 30'' (1974) By Directorate-General of Information and Public Relations </ref>. He provided funding for Gurukul Boarding House to be built at Kerle, wherein large buildings and well-irrigated lands were granted to the Arya Samaj. Later, the Rajaram Anathalaya orphanage was added to this grant. He also brought educational institutions in his domain under the leadership of Arya Pratinidhi Sabha. Rajaram College's administration was also granted to the Arya Samaj.

;Spiritual Authority as Rajarshi
Shahu Maharaj, being a devout Sanatan wanted to proclaim the rights that warriors of history had and so participated in important ceremonies and worked with priests (i.e., Brahmans) to achieve the rights to learn and perform Vedic ceremonies. He established the Vedokta Committee for Marathas to be able to perform Vedic rites without requiring priests. In 1905, the Karveer Peeth's (or Kolhapur Math's) Shankaracharya declared full rights of Vedokta to Chhatrapati Shahu.

Tatyarao Joshirao was appointed by Shahu Maharaj as new royal purohit, replacing the Rajopadhye (creator of the infamous 'Vedokta Controversy'), who denied the Maharaj to perform Vedic rites. Joshirao was from a family that had traditional ownership of the historic Binkhambi Ganapati Mandir in Kolhapur.

Rajaram Shastri (alias 'Bhagavata'), a Brahman scholar, linguist, and researcher, openly challenged the religious orthodoxy, arguing from scripture that Shahu Maharaj had full rights to the Vedas. Vishnu Topkhane was another Brahman who greatly helped the Chhatrapati with his progressive reforms. Topkhane the educationalist helped the latter establish the Vidyapeeth High School near the Shri Karveer Niwasini Ambabai Mahalakshmi Temple. Freedom fighter Gokhale was someone who worked with Shahu. When the Vedokta Controversy broke out and the conservative press attacked the Maharaja, Gokhale privately and publicly validated Shahu Maharaj's stance, recognizing that social reform was a prerequisite for true political freedom. Ranade, though passed away before much Shahu's reforms began, was admired by the latter for his progressive ideals and actions.

Chhatrapati Shahu founded the Satyashodhak School for spiritual training in 1913, in which seminarians (predominantly from castes such as Marathas, Mahars, and Chambhars) were taught to recite and preach the poems (i.e., abhangs of Tukaram) of sants. He also created the Shivaji Vedic School (aliases 'Shahu Vedic School', 'Shahu Vedic Pathshala', 'Shri Shahu Vaidik Vidyalay') in 1920 and had invited scholars from Varanasi (spiritual capital of Sanatan Dharm) to ensure the highest standard of scriptural and linguistic training. The school trained seminarians (of all castes) to learn Sanskrit and become priests and conduct ceremonies. He further established and financed the office of the Kshatra Jagadguru (''Warrior Universal Teacher''), a pontiff seat open to anyone of any caste. The first Kshatra Jagadguru was Sadashivrao Lakshmanrao Sankpal Patil Benadikar, was an accomplished Sanskrit scholar who received his formal higher education at Rajaram College in Kolhapur. The Kshatra Jagadguru Peeth was the pontiff's seat at Patgaon (in the Bhudargad region of Kolhapur.) Patgaon was chosen because it was the historic site of the Mauni Maharaj Math, a highly respected spiritual center that had historically blessed Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj[https://pilgrimdata.in/temple/mouni-maharaj-math-temple-patgaon-bhudargarh-dist-kolhapur/]. The Kshatra Jagadguru had the Shri Sadashivrao Patil Shikshan Sanstha educationalist association named after him, and it runs schools[https://www.mwssm.org/][https://sspiop.com/] in Maharashtra still. Other organizations too use his name for schools like Sadashivrao Mandlik Mahavidyalaya (Kolhapur) of the ⁠Jay Shivray Education Society.

===Successive associations===
From Hindu-based institutions like sociopolitical organizations and schools came a number of philanthropic associations. Even other humanitarian associations that were not established by Hindu activists, were established by their influence. For example, Krishna Gopal Gokhale had participated in many sessions of the Prarthana Samaj as he was Ranade's pupil, and he later joined the Deccan Education Society, which he left to establish the Servants of India Society. Narayan Malhar Joshi was a member of Gokhale's group and later formed his own Social Service League[https://socialserviceleague.org.in/]. Hriday Nath Kunzru too was part of Gokhale's group and left to establish the Seva Samiti.

{| class="wikitable sortable"
|-
! Organization
! Demographic of Focus
! Region(s)
! Founder
! Founder's Affiliation(s)
! Achievement
|-
|Anath Balikashram Society
|Widows
|Maharashtra
|Dhondo Keshav Karve
|Educated at BHU
|
|-
|Andhra Mahila Sabha
|Females
|Andhra Pradesh
|Durgabai Deshmukh
|
|
|-
|Bharat Stree Mahamandal
|Females
|Bengal, Bihar, Punjab, Sindh, U.P.
|Sarala Devi Chaudhurani
|Arya Samaji, Brahmo Samaji, accepted Bijoy Krishna Chattopadhyaya as her guru
|
|-
|Buddhi Vardhak Sabha
|General public
|Gujarat
|Narmadashankar Labheshankar Dave
|
|Exposed people in positions of power that abused their privileges, build schools for girls
|-
|Central Social Welfare Board
|Females and children
|
|Dr. Durgabai Deshmukh
|
|
|-
|Hindu Widow Marriage Association
|Females
|Maharashtra
|Dhondo Keshav Karve
|Educated at BHU
|
|-
|Hindustani Seva Dal
|Females
|Every province
|Dr. Narayan Subbarao Hardikar
|
|Established the Hindustani Seva Mandal (later became Rashtriya Seva Dal) in 1923, established the Arya Bala Sabha, taught the Gita during his student days in Kolkata, was a fan of Lokmanya Tilak, and had enthusiastically worked with Lala Rai
|-
|Indian Reform Association
|Females
|West Bengal
|Keshub Chandra Sen
|
|Brahmo Samaji, founded ''Sulabh Samachar'' as weekly newspaper of group
|-
|Kasthurbha Gandhi Kanya Gurukulam[http://www.kgkgurukulam.org/]
|Girls
|Tamil Nadu (Vedaranyam)
|Vedaratnam Pillai
|
|Involved in temple-based philanthropy and donated to Sri Ramakrishna Mission too
|-
|Lakshmi Ashram
|Females
|Uttarakhand
|Sarla Behn
|
|Established individual Mahila Mandals throughout Uttarakhand and promoted important skills as well as ecological awareness
|-
|Lokahitawadi Mandal
|General public
|Maharashtra
|Vishnu Vaman Shirwadkar
|
|Wrote about Hindu themes, including persons from scriptures and about Shivaji poetically, philosophically, and nationally
|-
|Maharshi Karve Stree Shikshan Samstha
|Females
|Maharashtra
|Dhondo Keshav Karve
|Educated at BHU
|
|-
|Mahila Vidyalaya (Pune)
|Females
|Maharashtra
|Dhondo Keshav Karve
|Educated at BHU
|
|-
|Nishkam Karma Math
|Females
|Maharashtra
|Dhondo Keshav Karve
|Educated at BHU
|
|-
|Poona Seva Sadan
|Females
|Maharashtra (at its peak, included M.P. and T.N.)
|Ramabai Ranade
|
|
|-
|Samata Sangh
|General public
|Maharashtra
|Dhondo Keshav Karve
|Educated at BHU
|
|-
|Self Employed Women's Association (SEWA)
|Females
|18 states
|Ela Bhatt
|Gandhian Textile Labour Association
|Established: own bank (Shri Mahila Sewa Sahakari Bank, or 'SEWA Cooperative Bank'), SEWA Mahila Housing Trust
|-
|Servants of the People Society
|Females
|Kerala, Maharashtra, M.P., Odisha T.N., Uttarakhand U.P.
|
|
|
|-
|Shraddhanand Ashram[https://shraddhanandmahilashram.org] (alias Hindu Women's Welfare Society)
|Females and boys
|Maharashtra (Mumbai)
|Swami Shraddhanand
|
|Has cared for thousands of destitute women and orphans, and educated them and provided skills development, as well as fostered personal development
|-
|Stree Hitaishini Mandali
|Females
|Andhra Pradesh
|Kanuparti Varalakshmamma
|
|Educated many females
|-
|Widow Marriage Association
|Females
|Maharashtra
|Dhondo Keshav Karve
|Educated at BHU
|
|-
|}

==Inspiration to Madras Presidency==
[[image:M.C. Rajah.jpg|right|thumb|200px|Mylai Chinna Thambi Pillai Rajah (the real 'Periyar'.)]]
While the Arya Samaj, Brahmo Samaj, Prarthana Samaj, and a host of other Hindu-based humanitarian and sociopolitical institutions existed in the-then Madras Presidency of southern India, they inspired local organizations as well. Shahu Maharaj had friends in the-then Justice Party (JP, est. 1916), like Arcot Ramasamy Mudaliar and Panaganti Ramarayaningar. While some ethnic groups, like certain castes even falsely supported the idea of an 'Aryan Invasion Theory' and themselves (Dravidian-languages speakers) as indigenous, they still appreciated Hinduism and did not consider it alien.

The biggest uplifter of the party was M.C. Rajah, who had the highest influence upon the policies that improved the lives of the Dalits in Madras Presidency. The party itself was founded primarily by 3 individuals — Sir Pitti Theagaraya Chetty (political founder who built the political machine), Dr. Taravath Madhavan Nair (ideological co-founder), and Dr. Chintadripet Natesa Mudaliar (cultural/grassroots mobilizer who helped shape cultural legitimacy.) Dr. Nair had said that Hindu society had originally possessed broader equality before caste dominance hardened it. Chetty occasionally used dharm-based ethical framing. He is consistently described as arguing that governance must align with "''dharma and justice''". The Dr. Mudaliar was a devout Shaiva that infused into the party Shaivism as a cultural identity for southerners.
[[image:P.T. Rajan.jpg|right|thumb|200px|P.T. Rajan (centre-right, wearing glasses next to priest), touring with the idol of [[Ayyappan|Ayyappa]] he had made at Swamimalai Temple[https://swamimalaiswaminathar.hrce.tn.gov.in/] and it was placed in the Sabarimala Temple[https://www.sabarimalauptodate.in/].]]
An ideologue of influence to the JP and Self-Respect Movement was Maraimalai Adigal, a Shaiv preacher and writer, who claimed that both the JP and Self-Respect Movement were from his teachings and that militant atheist Erode Venkatappa Ramasami Naicker had hijacked them. JP founder Dr. Nair died in 1919 and Chetty in 1925, so had no interaction Naicker. Ponnambala Thiaga Rajan was an active party member and disagreed with Naicker's ideology, so joined Congress-aligned politics. Mudaliar died in 1935 around the time Naicker entered the JP. Naicker was also a prejudiced castist that criticized but did not contribute to build schools and shelters for women and children, as Rajah[https://www.news18.com/opinion/opinion-m-c-rajah-the-forgotten-hindu-mahasabha-dalit-8937192.html][https://vskbharat.com/m-c-rajah-a-staunch-hindu-leader/?lang=en][https://thecommunemag.com/m-c-rajah-the-hindu-mahasabha-dalit/], a practicing Hindu of the party did. Rajah even once formed a political alliance with the Hindu Mahasabha, was the contributor. Before Rajah, the party's caste disparity was mainly about civil service occupations and education access for underprivileged castes. Rajah was recommended by Ambedkar to convert but Rajah replied there's no religion better than Hinduism.<ref>P. 92 ''The Political Evolution of Muslims in Tamilnadu and Madras, 1930-1947'' By J.B. Prashant More (1997) </ref><ref> In a public meeting of the All India Adi Dravida Mahajana Sabha in Nungambakkam, Chennai he said, "''The president (of this meeting) mentioned that no other community other than us has more right to be called Hindus. Conversion will not bring about any good. By saying so, I am not undermining or wishing away the oppression and ills we have faced. We need to fight for our rights. The speed at which reforms are happening might be slow. But think about our current situation and how much it has improved. I beseech you to please abandon any move that will weaken us. I request the government to bring about the Untouchability Abolition Bill and pass it quickly. The Harijans are proud Hindus. That is the only reason why even after years of oppression by higher castes and a barrage of proselytization efforts by other religions hasn't changed their resolve being Hindus.''" P. 123 ''Evolution of Hindu Nationalism - Icons of HMS, RSS & BJS'' By Sankara Narayanan T (2025)</ref> Adigal's writings had a profound impact on Subramania Ramanathan, the founder of the Self-Respect Movement, and on the Naicker but the latter only wanted pro-Tamil and castist societal changes, not promotion of Shaivism. Naicker would later break away from the party and form his own Dravidar Kazhagam, a title he copied from Adigal's Shaiv association (Podhunilak Kazhagam.) (His own pupil, Conjeevaram Natarajan Annadurai, would eventually disown him after he married his own adopted daughter, and Annadurai would leave his group.)
[[image:Alamelu.jpg|right|thumb|200px|Alamelu Mangai Thayarammal, a Brahmo Samaji, was co-founder of the party among 29 others (all men.)]]
The Hindu sentiment was definitely present in the JP. Many left after Naicker's hijacking. Important members bothered by Naicker's rhetoric apart from Rajan were Ananda Prasad Patro, Arunachalam Thamaraiselvam Panneerselvam, Muthiah Annamalai Chettiar, Ramasamy Kandasamy Shanmukham Chetty, and Subbarayalu Kumaraswami Reddiar. Chettiar even personally regularly donated to temple renovations, endowing temple lands or festivals, supporting pilgrimage facilities, and Hindu-managed schools. Rajan, the last leader of the JP, was the head-of-government of the Presidency, and was a big devotee a [[Ayyappan|Swami Ayyappa]]. Rajan even solemnized a marriage of a German couple converted to Hinduism in Coimbatore (Oct 31, 1962.) He further discouraged conversion of Dalits from Hinduism to another religion<ref>"''If by mass conversion you expect to achieve your object, you will be disappointed, because of a mere change of religion it will not give you all that you want.''" 
P. 147 ''Sir P. T. Rajan's Eighty Second Birthday Souvenir, 1973'' By P.T. Rajan and K. Paramasivam</ref> while encouraging caste-Hindus to better treat Dalits. His family had deep ties to the Meenakshi Amman Temple[https://maduraimeenakshi.hrce.tn.gov.in/] in Madurai, with his son (Palanivel Rajan), serving as a minister, and his daughter-in-law (Rukmani), serving as the first female chairperson of the temple's board of trustees. His predecessor Ramakrishna Ranga Rao denied that the JP was anti-Hindu and declared that it aimed to purify Hindu society from "''absurdities''" and return "''Hinduism greater and more glorious than it was in the past...''"<ref>"''As I understand it, the Self-Respect movement stands for certain great ideals to make Hinduism greater and more glorious than it was in the past, to rid it of all those absurdities which are the accretions of an unfortunate era of the past, and unite us in a solid federation so that all those who profess to follow the Hindu faith may feel that they are brethren following one of the most ancient and glorious religions of the world. No longer should the foreigner point his finger of scorn at this or that particular phase of Hinduism which belies its cosmopolitan tendency by inflicting personal hardship on classes or communities. If a few youths in their exuberant enthusiasm have been carried away beyond the bounds of Hinduism it will not do to fight shy of the new movements, but political wisdom and sagacity lie in taking them into our fold and guiding them aright along the paths of duty and rectitude.''" 
P. 289 ''The Indian Annual Register An Annual Digest of Public Affairs of India Recording the Nation's Activities Each Year in Matters Political, Economic, Industrial, Educational, Social, Etc · Volume 2'' By Nipendra Nath Mitra (1934)</ref> Alamelu Mangai Thayarammal, conferred 'Pandithai' title by Saiva Sabha in Palamcottah, was a JP co-founder [with 29 co-founders being men] who was a Brahmo Samaji, meaning the influence of the Hindu-based organizations wasn't insignificant. Paramasivan Subbarayan Gounder, while not technically a JP member, worked with it closely, and both he and his women's rights activist wife Kailash Radhabai Kulmud were Brahmos. It is also noteworthy that [[Ascetics|ascetic]] Swamiyar Kaivalyar who supported the party without being a member wrote pro-Shaiv material. Cattamanchi Ramalinga Reddy, an ex-member who formed his own party in 1923 was a close friend of Dr. Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan, and he himself engaged with Hindu texts on a literary artistic level. As Hinduism isn't a scripture-dependent religion, some JP members like A.R. Mudaliar heavily criticized certain scriptures but were devout Hindus ([[Vaiśnava|Vaishnav]] in his case.) And while orthodox opposition was present, the majority of Indians, including religious leaders, supported reforms, like when Shankaracharya of Kanchi[https://www.kamakoti.org/] supported the "Hindu Religious Endowments Bill" (1921) even while voicing some concerns in within. Mentionable is that [[Shatata-Unnati#Female upliftment|Dr. Muthulakshmi Reddy]] wasn't part of the JP but it still nominated her in 1926 for the Madras Legislative Council to bring about positive changes.

==Related articles==
*[[Women]]
*[[Women as Rishikas in the Vedas]]
*[[Worship of God as Mother]]

==External resources==
*[https://www.ijhsss.com/files/08.-ABHISEK-KARMAKAR_6813z4a4.pdf "Changing status of women in Indian politics (1917-1947): the role of civil society"], P. 42-45 ''International Journal of Humanities & Social Science Studies'' Volume-I, Issue-II (September 2014) By Abhisek Karmakar
*[https://www.besanthill.org/about/history-heritage/annie-besant/ Besant Hill School of Happy Valley in Ojai, California]
*[https://www.anniebesant.org Annie Besant Women's College in Hyderabad, Telangana]
*[https://www.aryasabha.mu/cultural-programme-arya-mahila-mandal-in-the-context-of-the-200th-birth-anniversary-of-swami-dayananda-saraswati/ Arya Mahila Mandal (Mauritius)]
*[https://www.thearyasamaj.org/ammkarolbagh Arya Mahila Mandal Karol Bagh]
*[https://vatikashaktipeeth.com/seven-agitations/women-awakening.html Vatika Shakti Peeth]

==References==
{{reflist}}

[[Category: History]]
[[Category: Economics]]
[[Category: Societal altruism]]

Shatata-Unnati

2026-06-15T05:29:10Z

Himanshu Bhatt: /* Hindu influence internationally */

{{Author|Himanshu Bhatt}}
'Shatata-Unnati' is ''continual change'', 'abhyas' means improvement, 'kram-parivartanam' is ''incremental reformation'', while 'shodhanam' is ''refinement''. All of these terms are descriptive of Hindu society throughout the ages.

Continual social betterment has been one of the defining characteristics of Hindu society. All major cultures have had evils in their histories, including Hindu societies, but the shining examples to enforce positive changes and adaptability to a changing world are the Hinduism, Christianity, and Judaism.

In an era wherein colonial norms meant imprisonment or executions for speaking out against imperial rule, Mahatma Gandhi challenged the ideas of forcing nations to be subservient, fighting oppression by violence, and purging one's own nation of evils (i.e., inequality and superstition.) Today, much of the world still looks to Gandhi's perseverance to bring positive change into society.

Transformation of India's political systems made India into the world's largest democracy, and for accomplishing that, [[Indian Freedom Fighters#INC's Hindu activist roots|Hindu doctrines were rationalize to promote democracy]]. Even in India's political spectrum, Hindu principles were used to make liberalism and communism resonate with people, like Ram Rajya being a communist utopia. Some of the Communist Party of India's [[Indian Freedom Fighters#CPI's Hindu activist roots|founders were idealogues for both communism and Hinduism]], such as Swami Kumaranand, Swami Satyabhakt, and Swami Sahajanand Saraswati, as well as Keezhedathu Damodaran, Radhamohan Gokulji, and Rahul Sankrityayan.

==Comparison in societal reformation (India and Europe)==
:''See also: [[Contribution of Hindu Diaspora]]''
Whereas even in modern times, in most European Christian societies, witch-hunts and slavery were the norm, in Indian Hindu societies, widow-burning was the norm among certain communities (usually northwestern) and caste prejudice was prevalent. Both the Christian and Hindu communities worked to extinguish these and other evils.

Historical societal injustices have been acknowledged and reconciled. Even today, the lasting legacy of important Hindu reformers is visible wherein quotas employment and educational quotas are implemented for social upward mobility to ensure poorer castes and women do not fall behind.

During the colonial era, as human rights improved in Western societies as results from agricultural/economic advancements, Western writers of non-Christian societies took a chauvinistic, parochialist, and Eurocentric approach towards Hindu societies, claiming that they:
#Would never improve in human rights, morality, or rationality
#Are permanently stagnant
#Cannot produce modern or political economic institutions

Critics of the colonial era were proven wrong in these concrete ways:
#Large-scale societal reforms led by Hindu activists themselves improved Hindu societies — i.e., promoting window remarriage and caste integration while also creating quotas for females and historically-disadvantaged castes
#Rapid expansion of education and intellectual mobility — i.e., growth of global Hindu academic presence
#Global economic and corporate leadership — i.e., entrepreneurship and CEOs of major multinational companies like Adobe, Google, and Microsoft
#Democratic political evolution — i.e., maintaining electoral democracies like Hindu-majority nations, providing peaceful transfers of power, and granting significant autonomy to judiciary, press, and civil societies
#Religious and philosophical continuity + adaptation
#Ritual practice has diversified massively by religion and class — i.e., clerics ([[Rta and Spiritual Authority|priests]] and [[ascetics|monks]]) are from many backgrounds
#Reinterpretation of scriptures became internationally influential — i.e., Aldous Huxley loved the perennialism of Upanishads, Erwin Schrödinger the idea of aikatmyam, and Henry David Thoreau that of Ishavasyam
#Non-Hindus from outside of the Indian Subcontinent have converted to Sanatan Dharm and have promoted the religion — James Donald Walters who founded Ananda Sangha, Richard Alpert who founded Hanuman Foundation, John Edwin Favors who founded iFast[https://ifastdc.com/][https://ifastglobal.com/], and Robert Hansen who founded Saiva Siddhanta Church[https://www.himalayanacademy.com/]
#Hindu-based intellectual practices have popularized globally — i.e., [[Ayurveda|Ayurvedic medicine]], divination, political activism, [[Animal rights#Influence upon Westerners|animal rights]], [[Animal_rights#Vegetarianism|vegetarianism]], and [[yoga]]

==Hindu-led social betterment==
What is extraordinary in the case of India is that it was the religious institutions ([[Organizations|Hindu organizations]] and [[Hindu Post-Secondary Institutes|schools]]) that made revolutionary changes, not normally secular or non-Hindu ones. Practicing Hindus saw that superstitious and chauvinistic practices had become institutionalized (caste system and misogyny) within Hindu society, so they formed associations to help, uplift, educate the destitute. They would even go steps further to privilege the marginalized through reservations.

Even women who were more exploratory and not members of specific religions engaged with Hinduism positively. The best example might be Annette Beveridge, an Englishwoman who was the daughter of a Unitarian Christian herself became affiliated with Keshub Chandra Sen in England. She was drawn to his lectures and this fascination with his philosophy inspired her to begin life in India, where she even established<ref>Its expenses were financed by Ananda Mohan Bose and Durga Mohan Das, Dwarkanath Ganguly was its headmaster, and others Brahmos involved with the school were Sibnath Sastri and Monomohun Ghose.</ref> the Hindu Mahila Vidyalaya (''Hindu Women's School''.) Her husband Henry Beveridge was an orientalist (westerners intrigued with Asian cultures) working in India, meaning they were not Westerners critical of Hindu identity. Mrs. Emily Phear was an honorary teacher, and she too was involved in Brahmo Samaji circles for societal development. (Her husband Sir John Budd Phear helped Brahmo Samaj legally.) A non-Hindu that likewise began a girls school (Hindu Female School[https://www.bethunecollegiateschool.com/]) with Brahmos and other Hindus was John Bethune, whose accomplices were Dakshinaranjan Mukherjee, Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar, Ramgopal Ghosh, and Madanmohan Tarkalanka (the last even taught at the school without pay.) Others foreign women in India that engaged positively with Hindu activist organizations were Mary Carpenter[https://southasianbritain.org/people/mary-carpenter/] and Sophia Dobson Collet with Brahmo Samaj, Alma B.R.A. with Arya Samaj, and Mary Hobson with Prarthana Samaj[https://puneprarthanasamaj.org/].

Hindu women that set women's rights activism into motion were Arya Samaj's Lajwanti Sood and Satyavati Devi, and Brahmo Samaj's Kadambini Ganguly and Sarala Devi Chaudhurani. Swarnakumari Devi was both an Arya Samaji and a Brahmo Samaji.
[[image:Dr. Anandi Gopal Joshi.jpg|right|thumb|200px|Dr. Anandi Gopal Joshi in 1886 marking a milestone with 2 other Asian women.]]
What is also worth mentioning is that there were women not members of sociopolitical organizations who pursued and achieved new societal achievements, showing that many Hindu women thought for themselves. Dr. Anandibai Joshi was India's first female doctor to trained in Western medicine. Her education and trip to U.S. was funded by [[Shatata-Unnati#Shahu's royal authority to implement reforms|Chhatrapati Shahu Maharaj]]. Upon return, he even funded her return journey and offer her supervisory role at Kolhapur's largest hospital[https://old.rcsmgmc.ac.in/]. Foundations[https://anandibai.org/resources/], institutions (i.e., Dr. Anandi Gopal Higher Education & Medical Facilities), awards (i.e., IRDS's[https://ngosindia.org/uttar-pradesh-ngos/irds-institute-for-research-documentation-in-social-sciences-lucknow/] Anandibai Joshi Award for Medicine), and scholarships (i.e., Dr. Anandi Gopal Scholarship Scheme) are named after her in commemoration. (Dr. Anandi Gopal Higher Education & Medical Facilities itself is a collaboration between the U.S. university she graduated in (DUCM[https://drexel.edu/medicine/news-events/publications/pulse/spring-2018/]) and SMCW. She let people know that she was not ashamed of being a Hindu. She was often pressured by Christian missionaries to convert[https://knowledge.lancashire.ac.uk/id/eprint/48487/1/bharadwaj-et-al-2023-journey-across-the-world-to-study-medicine-the-anandi-joshi-story.pdf]. Dr. Anandi had written her thesis, "Obstetrics among the Aryan Hindus", containing references from both the traditional Ayurvedic (''Susruta Samhita'' and ''Charaka Samhita'') and modern American medical literatures. (Mentionable is that although her husband Gopalrao Joshi's relentless, public letter-writing campaigns and essays targeted Lokmanya Tilak for being not liberal enough and Justice Ranade for being too liberal Tilak's ''Kesari'' and ''Mahratta'' newspapers glorified Dr. Joshi as a rolemodel for women.)

===Female upliftment===
:''See also: [[Indian Freedom Fighters]] 
;Theosophical Society wing
[[image:Paris Women's Congress.jpg|right|thumb|200px|Dr. Reddy and 3 Indian women at the Paris Women's Congress (1926.)]]
The top 3 champions who politically improved Indian women's rights in the modern era were foreigners — Dr. Annie Besant, Dorothy Jinarajadasa, and Margaret Cousins. They did not tell Indian women to leave Hinduism but rather they themselves became Hindu in practice and Indian in habit. They then sought to restore the Vedic-era of womanhood wherein women had authority (i.e., to become clerics, scholars, and leaders.) Emma Mitchell (American) and Francesca Arundale (English) greatly contributed to building of Hindu educational institutions (i.e., Central Hindu College.)

Dr. Muthulakshmi Reddy is a big name in female rights, and she was influenced by Dr. Besant in her college years (1907-1912) and was guided by Dr. Besant in both her social reform and political work. She worked with Dr. Besant and others to establish the Women's Indian Association (1917.) After Dr. Besant's death, she took over the presidency of the WIA. Gandhi was another major mentor but Reddy never formally joined the INC but sometimes protested colonial injustices (i.e., Gandhi's arrest.)

;Ramakrishna Mission wing
[[image:Nivedita & Vivekanand.jpg|right|thumb|200px|Nivedita with Vivekanand.]]
[[Niveditā, Sister|Sister Nivedita (Margaret Noble)]], a convert from Ireland became a disciple of [[Swami Vivekananda|Swami Vivekanand]] and joined Aurobindo's Dawn Society and had also founded and ran girls' schools in Kolkata (i.e., Ramakrishna Sarada Mission Sister Nivedita Girls' School[https://www.sisterniveditagirlsschool.org/home.html] in Baghbazar) to educate girls who had little to no access to education (i.e., poorest of the poor.) She advocated for women's intellectual and moral development, influenced by Vivekanand's vision of strong Indian womanhood. Her work included lectures, fundraising (India, England, and U.S.), and writings that promoted gender equality in access to knowledge and opportunities. She had worked with Dr. Annie Besant at times. Likewise, Sister Christine, disciple of Vivekanand, is another example of a Westerner who utilized the Ramakrishna Mission and Vivekanand's circles as vehicles for improving female rights in India.

;INC wing
:''See also: [[Indian Freedom Fighters#INC's Hindu activist roots|INC's Hindu activist roots]] 
[[image:Nellie Sen Gupta.jpg|right|thumb|100px|N.S. Gupta.]]
Nellie Sen Gupta[https://www.thedailystar.net/in-focus/news/deshpriya-jatindra-mohan-nellie-sengupta-2036981] (nee Edith Ellen Gray) had married freedom fighter Jatindra Mohan Sen Gupta, and both joined the INC — she also founded Deepali Sangha, a women's organization aimed at promoting social and political awareness, leadership, training, and empowerment among women. Her husband passed away but she was advised to stay in the-then East Pakistan to take care of Hindu rights, which she did. Umadevi (born Wanda Dynowska), a Polish convert to Sanatan Dharm too championed women's rights in India and translated ''[[Bhagavad Gita]]'', ''[[Mahabharata]]'', ''[[Ramayana]]'', and other [[Hindu Scriptures|Hindu and Bauddh literature]] into Polish. Mira Behn (born Madeleine Slade), the daughter of a British Royal Navy admiral, gave up her affluent lifestyle to become Gandhi's servant in India.
[[image:Sarla Behn Chipko Movement.jpg|right|thumb|200px|Sarla Behn's Chipko act[https://www.adda247.com/school/chipko-movement/].]]
Sarla Behn[https://growbilliontrees.com/blogs/knowledge/sarla-behn-tree-nurturing-nature-and-empowering-communities-for-a-sustainable-future?srsltid=AfmBOoq4h0d0skQBNr4w4zOvISuhYz02_EXtPvD3pUoQYjTlcvNHEbQ-#fullcontent] (born Catherine Mary Heilman) from England setup the Lakshmi Ashram Kausani in 1946 within Uttarakhand to uplift women, after having lived in the Sevagram Ashram[https://gandhiashramsevagram.org/] in Maharashtra. The organization educated rural hill girls academically, trained women of self-reliance and industrial skills (i.e., khadi weaving), taught personal care (i.e., literacy, hygiene, anti-liquor campaigns), and promoted [[Environmentalism|ecological awareness]] (Chipko Movement.) It also worked with the INC to encourage nationalist fervour. Lakshmi Ashram individual units were known as Mahila Mandals. This ashram attracted foreign residents intrigued with Sanatan Dharm even after independence, like David Hopkins, who relocated to there in the 1990's.
[[image:Durgabai Deshmukh.jpg|right|thumb|100px|Dr. D.D.]]
Dr. Durgabai Deshmukh, pupil of Gandhi and freedom fighter in the colonial era, established the Central Social Welfare Board (1953.) She later became president of the All India Women's Conference (1931.) Taraben Premchand is an important mention, as she was an important member of this organization, as well as the Jain Mahila Parishad[https://www.dbjainsabha.com], Jyoti Sangh[https://jyotisangh.org/about-us/] (local women's advancement group in Gujarat), and Shraddhanand Ashram[https://shraddhanandmahilashram.org/].

Madeleine Rolland was Women's International League for Peace and Freedom's[https://www.wilpf.org/] French section and never settled in India. However, upon engaging with Hindu culture in the 1920's, she translated Ananda Coomaraswamy's ''[[Nataraja Dasakam|The Dance of Shiva]]'' into French, introducing Hinduism to the-then residents of France. She also translated Rabindranath Tagore's writings of Sanatan themes and universal humanism, helping popularize them in Europe. She welcomed Gandhi on his visit to Marseille, France. [[image:Kanuparti Varalakshmamma.jpg|right|thumb|100px|'Sarada'.]]
Kanuparti Varalakshmamma (alias 'Sarada'), a devout Gandhian, used Hindu themes like providing ethical refences (i.e., Savitri, Sita) to depict women's morality, dignity, and conduct. She often engaged with the idea of a grihalakshmi (idea woman of the household.) She also founded the Stree Hitaishini Mandali for uplifting women. She used ''Andhra Patrika'', a newspaper created by a promoter of the ''Bhagavad Gita'', Kasinathuni Nageswara Rao, to preach her ideas.
[[image:Vijaya Lakshmi Pandit.jpg|right|thumb|100px|'Vijaya Lakshmi Pandit'.]]
It is also noteworthy that the 1st female head of government in the world was a [[Bauddh Dharm|Bauddh]] (Sirimavo Bandaranaike of Sri Lanka, non-INC member), and 2nd was a Hindu (Indira Gandhi, INC member.) Also Vijaya Lakshmi Pandit[https://news.un.org/en/story/2024/03/1147327] (born Swaroop Rani Nehru) played a significant role in global representation of women, particularly in the United Nations. She was the first woman to serve as the President of the UN General Assembly (1953-1954), a position she held to advocate for decolonization and the independence of countries in Asia and Africa. She was also the first Indian woman to hold a cabinet rank in a provincial government. Hansa Mehta[https://india.un.org/en/311450-hansa-mehta%E2%80%99s-life-story-continues-inspire] had an impact on the UN's constitution wording wherein "''all human beings''" instead of "all men" in the Universal Declaration of Human Rights. (She was also one of only 2 women delegates working alongside Eleanor Roosevelt in the UN Human Rights Commission 1946-48.)
[[image:Nilla Cram Cook.jpg|right|thumb|100px|'Nilla Nagini Devi'.]]
Nilla Cram Cook, an American who settled at Gandhi's ashrams, had [[Conversion|converted to Hinduism]] in the 1930's but identified with the '[[Samyag Darshan#Samadarshan|sarva dharma sambhava]]' ideal, so considered herself a [[Bhakta|devotee]] of not only [[Krishna]] but of Jesus too, and so she later also translated the Quran and engaged with Islamic practices in a syncretic way with her Hindu and Christian customs. Her final literary work was ''The Way of the Swam: Poems of Kashmir'' (1958), which was mostly focused around the [[Saiva|Shaiv]] mystic poetess Lal Ded[https://hindupost.in/society-culture/lal-ded-her-life-and-works/#][https://homegrown.co.in/homegrown-voices/the-poetry-of-lal-ded-mysticism-resistance-the-female-voice-in-14th-century-kashmir] and others from Kashmir syncretic Sanatan-[[Bauddh Dharm|Bauddh]]-[[Sufism with Vaishnavism|Sufi]] tradition. She dedicated the book to Pandit. She didn't work on women's upliftment directly but did participate with Gandhi's Harijan Sevak Sangh. She had also written about Sarojini Naidu (1st Indian woman-president of the INC.)

;Other associations
[[image:Maharani Chimnabai Gaekwad II.jpg|right|thumb|100px|Maharani Chimnabai.]]
[[image:Sethu Parvathi Bayi.jpg|right|thumb|100px|Junior Queen Bayi.]]
The National Council of Women in India[https://www.ncwi.in/], founded 1925, was also a monumental organization to make progress for women — it mainly focused on female literacy, vocational training, public participation, and legal reform. It was primarily the initiative of Lady Meherbai Tata, a Mazdaean icon, and its first president was Maharani Chimnabai Gaekwad II, born Gajrabai Ghatge, a princess of Dewas (M.P.) She supported societal progress of women that did not compromise on Hindu identity (i.e., traditional customs like wearing sari and sindhoor or like celebrating Raksha Bandhan), which is how she framed her ''The Position of Women in Indian Life'' book. She financed schools for girls, as well as Hindu charities and temples. The Gaekwad family also funded libraries and women's institutions and social reform initiatives. She discussed the eradication or the purdah, child marriage, women's restrictions (i.e., obtaining education and employment), and other obstacles towards advancement. Following her presidentship, Sethu Parvathi Bayi took over. She was from the royal family of Travancore (Kerala), and her family was deeply connected to the Padmanabhaswamy Temple[https://spst.in/][https://www.padmanabhaswamytemple.com/]. She financed Hindu institutions as well. It is notable that Sucharu Deo, daughter of Brahmo leader K.C. Sen was a prominent member and she had also helped build the Maharani Girls' High School[https://school.banglarshiksha.gov.in/ws/website/index/19013701705] in Darjeeling (W.B.) together with her sister (Suniti) and Hemlata Sarkar, daughter of Brahmo leader Sibnath Sastri.

From Hindu-based institutions like sociopolitical organizations and schools came a number of philanthropic associations.
;Most influential persons for women's upliftment
{| class="wikitable sortable"
|-
! Area of Contribution
! Meaning
! Steps Taken
! Activists
! Organizations
! Founder's Affiliation(s)
|-
|Political rights and visibility
|1. Women appearing in public political spaces 2. Women being recognized as leaders (not just participants) 3. Changing social norms about women's public roles 4. Symbolic representation
|Helped institutionalize women's leadership through bodies like Women's Indian Association
|Dr. Annie Besant (women's political rights + organizational leadership), Kamaladevi Chattopadhyay (political participation, economic empowerment, cooperatives), Margaret Cousins[https://www.womensmuseumofireland.ie/exhibits/margaret-elizabeth-cousins] (Suffarage, WIA), Sarojini Naidu (mass mobilization of women in politics)
|
|
|-
|Modern institutional equality
|
|Helped institutionalize institutional equality through contributing policy influence (Hansa Mehta) and constitutional rights (Dr. Durgabai Deshmukh)
|Dr. Durgabai Deshmukh (welfare systems), Hansa Mehta
|
|
|-
|Foundational legal reform
|
|
|Raja Ram Mohan Roy (abolition of sati), Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar (widow remarriage)
|
|
|-
|Education
|
|
|Raja Ram Mohan Roy, Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar
|
|
|-
|}

===Hindu influence internationally===
Even outside of India during the 20th century, women's rights were not perfect, and so many women incorporated Hindu symbolism (i.e., worship) and concepts towards promoting societies where women would have equal rights.
[[image:M.J. Gage.jpg|right|thumb|200px|Matilda Joslyn Gage.]]
[[image: Charlotte Despard.jpg|right|thumb|200px|Charlotte Despard, an Anglo-Irish suffragist who supported Indian independence.]]
As [[Worship of God as Mother|worship of God as a female or mother]] has been common in Sanatan Dharm since its foundation, that made validating female upliftment in India quicker. Even in Western nations, prominent women's rights organizations implemented imagery of goddesses from pertinent ancient cultures, like U.K.'s Women's Freedom League and National Union of Women's Suffrage Societies, and the global International Woman Suffrage Alliance, to legitimize female equality and women being in positions of power. Some American and European feminists and women's rights activists, like Matilda Joslyn Gage<ref>"''While the sale of daughters was practiced in England for seven hundred years after the introduction of Christianity, we note that by the ancient law of India, a father was forbidden to sell his daughter in marriage, or receive the smallest present therefor.''" - P. 79-82 ''Woman, Church and State'' (1893) By Matilda Joslyn Gage</ref> (U.S. suffragist) and Helena Petrovna Blavatsky<ref>"''The pre- and post-Vedic woman was as free as man; and no impure terrestrial thought was ever mixed with the religious symbology of the early Aryans.''" 
"''This is proven by the fact that in the Vedic period their women were not placed apart from men in penetralia, or ‘Zenanas.’ Their seclusion began when the Mahomedans … had conquered the land and gradually enforced their ways and customs upon the Hindus.''" 
- P. 379-380 ''The Secret Doctrine: Volume I'' By Helena Blavatsky </ref> (European feminist), even used the examples of [[Worship of God as Mother|Hindu goddess-worship]] and Hindu queens to support their examples. (M.J. Gage[https://www.smithsonianmag.com/history/the-feminist-inspired-witches-of-oz-180985334/] in her ''Woman, Church, and State'' even highlighted Hindu texts to counter the male-centric theology of the West and referenced ''[[Bhagavad Gita]]'' to validate the concept of a female [[divinity]].) Even feminists of the colonial era like Victoria Woodhull that was skeptical of organized religion, respected "''Christna and Buddha''" (Krishna and Gautama.) Mary Lowe Dickinson at the World's Parliament Circles (1893) was so impressed by [[Swami Vivekananda|Swami Vivekanand]]'s speech, that she developed a fascination with female divinity of Hinduism, and in her editorials and public circles, argued that Hinduism's recognition of a feminine aspect within the divine was spiritually superior to the rigidly patriarchal, all-male Trinity of mainstream American Christianity. Emily Pitts Stevens and Charlotte LeMoyne Wills (wrote about the genderless [[Brahm]]) became disciples of Vivekanand. Laura de Force Gordon wrote about the immortal soul and continuous cycle of life. Alice Moore McComas wrote about the interconnectedness (aikatmyam) of all things. In U.K., Charlotte Despard's specific pamphlets linked [[karma]] to political activism. Margaret Louise Sanger was influenced by Vivekanand and Rabindranath Tagore. Sarah Bull<ref> P. 483 ''Western Admirers of Ramakrishna and His Disciples'' By Gopal Stavig, Swami Shuddhidananda </ref>, who particularly focused on women's education and reform was connected to both Vivekanand and Sister Nivedita. Josephine MacLeod was a major promoter of Vivekanand in the West and was involved in transatlantic reform-intellectual networks. Viktoria Ocampo of Argentina was deeply influenced by Tagore, even hosting him in Argentina and promoting his ideas widely. Gabriela Mistral of Chile was too, and she applied Tagore's ideas to women's education, child welfare, and cultural reform. Mabel Dodge Luhan was fascinated with Sanatan philosophy and influenced by Vivekanand. Mentionable is Emma Calve of France, who wasn't a political feminist leader but influential in women's intellectual-cultural circles, and she was deeply influenced by Vivekanand.
[[image:Carol Patrice Christ.jpg|right|thumb|200px|Carol Patrice Christ.]]
After suffragists had attained complete institutional equality, they them progressed to the next stage of female liberation by ensuring that their own spiritual faith wasn't male-chauvinistic or making them subordinates of males. Feminists were inspired by goddess deity of Hinduism to then promote it within generic spirituality. Valerie Saiving, Isaac Bonewits and Naomi Goldenberg founded in the 1970's, Thealogy, a feminine-specific theology. Carol Patrice Christ launched the Goddess Movement, which provided 4 aspects of Goddess symbolism as reasons to needing a goddess in women's lives; 1) the Goddess as affirmation of female power, 2) the female body, 3) the female will, and 4) women's bond and heritage. She specifically used the Shakti concept to prove that a major global religion (Hinduism) explicitly defined the [[Brahmanda|material universe]]/nature/change ([[Darshana#Sankhya|Prakriti]]) as an inherently active, female, and sacred force. She was an ecofeminist, as were Charlene Spretnak and Miriam Simos were ecofeminists too. Merlin Stone wrote ''Ancient Mirrors of Womanhood: Our Goddess and Heroine Heritage'' (1979) and in a chapter analyzes goddesses like [[Durga]], [[Kali]], [[Lakshmi Puja|Lakshmi]], Parvati, and Saraswati. Devout Christian women feminists too drew on Hindu practices and ideas to support women's advocacy, and they include Ivone Gebara, Pearl Sydenstricker Buck, and Sally McFague.

'Matriarchal religion' is a philosophy stating that societies were Goddess worshippers with females having the same status and rights as men before male gods began being worshipped, and the latter led to patriarchy. Goddesses being worshipped contiguously in Hindu societies for thousands of years was the backing this thought utilized, in addition to feminist archaeology (i.e., ancient idols and temples of goddesses uncovered.)

==Start of modern reforms==
In modern India, most positive social changes within Indian Hindu societies came not first as enforcement or pressure from European rulers but from advocacy of forward-thinking Hindus. Raja Ram Mohan Roy had led the campaign to purge Hindu societies of Sati and caste prejudices. Roy worked with British imperial authority, specifically Lord William Bentinck to have sati outlawed. Roy himself was a religious leader that reiterated Upanishads for their principles.

Other institutions of positive social changes were mainly Hindu ones or were governed by Hindu religious leaders, not secular ones.

The Indian National Social Conference of 1887 was organized by Justice Ranade, Rai Raghunath Rao, Narendra Nath Sen Gupta, and Janki Nath Ghoshal. Ranade was founder of the Prarthana Samaj, a religious group.

Arya Samajis, Brahmo Samajis, and Prarthana Samajis were the most vocal and active forces advocating: 
#Widow Remarriage (i.e., Widow Remarriage Act 1856—initiative of Brahmo Samaj)
#Women's right to divorce (i.e., Native Marriage Act 1872—initiative of Brahmo Samaj) 
#Property rights for women 
#Opposition to child marriages (i.e., Age of Consent Act 1891—initiative of Brahmo Samaj and Prarthana Samaj, Child Marriage Restraint Act 1929—initiative of Arya Samaj) 
#Universal accessible education (built schools, including colleges and gurukuls) 
#Caste-based reservations
[[image:Justice Ranade.jpg|right|thumb|200px|Mahadev Govind Ranade (alias 'Justice Ranade'.)]]
[[image:Jagannath Shankarshet.jpg|right|thumb|200px|Jagannath Shankarshet (alias 'Architect of Modern Mumbai'.)]]
The Indian Factories Act 1881's ratification was a landmark in workers' rights and the credit goes mainly to Sorabjee Shapoorjee Bengalee, and then Prarthana Samaj. He did work alongside the Prarthana Samaj to lobby the British authority through the First Factory Commission in 1875 (made to investigate the brutal conditions of Indian labour.) Prarthana Samaj's ''Subodh Patrika'' newspaper specifically critiqued mill owners. Rahnumai Mazdayasnan Sabha, its newspaper ''Rast Goftar'', and Bengalee himself referenced labour reformers Sasipada Banerji and Protap Chunder Mozumdar, and used the former's methods of worker upliftment as a blueprint for their own legislative arguments. Collaboration between the Sabha and Prarthana Samaj began with the latter's creation of the Theistic Association, on which the Parsi Naoroji Furdonji was its 1st Chairman. Ranade and Bhandarkar drove the Association from discussing only theism to improving society through finding solutions of work hardships. The Night School Initiative was launched, helping workers receive adequate training, particularly in labourer-heavy neighborhoods Byculla, Dongri, Khetwadi, and Thakurdwar. (From 1886-1890 alone, over 2,750 industrial workers successfully studied through this initiative.)

Brahmo Samaj's K.C. Sen’s first visit to Mumbai in March-April 1864 engaged him with Bengalee, Furdonji, Ranade, and Bhandarkar (all then members of Young India.) They all discussed ways to develop India. They also shared strategies on how to bypass orthodox religious resistance—Furdonji within Zoroastrianism and Sen within Sanatan Dharm. Bengalee's First Labor Bill (1878) laid the groundwork for the later Indian Factories Act.

Prior to all of this, Jagannath Shankarshet[https://www.vishwakonkani.org/hall-of-fame/hon-jagannath-shankar-sheth/] spent the 1850s petitioning the British Parliament for local governance. As a result, it codified the Indian Councils Act of 1861, thus creating the Bombay Legislative Council as a political body to better govern the-then Bombay Presidency. Shankarshet was the main founder of Bombay Association. In its first leadership were also Dr. Ramachandra Vitthal Lad (alias 'Dr. Bhau Daji'), a Hindu intellectual who used his Sanskrit knowledge to decipher inscriptions, preserve manuscripts, and help reconstruct the forgotten timelines of ancient Guptas and Western Kshatrapa dynasties. Mentionable is the Parsi Sir Jamsetjee Jeejeebhoy of the group. Shankarshet was a wealthy philanthropist that constructed and financed Sanatan and secular infrastructure, most notably the Bhavani Shankar Mandir[https://www.mcgm.gov.in/irj/go/km/docs/documents/D%20Ward/Heritage-Sites/73_Legacy%20of%20D%20Ward_Article_Bhavani%20Shankar%20Temple.pdf] (Mumbai), Sanskrit Seminary and Sanskrit Library (both in Mumbai too.) Elphinstone Educational Institution[https://elphinstone.ac.in/index.php] and Grant Medical College[https://gmcjjh.edu.in/] were his creations too. (Jeejeebhoy contributed to constructing the Grant Medical College.)

===Shahu's royal authority to implement reforms===
[[image:Shahu adoption.jpg|right|thumb|200px|Prince Yeshwantrao Ghatge being adopted by the royal family of Kohlapur.]]
[[image:Rajarshi.jpg|right|thumb|200px|Rajarshi Chhatrapati Shahu Maharaj.]]
[[image:School foundation.jpg|right|thumb|200px|Foundation of Shri Shahu Chhatrapati Shikshan Sanstha.]]
The greatest champion on all of these sections for reforms was Chhatrapati Shahu Maharaj[https://aissms.org/breaking-barriers-chhatrapati-shahu-maharaj-and-his-enduring-impact-on-progress-and-modernity/] (born Yeshwantrao Ghatge), '[[Rta and Spiritual Authority#Rishis|Rajarshi]]', the ruler of Kohlapur Kingdom who affiliated with organizations but probably the Arya Samaj[https://thearyasamaj.org] more than any other. Shahu definitely was not shy to publicly perform prayers, as he famously attended temples of goddesses Ambabai[https://www.mahalaxmikolhapur.com/home] and Bhavani[https://shrituljabhavani.org/] when having returned from his Europe trip in 1902. Also in 1902, Pratap Singh Maharaj of Idhar (Gujarat) introduced and educated him about the Arya Samaj. He provided patronage to the Arya Samaj.[https://navjyot.net/wp-content/uploads/2022/12/10.pdf]

The king passed many policies for for the upliftment of untouchable, nomadic, non-Brahmin communities and for females.<ref>Act of Free and Compulsory Primary Education (1917), Widow remarriage Act (1917), End of Balutedari (1918), Repeal of Kulkarni Watan (1918), Intercaste and Interreligious Marriages and Sanctioning of Registered Marriage Act (1919), Act relating to protection of Harassment of Women (1919), Divorce act (1919), Order on prohibition of Untouchability practice (1919), Illegitimate Children's Rights and Devadasi Prohibition Act (1920); 
[https://www.indiejournal.in/article/rajarshi-shahu-maharaj-and-his-tryst-with-the-arya-samaj "Rajarshi Shahu Maharaj & his tryst with the Arya Samaj Lessons for our times"] By Devkumar Ahire (Jun 26, 2023 6:42 PM)</ref>

;Prejudiced disgruntled castists promoting anti-Brahman hate, not universalism
While Shahu was affiliated with the Satyashodhak Samaj (SS) because it wanted to uplift the non-dwija castes, he did not feel they had any religious foundations, whereas the Arya Samaj was encompassed both a spiritual and social movement.<ref>"Beyond Reformism: Chhatrapati Shahu and Hinduism Reimagined" By Surajkumar Thube P. 124-144 ''Nidān: International Journal for Indian Studies, Volume 8'', Issue 1 (July 2023)</ref> Also, the SS of Pune was antithetical to social cohesion because it targeted the Brahman caste as an enemy, and while its main founder (Jyotirao Phule) made absurd claims like 'Shiv-Dharma'<ref>"''The real Shiv-Dharma that is ours, we are re-establishing it as Sarvajanik Satya Dharma.''" Chapter 4, ''Sarvajanik Satya Pustak''</ref> or 'Mahadev-Dharma' (worship of [[Shiva|Shiv]] as God and some local gods like Khandoba as avatars) being the true religion of Indians whereas every other Hindu belief and practice was an imposition by 'non-Indian Brahman invaders'. Being a chauvinist, he also criticized freedom fighter martyrs Lakshmi Bai, Nana Sahib, Tantia Tope for being Brahmans. He also wrote positively that freedom fighters lost the 1857 War of Independence against the British colonialists. He was also openly criticized by his own relative Baburao Phule, who accused the former of being a Christian convert who destroyed the Hindu religion.<ref>P. 58-59 ''The Caste Question: Dalits and the Politics of Modern India'' (2009) By Anupama Rao </ref>

Phule though anti-Brahman, was influenced by some Brahmans, such as Balshastri Jambhekar (a Hindu activist) who pushed scientific knowledge and history through Marathi, criticized caste segregation, and attacked other or kinds or orthodoxy like widowhood. He was also influenced by some Hindu activists who were not anti-Brahman (i.e., Karsandas Mulji.)

The organization would receive the most aid from Shahu (financial and social work), Karmvir (social work), and Padval (intellectual) but they themselves always kept a distance from the SS because of its explicitly castist vitriol. People would choose to align or become members of other associations for their inclusivity and harmonious vision for the future.

;Satyashodhak Samaj becoming less anti-Brahman
"''All Hindus are equal. No one is superior, no one is inferior. Let all flesh and blood be one. Four varnas are a real deceit. It's a tool to keep the non-Brahmins in slavery. There is no difference among the Hindus. Hindu is the only varna. If a Hindu eats or marries with another Hindu that's not ''[[adharma]].'' In contrast, what divide Hindus in the name of religion is not a dharma, but a trick by Brahmins. One who calls themselves a Hindu, whether they are Europeans or Africans, they are our coreligionists.''" - P. 39 ''Deshache Dushman'' (1925) By Dinkarrao Javalkar
[[image:Sasipada Banerji.jpg|right|thumb|100px|Sasipada Banerji (alias 'Sevabrata'.)]]
Notable is that Phule's friend Narayan Meghaji Lokhande, a labour organization leader, was close friends with Phule and used Khandoba-worship and the reverence of Sundays for Khandoba in his petition to British authority to achieve Sunday as a holiday for factory labourers. Phule and Lokhande emulated Brahmans, like forming the political lobby group Deenbandhu Sarvajanik Sabha after Ranade's Poona Sarvajanik Sabha and forming the Bombay Mill Hands Association based and its mouthpiece ''Deenbandhu'' on the Working Men's Club (India's 1st labour welfare platform) and its mouthpiece ''Bharat Sramajibi'' (India's 1st labour journal) of Sasipada Banerji (Brahmo Samaji.)

Though Dinkarrao Javalkar portrayed himself as pan-Hindu when discussing the specific topic of Hindu unity, he still prejudicially criticized the Brahman caste in general<ref>"''This day will be counted among the most important days in the history of Hindus. There is no reason for you to fear jail. The Brahmans who eat ghee and roti should have that fear. To make the touchable people behave is in your hands. You are the sons of Hindus. You capture the tank saying 'har har Mahadev' and follow the advice of your leader Dr. Ambedkar Saheb. This is my own position.''" -Dinkarrao Javalkar at satyagraha with Keshavrao Jedhe and Dr. Ambedkar among a Mahar crowd</ref> and targeted some prominent Brahmans like Lokmanya Tilak. (Javalkar and Keshavrao Jedhe also portrayed themselves as pro-woman but derogatory remarks about women from the Brahman and certain other castes<ref>P. 44 ''19th Century Maharashtra: A Reassessment'' (2020) By Shraddha Kumbhojkar </ref> and both appealed to Dr. B.R. Ambedkar in 1927 to exclude Brahmans from the Mahad Satyagraha<ref> P. 27 ''Social Reform Movements in India: A Historical Perspective'' (1991) By V.D. Divekar</ref>.) Jedhe did protest with other activists (including Brahmans like Narhar Vishnu Gadgil, Seshdas Ranade, Shreedhar Mahadev Joshi, and members of Arya Samaj) for the right of Dalits to worship at Pune's Devdeveshwar Mandir[https://devdeveshwarsanthan.org/home.html]. Javalkar did write favourably about some like Ranade, Gopal Ganesh Agarkar, and Krishna Gopal Gokhale but even they were rarely mentioned. He rightfully partook in the Kalaram Mandir[https://www.shrikalaramsansthannasik.org/] Satyagraha in Nasik that protested for Dalits to be able to enter the temple. He was a communist and 10 years after his death, the Peasants and Workers Party (PWP) was formed.

SS branches outside of Pune were less hateful of Brahmans. It is also noteworthy, however, is that Nana Patil, a founder of the PWP, was affiliated with both the Satyashodhak and Prarthana associations [meaning that he, like most other Satyashodhaks didn't believe in Phule's religious ideology.] Some other PWP founders like Jedhe and Madhavrao Bagal were Satyashodhaks, they popularized Shiv Jayanti and Ganesh Chathuri. The latter and his son Vasantrao even wrote devotional pieces inspired from Bhakti Era saints (i.e., [[Tukaram]], [[Eknath]]) and valourizing pieces about Shahu. Tulshidas Jadhav, a Gandian within the PWP, championed the Bhakti Era's Warkari Movement, which was still popular in his time, because it was based on social equality and public seva. Also noteworthy is, that even some prominent members supported the Arya Samaj, like Krishnarao Bhalekar (1 of the founders of SS with Phule) defended Dayanand Saraswati (Arya Samaj’s founder), when the latter’s procession was opposed by some orthodox Hindus in Pune, and Bhalekar organized a speech to be delivered by Saraswati at a dharmshal near a Rokdoba Temple in Pune.

Bhalekar himself made the claim that the SS is the true follower of Sant Tukaram's [[Bhāgavata-dharma|Bhagwat Dharma]] ([[Krishna|Krishnaite]] [[Vaishnava|Vaishnavism]].) His son was Mukundrao Patil, who made the claim, "''The Satyasodhak Samaj is the true heir of the Hindu religion. Brahmanism is not Hinduism.''"<ref>''Dinmitra'' newspaper (1920s)</ref> Javalkar claimed SS is the true representative of the Hindu religion and that SS members are liberating Hinduism from the supremacy of the Brahmins. Shivram Janma Kamble stated the SS is a revival movement of the true Hinduism. Kisan Faguji Bansode argued "Shivdharma" was the true Hindu religion and that the SS advocates that version.

There were those in his organization that promoted about how in ancient Sanatan society, there were no caste distinctions and that people were recognized by their merits. Their view was promoted by Tukaram Tatya Padval, who wrote ''Jatibhed Vivekshar'' (1861) after being inspired by Ashwaghosha's ''Vajrasuchi''. Phule republished copies of Padval's books, and the 2 developed a friendship. He did write at that in ancient India, certain sages were had Sudra or Avarna status but rose to the rank of a Brahman through their intellect, and used examples of Valmiki (wrote a ''Ramayan''), Sankhya, and Kabilar rishis. He also published copies of the ''Bhagavad Gita'', ''Yogasutra'', and compilations of the ''Rajayoga'' and ''Sankhya Karika.'' He further compiled the ''Tukarambaba ani Tyanche Shisya Yanchi Abhanga Gatha'' (1889) and ''Eknath Maharajancha Abhangachi Gatha'' (1903.) Padval, however, never became a member of Phule's organization and instead became a member of the Theosophical Society.

;Shahu forming his own Satyashodhak Samaj focused on upliftment (free of anti-Brahman distractions)
As a result of the Satyashodhak Samaj of Pune being too antagonistic of Brahmans, Shahu had instead founded his own branch in 1911 — Shri Shahu Satyashodhak Samaj. By an order, Shahu replaced the Brahman priests in the Patgaon Sansthan (Mauni Maharaj Math[https://durgbharari.in/maunibaba-patgaon/]) and Jyotiba Devasthan[https://shreejyotiba.com/?lang=E][https://maharashtratourism.gov.in/temple/jyotiba/] with Maratha priests. Bhaskarrao Jadhav and Anna Babaji Latthe were leaders of Shahu's Kolhapur Satyashodhak Samaj. Whereas Phule mostly only wrote positively of Shiva and local-born gods, Jadhav in his ''Marathas and their Religion'' wrote positively about Krishna and the ''Bhagavad Gita''. He further worked with Shahu to aid Arya Samaj in its activities and goals (i.e., train non-Brahmans to become priests too.) Noteworthy is that Latthe, who worked personally with Shahu Maharaj, was its first VP and that he worked to dismantle priestly (Jain priests, not usually Brahmans) intermediation within the Jain clergy. (He was a big-time activist for general upliftment and for reform within the Jain community (i.e., wrote ''Jain Dharmacha Parichay''.)

Latthe founded the Dakshin Bharat Jain Sabha[https://dbjainsabha.com/], of which Dr. Bhaurao Patil (from a Jain family) became a member and through he wasn't a member of any SS branch, he did sometimes participate in its activities and himself founded the Rayat Shikshan Sansthan[https://rayatshikshan.edu/], which educated students in a multitude of topics, including Sanskrit. Patil (alias 'Karmvir Anna') was deeply influenced by Mahatma Gandhi and Vitthal Ramji Shinde.

;Shahu distancing himself formally from Satyashodhak Samaj
The SS had earned a bad reputation in Maharashtra with the general public, particularly for the outright anti-Brahman vitriol spewed in the SS's publications and events. Because the goal of Shahu and true reformers was to achieve a harmonious society with all people cooperating, it would not make sense to support an organization that's known for abusing persons (i.e., Brahmans) specifically over their caste identity.

In 1921, Shahu made a public statement in a Baroda newspaper that even though he granted significant support to the non-Brahman movement and introduced measures to eliminate Brahman dominance, he had never been affiliated with Phule's SS, and that he always accepted [[Rta and Spiritual Authority#Rishis|Vedic ritual authority]].

;Granting, accommodating, and expanding Arya Samaj
Shahu attended Arya Samaj sessions like the one at Navsari in 1918 and another at Bhavnagar in 1920<ref>P. 6. ''People's Raj Volume 30'' (1974) By Directorate-General of Information and Public Relations </ref>. He provided funding for Gurukul Boarding House to be built at Kerle, wherein large buildings and well-irrigated lands were granted to the Arya Samaj. Later, the Rajaram Anathalaya orphanage was added to this grant. He also brought educational institutions in his domain under the leadership of Arya Pratinidhi Sabha. Rajaram College's administration was also granted to the Arya Samaj.

;Spiritual Authority as Rajarshi
Shahu Maharaj, being a devout Sanatan wanted to proclaim the rights that warriors of history had and so participated in important ceremonies and worked with priests (i.e., Brahmans) to achieve the rights to learn and perform Vedic ceremonies. He established the Vedokta Committee for Marathas to be able to perform Vedic rites without requiring priests. In 1905, the Karveer Peeth's (or Kolhapur Math's) Shankaracharya declared full rights of Vedokta to Chhatrapati Shahu.

Tatyarao Joshirao was appointed by Shahu Maharaj as new royal purohit, replacing the Rajopadhye (creator of the infamous 'Vedokta Controversy'), who denied the Maharaj to perform Vedic rites. Joshirao was from a family that had traditional ownership of the historic Binkhambi Ganapati Mandir in Kolhapur.

Rajaram Shastri (alias 'Bhagavata'), a Brahman scholar, linguist, and researcher, openly challenged the religious orthodoxy, arguing from scripture that Shahu Maharaj had full rights to the Vedas. Vishnu Topkhane was another Brahman who greatly helped the Chhatrapati with his progressive reforms. Topkhane the educationalist helped the latter establish the Vidyapeeth High School near the Shri Karveer Niwasini Ambabai Mahalakshmi Temple. Freedom fighter Gokhale was someone who worked with Shahu. When the Vedokta Controversy broke out and the conservative press attacked the Maharaja, Gokhale privately and publicly validated Shahu Maharaj's stance, recognizing that social reform was a prerequisite for true political freedom. Ranade, though passed away before much Shahu's reforms began, was admired by the latter for his progressive ideals and actions.

Chhatrapati Shahu founded the Satyashodhak School for spiritual training in 1913, in which seminarians (predominantly from castes such as Marathas, Mahars, and Chambhars) were taught to recite and preach the poems (i.e., abhangs of Tukaram) of sants. He also created the Shivaji Vedic School (aliases 'Shahu Vedic School', 'Shahu Vedic Pathshala', 'Shri Shahu Vaidik Vidyalay') in 1920 and had invited scholars from Varanasi (spiritual capital of Sanatan Dharm) to ensure the highest standard of scriptural and linguistic training. The school trained seminarians (of all castes) to learn Sanskrit and become priests and conduct ceremonies. He further established and financed the office of the Kshatra Jagadguru (''Warrior Universal Teacher''), a pontiff seat open to anyone of any caste. The first Kshatra Jagadguru was Sadashivrao Lakshmanrao Sankpal Patil Benadikar, was an accomplished Sanskrit scholar who received his formal higher education at Rajaram College in Kolhapur. The Kshatra Jagadguru Peeth was the pontiff's seat at Patgaon (in the Bhudargad region of Kolhapur.) Patgaon was chosen because it was the historic site of the Mauni Maharaj Math, a highly respected spiritual center that had historically blessed Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj[https://pilgrimdata.in/temple/mouni-maharaj-math-temple-patgaon-bhudargarh-dist-kolhapur/]. The Kshatra Jagadguru had the Shri Sadashivrao Patil Shikshan Sanstha educationalist association named after him, and it runs schools[https://www.mwssm.org/][https://sspiop.com/] in Maharashtra still. Other organizations too use his name for schools like Sadashivrao Mandlik Mahavidyalaya (Kolhapur) of the ⁠Jay Shivray Education Society.

===Successive associations===
From Hindu-based institutions like sociopolitical organizations and schools came a number of philanthropic associations. Even other humanitarian associations that were not established by Hindu activists, were established by their influence. For example, Krishna Gopal Gokhale had participated in many sessions of the Prarthana Samaj as he was Ranade's pupil, and he later joined the Deccan Education Society, which he left to establish the Servants of India Society. Narayan Malhar Joshi was a member of Gokhale's group and later formed his own Social Service League[https://socialserviceleague.org.in/]. Hriday Nath Kunzru too was part of Gokhale's group and left to establish the Seva Samiti.

{| class="wikitable sortable"
|-
! Organization
! Demographic of Focus
! Region(s)
! Founder
! Founder's Affiliation(s)
! Achievement
|-
|Anath Balikashram Society
|Widows
|Maharashtra
|Dhondo Keshav Karve
|Educated at BHU
|
|-
|Andhra Mahila Sabha
|Females
|Andhra Pradesh
|Durgabai Deshmukh
|
|
|-
|Bharat Stree Mahamandal
|Females
|Bengal, Bihar, Punjab, Sindh, U.P.
|Sarala Devi Chaudhurani
|Arya Samaji, Brahmo Samaji, accepted Bijoy Krishna Chattopadhyaya as her guru
|
|-
|Buddhi Vardhak Sabha
|General public
|Gujarat
|Narmadashankar Labheshankar Dave
|
|Exposed people in positions of power that abused their privileges, build schools for girls
|-
|Central Social Welfare Board
|Females and children
|
|Dr. Durgabai Deshmukh
|
|
|-
|Hindu Widow Marriage Association
|Females
|Maharashtra
|Dhondo Keshav Karve
|Educated at BHU
|
|-
|Hindustani Seva Dal
|Females
|Every province
|Dr. Narayan Subbarao Hardikar
|
|Established the Hindustani Seva Mandal (later became Rashtriya Seva Dal) in 1923, established the Arya Bala Sabha, taught the Gita during his student days in Kolkata, was a fan of Lokmanya Tilak, and had enthusiastically worked with Lala Rai
|-
|Indian Reform Association
|Females
|West Bengal
|Keshub Chandra Sen
|
|Brahmo Samaji, founded ''Sulabh Samachar'' as weekly newspaper of group
|-
|Kasthurbha Gandhi Kanya Gurukulam[http://www.kgkgurukulam.org/]
|Girls
|Tamil Nadu (Vedaranyam)
|Vedaratnam Pillai
|
|Involved in temple-based philanthropy and donated to Sri Ramakrishna Mission too
|-
|Lakshmi Ashram
|Females
|Uttarakhand
|Sarla Behn
|
|Established individual Mahila Mandals throughout Uttarakhand and promoted important skills as well as ecological awareness
|-
|Lokahitawadi Mandal
|General public
|Maharashtra
|Vishnu Vaman Shirwadkar
|
|Wrote about Hindu themes, including persons from scriptures and about Shivaji poetically, philosophically, and nationally
|-
|Maharshi Karve Stree Shikshan Samstha
|Females
|Maharashtra
|Dhondo Keshav Karve
|Educated at BHU
|
|-
|Mahila Vidyalaya (Pune)
|Females
|Maharashtra
|Dhondo Keshav Karve
|Educated at BHU
|
|-
|Nishkam Karma Math
|Females
|Maharashtra
|Dhondo Keshav Karve
|Educated at BHU
|
|-
|Poona Seva Sadan
|Females
|Maharashtra (at its peak, included M.P. and T.N.)
|Ramabai Ranade
|
|
|-
|Samata Sangh
|General public
|Maharashtra
|Dhondo Keshav Karve
|Educated at BHU
|
|-
|Self Employed Women's Association (SEWA)
|Females
|18 states
|Ela Bhatt
|Gandhian Textile Labour Association
|Established: own bank (Shri Mahila Sewa Sahakari Bank, or 'SEWA Cooperative Bank'), SEWA Mahila Housing Trust
|-
|Servants of the People Society
|Females
|Kerala, Maharashtra, M.P., Odisha T.N., Uttarakhand U.P.
|
|
|
|-
|Shraddhanand Ashram[https://shraddhanandmahilashram.org] (alias Hindu Women's Welfare Society)
|Females and boys
|Maharashtra (Mumbai)
|Swami Shraddhanand
|
|Has cared for thousands of destitute women and orphans, and educated them and provided skills development, as well as fostered personal development
|-
|Stree Hitaishini Mandali
|Females
|Andhra Pradesh
|Kanuparti Varalakshmamma
|
|Educated many females
|-
|Widow Marriage Association
|Females
|Maharashtra
|Dhondo Keshav Karve
|Educated at BHU
|
|-
|}

==Inspiration to Madras Presidency==
[[image:M.C. Rajah.jpg|right|thumb|200px|Mylai Chinna Thambi Pillai Rajah (the real 'Periyar'.)]]
While the Arya Samaj, Brahmo Samaj, Prarthana Samaj, and a host of other Hindu-based humanitarian and sociopolitical institutions existed in the-then Madras Presidency of southern India, they inspired local organizations as well. Shahu Maharaj had friends in the-then Justice Party (JP, est. 1916), like Arcot Ramasamy Mudaliar and Panaganti Ramarayaningar. While some ethnic groups, like certain castes even falsely supported the idea of an 'Aryan Invasion Theory' and themselves (Dravidian-languages speakers) as indigenous, they still appreciated Hinduism and did not consider it alien.

The biggest uplifter of the party was M.C. Rajah, who had the highest influence upon the policies that improved the lives of the Dalits in Madras Presidency. The party itself was founded primarily by 3 individuals — Sir Pitti Theagaraya Chetty (political founder who built the political machine), Dr. Taravath Madhavan Nair (ideological co-founder), and Dr. Chintadripet Natesa Mudaliar (cultural/grassroots mobilizer who helped shape cultural legitimacy.) Dr. Nair had said that Hindu society had originally possessed broader equality before caste dominance hardened it. Chetty occasionally used dharm-based ethical framing. He is consistently described as arguing that governance must align with "''dharma and justice''". The Dr. Mudaliar was a devout Shaiva that infused into the party Shaivism as a cultural identity for southerners.
[[image:P.T. Rajan.jpg|right|thumb|200px|P.T. Rajan (centre-right, wearing glasses next to priest), touring with the idol of [[Ayyappan|Ayyappa]] he had made at Swamimalai Temple[https://swamimalaiswaminathar.hrce.tn.gov.in/] and it was placed in the Sabarimala Temple[https://www.sabarimalauptodate.in/].]]
An ideologue of influence to the JP and Self-Respect Movement was Maraimalai Adigal, a Shaiv preacher and writer, who claimed that both the JP and Self-Respect Movement were from his teachings and that militant atheist Erode Venkatappa Ramasami Naicker had hijacked them. JP founder Dr. Nair died in 1919 and Chetty in 1925, so had no interaction Naicker. Ponnambala Thiaga Rajan was an active party member and disagreed with Naicker's ideology, so joined Congress-aligned politics. Mudaliar died in 1935 around the time Naicker entered the JP. Naicker was also a prejudiced castist that criticized but did not contribute to build schools and shelters for women and children, as Rajah[https://www.news18.com/opinion/opinion-m-c-rajah-the-forgotten-hindu-mahasabha-dalit-8937192.html][https://vskbharat.com/m-c-rajah-a-staunch-hindu-leader/?lang=en][https://thecommunemag.com/m-c-rajah-the-hindu-mahasabha-dalit/], a practicing Hindu of the party did. Rajah even once formed a political alliance with the Hindu Mahasabha, was the contributor. Before Rajah, the party's caste disparity was mainly about civil service occupations and education access for underprivileged castes. Rajah was recommended by Ambedkar to convert but Rajah replied there's no religion better than Hinduism.<ref>P. 92 ''The Political Evolution of Muslims in Tamilnadu and Madras, 1930-1947'' By J.B. Prashant More (1997) </ref><ref> In a public meeting of the All India Adi Dravida Mahajana Sabha in Nungambakkam, Chennai he said, "''The president (of this meeting) mentioned that no other community other than us has more right to be called Hindus. Conversion will not bring about any good. By saying so, I am not undermining or wishing away the oppression and ills we have faced. We need to fight for our rights. The speed at which reforms are happening might be slow. But think about our current situation and how much it has improved. I beseech you to please abandon any move that will weaken us. I request the government to bring about the Untouchability Abolition Bill and pass it quickly. The Harijans are proud Hindus. That is the only reason why even after years of oppression by higher castes and a barrage of proselytization efforts by other religions hasn't changed their resolve being Hindus.''" P. 123 ''Evolution of Hindu Nationalism - Icons of HMS, RSS & BJS'' By Sankara Narayanan T (2025)</ref> Adigal's writings had a profound impact on Subramania Ramanathan, the founder of the Self-Respect Movement, and on the Naicker but the latter only wanted pro-Tamil and castist societal changes, not promotion of Shaivism. Naicker would later break away from the party and form his own Dravidar Kazhagam, a title he copied from Adigal's Shaiv association (Podhunilak Kazhagam.) (His own pupil, Conjeevaram Natarajan Annadurai, would eventually disown him after he married his own adopted daughter, and Annadurai would leave his group.)
[[image:Alamelu.jpg|right|thumb|200px|Alamelu Mangai Thayarammal, a Brahmo Samaji, was co-founder of the party among 29 others (all men.)]]
The Hindu sentiment was definitely present in the JP. Many left after Naicker's hijacking. Important members bothered by Naicker's rhetoric apart from Rajan were Ananda Prasad Patro, Arunachalam Thamaraiselvam Panneerselvam, Muthiah Annamalai Chettiar, Ramasamy Kandasamy Shanmukham Chetty, and Subbarayalu Kumaraswami Reddiar. Chettiar even personally regularly donated to temple renovations, endowing temple lands or festivals, supporting pilgrimage facilities, and Hindu-managed schools. Rajan, the last leader of the JP, was the head-of-government of the Presidency, and was a big devotee a [[Ayyappan|Swami Ayyappa]]. Rajan even solemnized a marriage of a German couple converted to Hinduism in Coimbatore (Oct 31, 1962.) He further discouraged conversion of Dalits from Hinduism to another religion<ref>"''If by mass conversion you expect to achieve your object, you will be disappointed, because of a mere change of religion it will not give you all that you want.''" 
P. 147 ''Sir P. T. Rajan's Eighty Second Birthday Souvenir, 1973'' By P.T. Rajan and K. Paramasivam</ref> while encouraging caste-Hindus to better treat Dalits. His family had deep ties to the Meenakshi Amman Temple[https://maduraimeenakshi.hrce.tn.gov.in/] in Madurai, with his son (Palanivel Rajan), serving as a minister, and his daughter-in-law (Rukmani), serving as the first female chairperson of the temple's board of trustees. His predecessor Ramakrishna Ranga Rao denied that the JP was anti-Hindu and declared that it aimed to purify Hindu society from "''absurdities''" and return "''Hinduism greater and more glorious than it was in the past...''"<ref>"''As I understand it, the Self-Respect movement stands for certain great ideals to make Hinduism greater and more glorious than it was in the past, to rid it of all those absurdities which are the accretions of an unfortunate era of the past, and unite us in a solid federation so that all those who profess to follow the Hindu faith may feel that they are brethren following one of the most ancient and glorious religions of the world. No longer should the foreigner point his finger of scorn at this or that particular phase of Hinduism which belies its cosmopolitan tendency by inflicting personal hardship on classes or communities. If a few youths in their exuberant enthusiasm have been carried away beyond the bounds of Hinduism it will not do to fight shy of the new movements, but political wisdom and sagacity lie in taking them into our fold and guiding them aright along the paths of duty and rectitude.''" 
P. 289 ''The Indian Annual Register An Annual Digest of Public Affairs of India Recording the Nation's Activities Each Year in Matters Political, Economic, Industrial, Educational, Social, Etc · Volume 2'' By Nipendra Nath Mitra (1934)</ref> Alamelu Mangai Thayarammal, conferred 'Pandithai' title by Saiva Sabha in Palamcottah, was a JP co-founder [with 29 co-founders being men] who was a Brahmo Samaji, meaning the influence of the Hindu-based organizations wasn't insignificant. Paramasivan Subbarayan Gounder, while not technically a JP member, worked with it closely, and both he and his women's rights activist wife Kailash Radhabai Kulmud were Brahmos. It is also noteworthy that [[Ascetics|ascetic]] Swamiyar Kaivalyar who supported the party without being a member wrote pro-Shaiv material. Cattamanchi Ramalinga Reddy, an ex-member who formed his own party in 1923 was a close friend of Dr. Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan, and he himself engaged with Hindu texts on a literary artistic level. As Hinduism isn't a scripture-dependent religion, some JP members like A.R. Mudaliar heavily criticized certain scriptures but were devout Hindus ([[Vaiśnava|Vaishnav]] in his case.) And while orthodox opposition was present, the majority of Indians, including religious leaders, supported reforms, like when Shankaracharya of Kanchi[https://www.kamakoti.org/] supported the "Hindu Religious Endowments Bill" (1921) even while voicing some concerns in within. Mentionable is that [[Shatata-Unnati#Female upliftment|Dr. Muthulakshmi Reddy]] wasn't part of the JP but it still nominated her in 1926 for the Madras Legislative Council to bring about positive changes.

==Related articles==
*[[Women]]
*[[Women as Rishikas in the Vedas]]
*[[Worship of God as Mother]]

==External resources==
*[https://www.ijhsss.com/files/08.-ABHISEK-KARMAKAR_6813z4a4.pdf "Changing status of women in Indian politics (1917-1947): the role of civil society"], P. 42-45 ''International Journal of Humanities & Social Science Studies'' Volume-I, Issue-II (September 2014) By Abhisek Karmakar
*[https://www.besanthill.org/about/history-heritage/annie-besant/ Besant Hill School of Happy Valley in Ojai, California]
*[https://www.anniebesant.org Annie Besant Women's College in Hyderabad, Telangana]
*[https://www.aryasabha.mu/cultural-programme-arya-mahila-mandal-in-the-context-of-the-200th-birth-anniversary-of-swami-dayananda-saraswati/ Arya Mahila Mandal (Mauritius)]
*[https://www.thearyasamaj.org/ammkarolbagh Arya Mahila Mandal Karol Bagh]
*[https://vatikashaktipeeth.com/seven-agitations/women-awakening.html Vatika Shakti Peeth]

==References==
{{reflist}}

[[Category: History]]
[[Category: Economics]]
[[Category: Societal altruism]]

Shatata-Unnati

2026-06-14T02:58:07Z

Himanshu Bhatt: /* Female upliftment */

{{Author|Himanshu Bhatt}}
'Shatata-Unnati' is ''continual change'', 'abhyas' means improvement, 'kram-parivartanam' is ''incremental reformation'', while 'shodhanam' is ''refinement''. All of these terms are descriptive of Hindu society throughout the ages.

Continual social betterment has been one of the defining characteristics of Hindu society. All major cultures have had evils in their histories, including Hindu societies, but the shining examples to enforce positive changes and adaptability to a changing world are the Hinduism, Christianity, and Judaism.

In an era wherein colonial norms meant imprisonment or executions for speaking out against imperial rule, Mahatma Gandhi challenged the ideas of forcing nations to be subservient, fighting oppression by violence, and purging one's own nation of evils (i.e., inequality and superstition.) Today, much of the world still looks to Gandhi's perseverance to bring positive change into society.

Transformation of India's political systems made India into the world's largest democracy, and for accomplishing that, [[Indian Freedom Fighters#INC's Hindu activist roots|Hindu doctrines were rationalize to promote democracy]]. Even in India's political spectrum, Hindu principles were used to make liberalism and communism resonate with people, like Ram Rajya being a communist utopia. Some of the Communist Party of India's [[Indian Freedom Fighters#CPI's Hindu activist roots|founders were idealogues for both communism and Hinduism]], such as Swami Kumaranand, Swami Satyabhakt, and Swami Sahajanand Saraswati, as well as Keezhedathu Damodaran, Radhamohan Gokulji, and Rahul Sankrityayan.

==Comparison in societal reformation (India and Europe)==
:''See also: [[Contribution of Hindu Diaspora]]''
Whereas even in modern times, in most European Christian societies, witch-hunts and slavery were the norm, in Indian Hindu societies, widow-burning was the norm among certain communities (usually northwestern) and caste prejudice was prevalent. Both the Christian and Hindu communities worked to extinguish these and other evils.

Historical societal injustices have been acknowledged and reconciled. Even today, the lasting legacy of important Hindu reformers is visible wherein quotas employment and educational quotas are implemented for social upward mobility to ensure poorer castes and women do not fall behind.

During the colonial era, as human rights improved in Western societies as results from agricultural/economic advancements, Western writers of non-Christian societies took a chauvinistic, parochialist, and Eurocentric approach towards Hindu societies, claiming that they:
#Would never improve in human rights, morality, or rationality
#Are permanently stagnant
#Cannot produce modern or political economic institutions

Critics of the colonial era were proven wrong in these concrete ways:
#Large-scale societal reforms led by Hindu activists themselves improved Hindu societies — i.e., promoting window remarriage and caste integration while also creating quotas for females and historically-disadvantaged castes
#Rapid expansion of education and intellectual mobility — i.e., growth of global Hindu academic presence
#Global economic and corporate leadership — i.e., entrepreneurship and CEOs of major multinational companies like Adobe, Google, and Microsoft
#Democratic political evolution — i.e., maintaining electoral democracies like Hindu-majority nations, providing peaceful transfers of power, and granting significant autonomy to judiciary, press, and civil societies
#Religious and philosophical continuity + adaptation
#Ritual practice has diversified massively by religion and class — i.e., clerics ([[Rta and Spiritual Authority|priests]] and [[ascetics|monks]]) are from many backgrounds
#Reinterpretation of scriptures became internationally influential — i.e., Aldous Huxley loved the perennialism of Upanishads, Erwin Schrödinger the idea of aikatmyam, and Henry David Thoreau that of Ishavasyam
#Non-Hindus from outside of the Indian Subcontinent have converted to Sanatan Dharm and have promoted the religion — James Donald Walters who founded Ananda Sangha, Richard Alpert who founded Hanuman Foundation, John Edwin Favors who founded iFast[https://ifastdc.com/][https://ifastglobal.com/], and Robert Hansen who founded Saiva Siddhanta Church[https://www.himalayanacademy.com/]
#Hindu-based intellectual practices have popularized globally — i.e., [[Ayurveda|Ayurvedic medicine]], divination, political activism, [[Animal rights#Influence upon Westerners|animal rights]], [[Animal_rights#Vegetarianism|vegetarianism]], and [[yoga]]

==Hindu-led social betterment==
What is extraordinary in the case of India is that it was the religious institutions ([[Organizations|Hindu organizations]] and [[Hindu Post-Secondary Institutes|schools]]) that made revolutionary changes, not normally secular or non-Hindu ones. Practicing Hindus saw that superstitious and chauvinistic practices had become institutionalized (caste system and misogyny) within Hindu society, so they formed associations to help, uplift, educate the destitute. They would even go steps further to privilege the marginalized through reservations.

Even women who were more exploratory and not members of specific religions engaged with Hinduism positively. The best example might be Annette Beveridge, an Englishwoman who was the daughter of a Unitarian Christian herself became affiliated with Keshub Chandra Sen in England. She was drawn to his lectures and this fascination with his philosophy inspired her to begin life in India, where she even established<ref>Its expenses were financed by Ananda Mohan Bose and Durga Mohan Das, Dwarkanath Ganguly was its headmaster, and others Brahmos involved with the school were Sibnath Sastri and Monomohun Ghose.</ref> the Hindu Mahila Vidyalaya (''Hindu Women's School''.) Her husband Henry Beveridge was an orientalist (westerners intrigued with Asian cultures) working in India, meaning they were not Westerners critical of Hindu identity. Mrs. Emily Phear was an honorary teacher, and she too was involved in Brahmo Samaji circles for societal development. (Her husband Sir John Budd Phear helped Brahmo Samaj legally.) A non-Hindu that likewise began a girls school (Hindu Female School[https://www.bethunecollegiateschool.com/]) with Brahmos and other Hindus was John Bethune, whose accomplices were Dakshinaranjan Mukherjee, Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar, Ramgopal Ghosh, and Madanmohan Tarkalanka (the last even taught at the school without pay.) Others foreign women in India that engaged positively with Hindu activist organizations were Mary Carpenter[https://southasianbritain.org/people/mary-carpenter/] and Sophia Dobson Collet with Brahmo Samaj, Alma B.R.A. with Arya Samaj, and Mary Hobson with Prarthana Samaj[https://puneprarthanasamaj.org/].

Hindu women that set women's rights activism into motion were Arya Samaj's Lajwanti Sood and Satyavati Devi, and Brahmo Samaj's Kadambini Ganguly and Sarala Devi Chaudhurani. Swarnakumari Devi was both an Arya Samaji and a Brahmo Samaji.
[[image:Dr. Anandi Gopal Joshi.jpg|right|thumb|200px|Dr. Anandi Gopal Joshi in 1886 marking a milestone with 2 other Asian women.]]
What is also worth mentioning is that there were women not members of sociopolitical organizations who pursued and achieved new societal achievements, showing that many Hindu women thought for themselves. Dr. Anandibai Joshi was India's first female doctor to trained in Western medicine. Her education and trip to U.S. was funded by [[Shatata-Unnati#Shahu's royal authority to implement reforms|Chhatrapati Shahu Maharaj]]. Upon return, he even funded her return journey and offer her supervisory role at Kolhapur's largest hospital[https://old.rcsmgmc.ac.in/]. Foundations[https://anandibai.org/resources/], institutions (i.e., Dr. Anandi Gopal Higher Education & Medical Facilities), awards (i.e., IRDS's[https://ngosindia.org/uttar-pradesh-ngos/irds-institute-for-research-documentation-in-social-sciences-lucknow/] Anandibai Joshi Award for Medicine), and scholarships (i.e., Dr. Anandi Gopal Scholarship Scheme) are named after her in commemoration. (Dr. Anandi Gopal Higher Education & Medical Facilities itself is a collaboration between the U.S. university she graduated in (DUCM[https://drexel.edu/medicine/news-events/publications/pulse/spring-2018/]) and SMCW. She let people know that she was not ashamed of being a Hindu. She was often pressured by Christian missionaries to convert[https://knowledge.lancashire.ac.uk/id/eprint/48487/1/bharadwaj-et-al-2023-journey-across-the-world-to-study-medicine-the-anandi-joshi-story.pdf]. Dr. Anandi had written her thesis, "Obstetrics among the Aryan Hindus", containing references from both the traditional Ayurvedic (''Susruta Samhita'' and ''Charaka Samhita'') and modern American medical literatures. (Mentionable is that although her husband Gopalrao Joshi's relentless, public letter-writing campaigns and essays targeted Lokmanya Tilak for being not liberal enough and Justice Ranade for being too liberal Tilak's ''Kesari'' and ''Mahratta'' newspapers glorified Dr. Joshi as a rolemodel for women.)

===Female upliftment===
:''See also: [[Indian Freedom Fighters]] 
;Theosophical Society wing
[[image:Paris Women's Congress.jpg|right|thumb|200px|Dr. Reddy and 3 Indian women at the Paris Women's Congress (1926.)]]
The top 3 champions who politically improved Indian women's rights in the modern era were foreigners — Dr. Annie Besant, Dorothy Jinarajadasa, and Margaret Cousins. They did not tell Indian women to leave Hinduism but rather they themselves became Hindu in practice and Indian in habit. They then sought to restore the Vedic-era of womanhood wherein women had authority (i.e., to become clerics, scholars, and leaders.) Emma Mitchell (American) and Francesca Arundale (English) greatly contributed to building of Hindu educational institutions (i.e., Central Hindu College.)

Dr. Muthulakshmi Reddy is a big name in female rights, and she was influenced by Dr. Besant in her college years (1907-1912) and was guided by Dr. Besant in both her social reform and political work. She worked with Dr. Besant and others to establish the Women's Indian Association (1917.) After Dr. Besant's death, she took over the presidency of the WIA. Gandhi was another major mentor but Reddy never formally joined the INC but sometimes protested colonial injustices (i.e., Gandhi's arrest.)

;Ramakrishna Mission wing
[[image:Nivedita & Vivekanand.jpg|right|thumb|200px|Nivedita with Vivekanand.]]
[[Niveditā, Sister|Sister Nivedita (Margaret Noble)]], a convert from Ireland became a disciple of [[Swami Vivekananda|Swami Vivekanand]] and joined Aurobindo's Dawn Society and had also founded and ran girls' schools in Kolkata (i.e., Ramakrishna Sarada Mission Sister Nivedita Girls' School[https://www.sisterniveditagirlsschool.org/home.html] in Baghbazar) to educate girls who had little to no access to education (i.e., poorest of the poor.) She advocated for women's intellectual and moral development, influenced by Vivekanand's vision of strong Indian womanhood. Her work included lectures, fundraising (India, England, and U.S.), and writings that promoted gender equality in access to knowledge and opportunities. She had worked with Dr. Annie Besant at times. Likewise, Sister Christine, disciple of Vivekanand, is another example of a Westerner who utilized the Ramakrishna Mission and Vivekanand's circles as vehicles for improving female rights in India.

;INC wing
:''See also: [[Indian Freedom Fighters#INC's Hindu activist roots|INC's Hindu activist roots]] 
[[image:Nellie Sen Gupta.jpg|right|thumb|100px|N.S. Gupta.]]
Nellie Sen Gupta[https://www.thedailystar.net/in-focus/news/deshpriya-jatindra-mohan-nellie-sengupta-2036981] (nee Edith Ellen Gray) had married freedom fighter Jatindra Mohan Sen Gupta, and both joined the INC — she also founded Deepali Sangha, a women's organization aimed at promoting social and political awareness, leadership, training, and empowerment among women. Her husband passed away but she was advised to stay in the-then East Pakistan to take care of Hindu rights, which she did. Umadevi (born Wanda Dynowska), a Polish convert to Sanatan Dharm too championed women's rights in India and translated ''[[Bhagavad Gita]]'', ''[[Mahabharata]]'', ''[[Ramayana]]'', and other [[Hindu Scriptures|Hindu and Bauddh literature]] into Polish. Mira Behn (born Madeleine Slade), the daughter of a British Royal Navy admiral, gave up her affluent lifestyle to become Gandhi's servant in India.
[[image:Sarla Behn Chipko Movement.jpg|right|thumb|200px|Sarla Behn's Chipko act[https://www.adda247.com/school/chipko-movement/].]]
Sarla Behn[https://growbilliontrees.com/blogs/knowledge/sarla-behn-tree-nurturing-nature-and-empowering-communities-for-a-sustainable-future?srsltid=AfmBOoq4h0d0skQBNr4w4zOvISuhYz02_EXtPvD3pUoQYjTlcvNHEbQ-#fullcontent] (born Catherine Mary Heilman) from England setup the Lakshmi Ashram Kausani in 1946 within Uttarakhand to uplift women, after having lived in the Sevagram Ashram[https://gandhiashramsevagram.org/] in Maharashtra. The organization educated rural hill girls academically, trained women of self-reliance and industrial skills (i.e., khadi weaving), taught personal care (i.e., literacy, hygiene, anti-liquor campaigns), and promoted [[Environmentalism|ecological awareness]] (Chipko Movement.) It also worked with the INC to encourage nationalist fervour. Lakshmi Ashram individual units were known as Mahila Mandals. This ashram attracted foreign residents intrigued with Sanatan Dharm even after independence, like David Hopkins, who relocated to there in the 1990's.
[[image:Durgabai Deshmukh.jpg|right|thumb|100px|Dr. D.D.]]
Dr. Durgabai Deshmukh, pupil of Gandhi and freedom fighter in the colonial era, established the Central Social Welfare Board (1953.) She later became president of the All India Women's Conference (1931.) Taraben Premchand is an important mention, as she was an important member of this organization, as well as the Jain Mahila Parishad[https://www.dbjainsabha.com], Jyoti Sangh[https://jyotisangh.org/about-us/] (local women's advancement group in Gujarat), and Shraddhanand Ashram[https://shraddhanandmahilashram.org/].

Madeleine Rolland was Women's International League for Peace and Freedom's[https://www.wilpf.org/] French section and never settled in India. However, upon engaging with Hindu culture in the 1920's, she translated Ananda Coomaraswamy's ''[[Nataraja Dasakam|The Dance of Shiva]]'' into French, introducing Hinduism to the-then residents of France. She also translated Rabindranath Tagore's writings of Sanatan themes and universal humanism, helping popularize them in Europe. She welcomed Gandhi on his visit to Marseille, France. [[image:Kanuparti Varalakshmamma.jpg|right|thumb|100px|'Sarada'.]]
Kanuparti Varalakshmamma (alias 'Sarada'), a devout Gandhian, used Hindu themes like providing ethical refences (i.e., Savitri, Sita) to depict women's morality, dignity, and conduct. She often engaged with the idea of a grihalakshmi (idea woman of the household.) She also founded the Stree Hitaishini Mandali for uplifting women. She used ''Andhra Patrika'', a newspaper created by a promoter of the ''Bhagavad Gita'', Kasinathuni Nageswara Rao, to preach her ideas.
[[image:Vijaya Lakshmi Pandit.jpg|right|thumb|100px|'Vijaya Lakshmi Pandit'.]]
It is also noteworthy that the 1st female head of government in the world was a [[Bauddh Dharm|Bauddh]] (Sirimavo Bandaranaike of Sri Lanka, non-INC member), and 2nd was a Hindu (Indira Gandhi, INC member.) Also Vijaya Lakshmi Pandit[https://news.un.org/en/story/2024/03/1147327] (born Swaroop Rani Nehru) played a significant role in global representation of women, particularly in the United Nations. She was the first woman to serve as the President of the UN General Assembly (1953-1954), a position she held to advocate for decolonization and the independence of countries in Asia and Africa. She was also the first Indian woman to hold a cabinet rank in a provincial government. Hansa Mehta[https://india.un.org/en/311450-hansa-mehta%E2%80%99s-life-story-continues-inspire] had an impact on the UN's constitution wording wherein "''all human beings''" instead of "all men" in the Universal Declaration of Human Rights. (She was also one of only 2 women delegates working alongside Eleanor Roosevelt in the UN Human Rights Commission 1946-48.)
[[image:Nilla Cram Cook.jpg|right|thumb|100px|'Nilla Nagini Devi'.]]
Nilla Cram Cook, an American who settled at Gandhi's ashrams, had [[Conversion|converted to Hinduism]] in the 1930's but identified with the '[[Samyag Darshan#Samadarshan|sarva dharma sambhava]]' ideal, so considered herself a [[Bhakta|devotee]] of not only [[Krishna]] but of Jesus too, and so she later also translated the Quran and engaged with Islamic practices in a syncretic way with her Hindu and Christian customs. Her final literary work was ''The Way of the Swam: Poems of Kashmir'' (1958), which was mostly focused around the [[Saiva|Shaiv]] mystic poetess Lal Ded[https://hindupost.in/society-culture/lal-ded-her-life-and-works/#][https://homegrown.co.in/homegrown-voices/the-poetry-of-lal-ded-mysticism-resistance-the-female-voice-in-14th-century-kashmir] and others from Kashmir syncretic Sanatan-[[Bauddh Dharm|Bauddh]]-[[Sufism with Vaishnavism|Sufi]] tradition. She dedicated the book to Pandit. She didn't work on women's upliftment directly but did participate with Gandhi's Harijan Sevak Sangh. She had also written about Sarojini Naidu (1st Indian woman-president of the INC.)

;Other associations
[[image:Maharani Chimnabai Gaekwad II.jpg|right|thumb|100px|Maharani Chimnabai.]]
[[image:Sethu Parvathi Bayi.jpg|right|thumb|100px|Junior Queen Bayi.]]
The National Council of Women in India[https://www.ncwi.in/], founded 1925, was also a monumental organization to make progress for women — it mainly focused on female literacy, vocational training, public participation, and legal reform. It was primarily the initiative of Lady Meherbai Tata, a Mazdaean icon, and its first president was Maharani Chimnabai Gaekwad II, born Gajrabai Ghatge, a princess of Dewas (M.P.) She supported societal progress of women that did not compromise on Hindu identity (i.e., traditional customs like wearing sari and sindhoor or like celebrating Raksha Bandhan), which is how she framed her ''The Position of Women in Indian Life'' book. She financed schools for girls, as well as Hindu charities and temples. The Gaekwad family also funded libraries and women's institutions and social reform initiatives. She discussed the eradication or the purdah, child marriage, women's restrictions (i.e., obtaining education and employment), and other obstacles towards advancement. Following her presidentship, Sethu Parvathi Bayi took over. She was from the royal family of Travancore (Kerala), and her family was deeply connected to the Padmanabhaswamy Temple[https://spst.in/][https://www.padmanabhaswamytemple.com/]. She financed Hindu institutions as well. It is notable that Sucharu Deo, daughter of Brahmo leader K.C. Sen was a prominent member and she had also helped build the Maharani Girls' High School[https://school.banglarshiksha.gov.in/ws/website/index/19013701705] in Darjeeling (W.B.) together with her sister (Suniti) and Hemlata Sarkar, daughter of Brahmo leader Sibnath Sastri.

From Hindu-based institutions like sociopolitical organizations and schools came a number of philanthropic associations.
;Most influential persons for women's upliftment
{| class="wikitable sortable"
|-
! Area of Contribution
! Meaning
! Steps Taken
! Activists
! Organizations
! Founder's Affiliation(s)
|-
|Political rights and visibility
|1. Women appearing in public political spaces 2. Women being recognized as leaders (not just participants) 3. Changing social norms about women's public roles 4. Symbolic representation
|Helped institutionalize women's leadership through bodies like Women's Indian Association
|Dr. Annie Besant (women's political rights + organizational leadership), Kamaladevi Chattopadhyay (political participation, economic empowerment, cooperatives), Margaret Cousins[https://www.womensmuseumofireland.ie/exhibits/margaret-elizabeth-cousins] (Suffarage, WIA), Sarojini Naidu (mass mobilization of women in politics)
|
|
|-
|Modern institutional equality
|
|Helped institutionalize institutional equality through contributing policy influence (Hansa Mehta) and constitutional rights (Dr. Durgabai Deshmukh)
|Dr. Durgabai Deshmukh (welfare systems), Hansa Mehta
|
|
|-
|Foundational legal reform
|
|
|Raja Ram Mohan Roy (abolition of sati), Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar (widow remarriage)
|
|
|-
|Education
|
|
|Raja Ram Mohan Roy, Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar
|
|
|-
|}

===Hindu influence internationally===
Even outside of India during the 20th century, women's rights were not perfect, and so many women incorporated Hindu symbolism (i.e., worship) and concepts towards promoting societies where women would have equal rights.
[[image:M.J. Gage.jpg|right|thumb|200px|Matilda Joslyn Gage.]]
[[image: Charlotte Despard.jpg|right|thumb|200px|Charlotte Despard, an Anglo-Irish suffragist who supported Indian independence.]]
As [[Worship of God as Mother|worship of God as a female or mother]] has been common in Sanatan Dharm since its foundation, that made validating female upliftment in India quicker. Even in Western nations, prominent women's rights organizations implemented imagery of goddesses from pertinent ancient cultures, like U.K.'s Women's Freedom League and National Union of Women's Suffrage Societies, and the global International Woman Suffrage Alliance, to legitimize female equality and women being in positions of power. Some Western feminists and women's rights activists, like Matilda Joslyn Gage<ref>"''While the sale of daughters was practiced in England for seven hundred years after the introduction of Christianity, we note that by the ancient law of India, a father was forbidden to sell his daughter in marriage, or receive the smallest present therefor.''" - P. 79-82 ''Woman, Church and State'' (1893) By Matilda Joslyn Gage</ref> (U.S. suffragist) and Helena Petrovna Blavatsky<ref>"''The pre- and post-Vedic woman was as free as man; and no impure terrestrial thought was ever mixed with the religious symbology of the early Aryans.''" 
"''This is proven by the fact that in the Vedic period their women were not placed apart from men in penetralia, or ‘Zenanas.’ Their seclusion began when the Mahomedans … had conquered the land and gradually enforced their ways and customs upon the Hindus.''" 
- P. 379-380 ''The Secret Doctrine: Volume I'' By Helena Blavatsky </ref> (European feminist), even used the examples of [[Worship of God as Mother|Hindu goddess-worship]] and Hindu queens to support their examples. (M.J. Gage[https://www.smithsonianmag.com/history/the-feminist-inspired-witches-of-oz-180985334/] in her ''Woman, Church, and State'' even highlighted Hindu texts to counter the male-centric theology of the West and referenced ''[[Bhagavad Gita]]'' to validate the concept of a female [[divinity]].) Even feminists of the colonial era like Victoria Woodhull that was skeptical of organized religion, respected "''Christna and Buddha''" (Krishna and Gautama.) Mary Lowe Dickinson at the World's Parliament Circles (1893) was so impressed by [[Swami Vivekananda|Swami Vivekanand]]'s speech, that she developed a fascination with female divinity of Hinduism, and in her editorials and public circles, argued that Hinduism's recognition of a feminine aspect within the divine was spiritually superior to the rigidly patriarchal, all-male Trinity of mainstream American Christianity. Emily Pitts Stevens and Charlotte LeMoyne Wills (wrote about the genderless [[Brahm]]) became disciples of Vivekanand. Laura de Force Gordon wrote about the immortal soul and continuous cycle of life. Alice Moore McComas wrote about the interconnectedness (aikatmyam) of all things. In U.K., Charlotte Despard's specific pamphlets linked [[karma]] to political activism. Margaret Louise Sanger was influenced by Vivekanand and Rabindranath Tagore. Sarah Bull<ref> P. 483 ''Western Admirers of Ramakrishna and His Disciples'' By Gopal Stavig, Swami Shuddhidananda </ref>, who particularly focused on women's education and reform was connected to both Vivekanand and Sister Nivedita. Josephine MacLeod was a major promoter of Vivekanand in the West and was involved in transatlantic reform-intellectual networks. Viktoria Ocampo of Argentina was deeply influenced by Tagore, even hosting him in Argentina and promoting his ideas widely. Gabriela Mistral of Chile was too, and she applied Tagore's ideas to women's education, child welfare, and cultural reform. Mabel Dodge Luhan was fascinated with Sanatan philosophy and influenced by Vivekanand. Mentionable is Emma Calve of France, who wasn't a political feminist leader but influential in women's intellectual-cultural circles, and she was deeply influenced by Vivekanand.
[[image:Carol Patrice Christ.jpg|right|thumb|200px|Carol Patrice Christ.]]
After suffragists had attained complete institutional equality, they them progressed to the next stage of female liberation by ensuring that their own spiritual faith wasn't male-chauvinistic or making them subordinates of males. Feminists were inspired by goddess deity of Hinduism to then promote it within generic spirituality. Valerie Saiving, Isaac Bonewits and Naomi Goldenberg founded in the 1970's, Thealogy, a feminine-specific theology. Carol Patrice Christ launched the Goddess Movement, which provided 4 aspects of Goddess symbolism as reasons to needing a goddess in women's lives; 1) the Goddess as affirmation of female power, 2) the female body, 3) the female will, and 4) women's bond and heritage. She specifically used the Shakti concept to prove that a major global religion (Hinduism) explicitly defined the [[Brahmanda|material universe]]/nature/change ([[Darshana#Sankhya|Prakriti]]) as an inherently active, female, and sacred force. She was an ecofeminist, as were Charlene Spretnak and Miriam Simos were ecofeminists too. Merlin Stone wrote ''Ancient Mirrors of Womanhood: Our Goddess and Heroine Heritage'' (1979) and in a chapter analyzes goddesses like [[Durga]], [[Kali]], [[Lakshmi Puja|Lakshmi]], Parvati, and Saraswati. Devout Christian women feminists too drew on Hindu practices and ideas to support women's advocacy, and they include Ivone Gebara, Pearl Sydenstricker Buck, and Sally McFague.

'Matriarchal religion' is a philosophy stating that societies were Goddess worshippers with females having the same status and rights as men before male gods began being worshipped, and the latter led to patriarchy. Goddesses being worshipped contiguously in Hindu societies for thousands of years was the backing this thought utilized, in addition to feminist archaeology (i.e., ancient idols and temples of goddesses uncovered.)

==Start of modern reforms==
In modern India, most positive social changes within Indian Hindu societies came not first as enforcement or pressure from European rulers but from advocacy of forward-thinking Hindus. Raja Ram Mohan Roy had led the campaign to purge Hindu societies of Sati and caste prejudices. Roy worked with British imperial authority, specifically Lord William Bentinck to have sati outlawed. Roy himself was a religious leader that reiterated Upanishads for their principles.

Other institutions of positive social changes were mainly Hindu ones or were governed by Hindu religious leaders, not secular ones.

The Indian National Social Conference of 1887 was organized by Justice Ranade, Rai Raghunath Rao, Narendra Nath Sen Gupta, and Janki Nath Ghoshal. Ranade was founder of the Prarthana Samaj, a religious group.

Arya Samajis, Brahmo Samajis, and Prarthana Samajis were the most vocal and active forces advocating: 
#Widow Remarriage (i.e., Widow Remarriage Act 1856—initiative of Brahmo Samaj)
#Women's right to divorce (i.e., Native Marriage Act 1872—initiative of Brahmo Samaj) 
#Property rights for women 
#Opposition to child marriages (i.e., Age of Consent Act 1891—initiative of Brahmo Samaj and Prarthana Samaj, Child Marriage Restraint Act 1929—initiative of Arya Samaj) 
#Universal accessible education (built schools, including colleges and gurukuls) 
#Caste-based reservations
[[image:Justice Ranade.jpg|right|thumb|200px|Mahadev Govind Ranade (alias 'Justice Ranade'.)]]
[[image:Jagannath Shankarshet.jpg|right|thumb|200px|Jagannath Shankarshet (alias 'Architect of Modern Mumbai'.)]]
The Indian Factories Act 1881's ratification was a landmark in workers' rights and the credit goes mainly to Sorabjee Shapoorjee Bengalee, and then Prarthana Samaj. He did work alongside the Prarthana Samaj to lobby the British authority through the First Factory Commission in 1875 (made to investigate the brutal conditions of Indian labour.) Prarthana Samaj's ''Subodh Patrika'' newspaper specifically critiqued mill owners. Rahnumai Mazdayasnan Sabha, its newspaper ''Rast Goftar'', and Bengalee himself referenced labour reformers Sasipada Banerji and Protap Chunder Mozumdar, and used the former's methods of worker upliftment as a blueprint for their own legislative arguments. Collaboration between the Sabha and Prarthana Samaj began with the latter's creation of the Theistic Association, on which the Parsi Naoroji Furdonji was its 1st Chairman. Ranade and Bhandarkar drove the Association from discussing only theism to improving society through finding solutions of work hardships. The Night School Initiative was launched, helping workers receive adequate training, particularly in labourer-heavy neighborhoods Byculla, Dongri, Khetwadi, and Thakurdwar. (From 1886-1890 alone, over 2,750 industrial workers successfully studied through this initiative.)

Brahmo Samaj's K.C. Sen’s first visit to Mumbai in March-April 1864 engaged him with Bengalee, Furdonji, Ranade, and Bhandarkar (all then members of Young India.) They all discussed ways to develop India. They also shared strategies on how to bypass orthodox religious resistance—Furdonji within Zoroastrianism and Sen within Sanatan Dharm. Bengalee's First Labor Bill (1878) laid the groundwork for the later Indian Factories Act.

Prior to all of this, Jagannath Shankarshet[https://www.vishwakonkani.org/hall-of-fame/hon-jagannath-shankar-sheth/] spent the 1850s petitioning the British Parliament for local governance. As a result, it codified the Indian Councils Act of 1861, thus creating the Bombay Legislative Council as a political body to better govern the-then Bombay Presidency. Shankarshet was the main founder of Bombay Association. In its first leadership were also Dr. Ramachandra Vitthal Lad (alias 'Dr. Bhau Daji'), a Hindu intellectual who used his Sanskrit knowledge to decipher inscriptions, preserve manuscripts, and help reconstruct the forgotten timelines of ancient Guptas and Western Kshatrapa dynasties. Mentionable is the Parsi Sir Jamsetjee Jeejeebhoy of the group. Shankarshet was a wealthy philanthropist that constructed and financed Sanatan and secular infrastructure, most notably the Bhavani Shankar Mandir[https://www.mcgm.gov.in/irj/go/km/docs/documents/D%20Ward/Heritage-Sites/73_Legacy%20of%20D%20Ward_Article_Bhavani%20Shankar%20Temple.pdf] (Mumbai), Sanskrit Seminary and Sanskrit Library (both in Mumbai too.) Elphinstone Educational Institution[https://elphinstone.ac.in/index.php] and Grant Medical College[https://gmcjjh.edu.in/] were his creations too. (Jeejeebhoy contributed to constructing the Grant Medical College.)

===Shahu's royal authority to implement reforms===
[[image:Shahu adoption.jpg|right|thumb|200px|Prince Yeshwantrao Ghatge being adopted by the royal family of Kohlapur.]]
[[image:Rajarshi.jpg|right|thumb|200px|Rajarshi Chhatrapati Shahu Maharaj.]]
[[image:School foundation.jpg|right|thumb|200px|Foundation of Shri Shahu Chhatrapati Shikshan Sanstha.]]
The greatest champion on all of these sections for reforms was Chhatrapati Shahu Maharaj[https://aissms.org/breaking-barriers-chhatrapati-shahu-maharaj-and-his-enduring-impact-on-progress-and-modernity/] (born Yeshwantrao Ghatge), '[[Rta and Spiritual Authority#Rishis|Rajarshi]]', the ruler of Kohlapur Kingdom who affiliated with organizations but probably the Arya Samaj[https://thearyasamaj.org] more than any other. Shahu definitely was not shy to publicly perform prayers, as he famously attended temples of goddesses Ambabai[https://www.mahalaxmikolhapur.com/home] and Bhavani[https://shrituljabhavani.org/] when having returned from his Europe trip in 1902. Also in 1902, Pratap Singh Maharaj of Idhar (Gujarat) introduced and educated him about the Arya Samaj. He provided patronage to the Arya Samaj.[https://navjyot.net/wp-content/uploads/2022/12/10.pdf]

The king passed many policies for for the upliftment of untouchable, nomadic, non-Brahmin communities and for females.<ref>Act of Free and Compulsory Primary Education (1917), Widow remarriage Act (1917), End of Balutedari (1918), Repeal of Kulkarni Watan (1918), Intercaste and Interreligious Marriages and Sanctioning of Registered Marriage Act (1919), Act relating to protection of Harassment of Women (1919), Divorce act (1919), Order on prohibition of Untouchability practice (1919), Illegitimate Children's Rights and Devadasi Prohibition Act (1920); 
[https://www.indiejournal.in/article/rajarshi-shahu-maharaj-and-his-tryst-with-the-arya-samaj "Rajarshi Shahu Maharaj & his tryst with the Arya Samaj Lessons for our times"] By Devkumar Ahire (Jun 26, 2023 6:42 PM)</ref>

;Prejudiced disgruntled castists promoting anti-Brahman hate, not universalism
While Shahu was affiliated with the Satyashodhak Samaj (SS) because it wanted to uplift the non-dwija castes, he did not feel they had any religious foundations, whereas the Arya Samaj was encompassed both a spiritual and social movement.<ref>"Beyond Reformism: Chhatrapati Shahu and Hinduism Reimagined" By Surajkumar Thube P. 124-144 ''Nidān: International Journal for Indian Studies, Volume 8'', Issue 1 (July 2023)</ref> Also, the SS of Pune was antithetical to social cohesion because it targeted the Brahman caste as an enemy, and while its main founder (Jyotirao Phule) made absurd claims like 'Shiv-Dharma'<ref>"''The real Shiv-Dharma that is ours, we are re-establishing it as Sarvajanik Satya Dharma.''" Chapter 4, ''Sarvajanik Satya Pustak''</ref> or 'Mahadev-Dharma' (worship of [[Shiva|Shiv]] as God and some local gods like Khandoba as avatars) being the true religion of Indians whereas every other Hindu belief and practice was an imposition by 'non-Indian Brahman invaders'. Being a chauvinist, he also criticized freedom fighter martyrs Lakshmi Bai, Nana Sahib, Tantia Tope for being Brahmans. He also wrote positively that freedom fighters lost the 1857 War of Independence against the British colonialists. He was also openly criticized by his own relative Baburao Phule, who accused the former of being a Christian convert who destroyed the Hindu religion.<ref>P. 58-59 ''The Caste Question: Dalits and the Politics of Modern India'' (2009) By Anupama Rao </ref>

Phule though anti-Brahman, was influenced by some Brahmans, such as Balshastri Jambhekar (a Hindu activist) who pushed scientific knowledge and history through Marathi, criticized caste segregation, and attacked other or kinds or orthodoxy like widowhood. He was also influenced by some Hindu activists who were not anti-Brahman (i.e., Karsandas Mulji.)

The organization would receive the most aid from Shahu (financial and social work), Karmvir (social work), and Padval (intellectual) but they themselves always kept a distance from the SS because of its explicitly castist vitriol. People would choose to align or become members of other associations for their inclusivity and harmonious vision for the future.

;Satyashodhak Samaj becoming less anti-Brahman
"''All Hindus are equal. No one is superior, no one is inferior. Let all flesh and blood be one. Four varnas are a real deceit. It's a tool to keep the non-Brahmins in slavery. There is no difference among the Hindus. Hindu is the only varna. If a Hindu eats or marries with another Hindu that's not ''[[adharma]].'' In contrast, what divide Hindus in the name of religion is not a dharma, but a trick by Brahmins. One who calls themselves a Hindu, whether they are Europeans or Africans, they are our coreligionists.''" - P. 39 ''Deshache Dushman'' (1925) By Dinkarrao Javalkar
[[image:Sasipada Banerji.jpg|right|thumb|100px|Sasipada Banerji (alias 'Sevabrata'.)]]
Notable is that Phule's friend Narayan Meghaji Lokhande, a labour organization leader, was close friends with Phule and used Khandoba-worship and the reverence of Sundays for Khandoba in his petition to British authority to achieve Sunday as a holiday for factory labourers. Phule and Lokhande emulated Brahmans, like forming the political lobby group Deenbandhu Sarvajanik Sabha after Ranade's Poona Sarvajanik Sabha and forming the Bombay Mill Hands Association based and its mouthpiece ''Deenbandhu'' on the Working Men's Club (India's 1st labour welfare platform) and its mouthpiece ''Bharat Sramajibi'' (India's 1st labour journal) of Sasipada Banerji (Brahmo Samaji.)

Though Dinkarrao Javalkar portrayed himself as pan-Hindu when discussing the specific topic of Hindu unity, he still prejudicially criticized the Brahman caste in general<ref>"''This day will be counted among the most important days in the history of Hindus. There is no reason for you to fear jail. The Brahmans who eat ghee and roti should have that fear. To make the touchable people behave is in your hands. You are the sons of Hindus. You capture the tank saying 'har har Mahadev' and follow the advice of your leader Dr. Ambedkar Saheb. This is my own position.''" -Dinkarrao Javalkar at satyagraha with Keshavrao Jedhe and Dr. Ambedkar among a Mahar crowd</ref> and targeted some prominent Brahmans like Lokmanya Tilak. (Javalkar and Keshavrao Jedhe also portrayed themselves as pro-woman but derogatory remarks about women from the Brahman and certain other castes<ref>P. 44 ''19th Century Maharashtra: A Reassessment'' (2020) By Shraddha Kumbhojkar </ref> and both appealed to Dr. B.R. Ambedkar in 1927 to exclude Brahmans from the Mahad Satyagraha<ref> P. 27 ''Social Reform Movements in India: A Historical Perspective'' (1991) By V.D. Divekar</ref>.) Jedhe did protest with other activists (including Brahmans like Narhar Vishnu Gadgil, Seshdas Ranade, Shreedhar Mahadev Joshi, and members of Arya Samaj) for the right of Dalits to worship at Pune's Devdeveshwar Mandir[https://devdeveshwarsanthan.org/home.html]. Javalkar did write favourably about some like Ranade, Gopal Ganesh Agarkar, and Krishna Gopal Gokhale but even they were rarely mentioned. He rightfully partook in the Kalaram Mandir[https://www.shrikalaramsansthannasik.org/] Satyagraha in Nasik that protested for Dalits to be able to enter the temple. He was a communist and 10 years after his death, the Peasants and Workers Party (PWP) was formed.

SS branches outside of Pune were less hateful of Brahmans. It is also noteworthy, however, is that Nana Patil, a founder of the PWP, was affiliated with both the Satyashodhak and Prarthana associations [meaning that he, like most other Satyashodhaks didn't believe in Phule's religious ideology.] Some other PWP founders like Jedhe and Madhavrao Bagal were Satyashodhaks, they popularized Shiv Jayanti and Ganesh Chathuri. The latter and his son Vasantrao even wrote devotional pieces inspired from Bhakti Era saints (i.e., [[Tukaram]], [[Eknath]]) and valourizing pieces about Shahu. Tulshidas Jadhav, a Gandian within the PWP, championed the Bhakti Era's Warkari Movement, which was still popular in his time, because it was based on social equality and public seva. Also noteworthy is, that even some prominent members supported the Arya Samaj, like Krishnarao Bhalekar (1 of the founders of SS with Phule) defended Dayanand Saraswati (Arya Samaj’s founder), when the latter’s procession was opposed by some orthodox Hindus in Pune, and Bhalekar organized a speech to be delivered by Saraswati at a dharmshal near a Rokdoba Temple in Pune.

Bhalekar himself made the claim that the SS is the true follower of Sant Tukaram's [[Bhāgavata-dharma|Bhagwat Dharma]] ([[Krishna|Krishnaite]] [[Vaishnava|Vaishnavism]].) His son was Mukundrao Patil, who made the claim, "''The Satyasodhak Samaj is the true heir of the Hindu religion. Brahmanism is not Hinduism.''"<ref>''Dinmitra'' newspaper (1920s)</ref> Javalkar claimed SS is the true representative of the Hindu religion and that SS members are liberating Hinduism from the supremacy of the Brahmins. Shivram Janma Kamble stated the SS is a revival movement of the true Hinduism. Kisan Faguji Bansode argued "Shivdharma" was the true Hindu religion and that the SS advocates that version.

There were those in his organization that promoted about how in ancient Sanatan society, there were no caste distinctions and that people were recognized by their merits. Their view was promoted by Tukaram Tatya Padval, who wrote ''Jatibhed Vivekshar'' (1861) after being inspired by Ashwaghosha's ''Vajrasuchi''. Phule republished copies of Padval's books, and the 2 developed a friendship. He did write at that in ancient India, certain sages were had Sudra or Avarna status but rose to the rank of a Brahman through their intellect, and used examples of Valmiki (wrote a ''Ramayan''), Sankhya, and Kabilar rishis. He also published copies of the ''Bhagavad Gita'', ''Yogasutra'', and compilations of the ''Rajayoga'' and ''Sankhya Karika.'' He further compiled the ''Tukarambaba ani Tyanche Shisya Yanchi Abhanga Gatha'' (1889) and ''Eknath Maharajancha Abhangachi Gatha'' (1903.) Padval, however, never became a member of Phule's organization and instead became a member of the Theosophical Society.

;Shahu forming his own Satyashodhak Samaj focused on upliftment (free of anti-Brahman distractions)
As a result of the Satyashodhak Samaj of Pune being too antagonistic of Brahmans, Shahu had instead founded his own branch in 1911 — Shri Shahu Satyashodhak Samaj. By an order, Shahu replaced the Brahman priests in the Patgaon Sansthan (Mauni Maharaj Math[https://durgbharari.in/maunibaba-patgaon/]) and Jyotiba Devasthan[https://shreejyotiba.com/?lang=E][https://maharashtratourism.gov.in/temple/jyotiba/] with Maratha priests. Bhaskarrao Jadhav and Anna Babaji Latthe were leaders of Shahu's Kolhapur Satyashodhak Samaj. Whereas Phule mostly only wrote positively of Shiva and local-born gods, Jadhav in his ''Marathas and their Religion'' wrote positively about Krishna and the ''Bhagavad Gita''. He further worked with Shahu to aid Arya Samaj in its activities and goals (i.e., train non-Brahmans to become priests too.) Noteworthy is that Latthe, who worked personally with Shahu Maharaj, was its first VP and that he worked to dismantle priestly (Jain priests, not usually Brahmans) intermediation within the Jain clergy. (He was a big-time activist for general upliftment and for reform within the Jain community (i.e., wrote ''Jain Dharmacha Parichay''.)

Latthe founded the Dakshin Bharat Jain Sabha[https://dbjainsabha.com/], of which Dr. Bhaurao Patil (from a Jain family) became a member and through he wasn't a member of any SS branch, he did sometimes participate in its activities and himself founded the Rayat Shikshan Sansthan[https://rayatshikshan.edu/], which educated students in a multitude of topics, including Sanskrit. Patil (alias 'Karmvir Anna') was deeply influenced by Mahatma Gandhi and Vitthal Ramji Shinde.

;Shahu distancing himself formally from Satyashodhak Samaj
The SS had earned a bad reputation in Maharashtra with the general public, particularly for the outright anti-Brahman vitriol spewed in the SS's publications and events. Because the goal of Shahu and true reformers was to achieve a harmonious society with all people cooperating, it would not make sense to support an organization that's known for abusing persons (i.e., Brahmans) specifically over their caste identity.

In 1921, Shahu made a public statement in a Baroda newspaper that even though he granted significant support to the non-Brahman movement and introduced measures to eliminate Brahman dominance, he had never been affiliated with Phule's SS, and that he always accepted [[Rta and Spiritual Authority#Rishis|Vedic ritual authority]].

;Granting, accommodating, and expanding Arya Samaj
Shahu attended Arya Samaj sessions like the one at Navsari in 1918 and another at Bhavnagar in 1920<ref>P. 6. ''People's Raj Volume 30'' (1974) By Directorate-General of Information and Public Relations </ref>. He provided funding for Gurukul Boarding House to be built at Kerle, wherein large buildings and well-irrigated lands were granted to the Arya Samaj. Later, the Rajaram Anathalaya orphanage was added to this grant. He also brought educational institutions in his domain under the leadership of Arya Pratinidhi Sabha. Rajaram College's administration was also granted to the Arya Samaj.

;Spiritual Authority as Rajarshi
Shahu Maharaj, being a devout Sanatan wanted to proclaim the rights that warriors of history had and so participated in important ceremonies and worked with priests (i.e., Brahmans) to achieve the rights to learn and perform Vedic ceremonies. He established the Vedokta Committee for Marathas to be able to perform Vedic rites without requiring priests. In 1905, the Karveer Peeth's (or Kolhapur Math's) Shankaracharya declared full rights of Vedokta to Chhatrapati Shahu.

Tatyarao Joshirao was appointed by Shahu Maharaj as new royal purohit, replacing the Rajopadhye (creator of the infamous 'Vedokta Controversy'), who denied the Maharaj to perform Vedic rites. Joshirao was from a family that had traditional ownership of the historic Binkhambi Ganapati Mandir in Kolhapur.

Rajaram Shastri (alias 'Bhagavata'), a Brahman scholar, linguist, and researcher, openly challenged the religious orthodoxy, arguing from scripture that Shahu Maharaj had full rights to the Vedas. Vishnu Topkhane was another Brahman who greatly helped the Chhatrapati with his progressive reforms. Topkhane the educationalist helped the latter establish the Vidyapeeth High School near the Shri Karveer Niwasini Ambabai Mahalakshmi Temple. Freedom fighter Gokhale was someone who worked with Shahu. When the Vedokta Controversy broke out and the conservative press attacked the Maharaja, Gokhale privately and publicly validated Shahu Maharaj's stance, recognizing that social reform was a prerequisite for true political freedom. Ranade, though passed away before much Shahu's reforms began, was admired by the latter for his progressive ideals and actions.

Chhatrapati Shahu founded the Satyashodhak School for spiritual training in 1913, in which seminarians (predominantly from castes such as Marathas, Mahars, and Chambhars) were taught to recite and preach the poems (i.e., abhangs of Tukaram) of sants. He also created the Shivaji Vedic School (aliases 'Shahu Vedic School', 'Shahu Vedic Pathshala', 'Shri Shahu Vaidik Vidyalay') in 1920 and had invited scholars from Varanasi (spiritual capital of Sanatan Dharm) to ensure the highest standard of scriptural and linguistic training. The school trained seminarians (of all castes) to learn Sanskrit and become priests and conduct ceremonies. He further established and financed the office of the Kshatra Jagadguru (''Warrior Universal Teacher''), a pontiff seat open to anyone of any caste. The first Kshatra Jagadguru was Sadashivrao Lakshmanrao Sankpal Patil Benadikar, was an accomplished Sanskrit scholar who received his formal higher education at Rajaram College in Kolhapur. The Kshatra Jagadguru Peeth was the pontiff's seat at Patgaon (in the Bhudargad region of Kolhapur.) Patgaon was chosen because it was the historic site of the Mauni Maharaj Math, a highly respected spiritual center that had historically blessed Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj[https://pilgrimdata.in/temple/mouni-maharaj-math-temple-patgaon-bhudargarh-dist-kolhapur/]. The Kshatra Jagadguru had the Shri Sadashivrao Patil Shikshan Sanstha educationalist association named after him, and it runs schools[https://www.mwssm.org/][https://sspiop.com/] in Maharashtra still. Other organizations too use his name for schools like Sadashivrao Mandlik Mahavidyalaya (Kolhapur) of the ⁠Jay Shivray Education Society.

===Successive associations===
From Hindu-based institutions like sociopolitical organizations and schools came a number of philanthropic associations. Even other humanitarian associations that were not established by Hindu activists, were established by their influence. For example, Krishna Gopal Gokhale had participated in many sessions of the Prarthana Samaj as he was Ranade's pupil, and he later joined the Deccan Education Society, which he left to establish the Servants of India Society. Narayan Malhar Joshi was a member of Gokhale's group and later formed his own Social Service League[https://socialserviceleague.org.in/]. Hriday Nath Kunzru too was part of Gokhale's group and left to establish the Seva Samiti.

{| class="wikitable sortable"
|-
! Organization
! Demographic of Focus
! Region(s)
! Founder
! Founder's Affiliation(s)
! Achievement
|-
|Anath Balikashram Society
|Widows
|Maharashtra
|Dhondo Keshav Karve
|Educated at BHU
|
|-
|Andhra Mahila Sabha
|Females
|Andhra Pradesh
|Durgabai Deshmukh
|
|
|-
|Bharat Stree Mahamandal
|Females
|Bengal, Bihar, Punjab, Sindh, U.P.
|Sarala Devi Chaudhurani
|Arya Samaji, Brahmo Samaji, accepted Bijoy Krishna Chattopadhyaya as her guru
|
|-
|Buddhi Vardhak Sabha
|General public
|Gujarat
|Narmadashankar Labheshankar Dave
|
|Exposed people in positions of power that abused their privileges, build schools for girls
|-
|Central Social Welfare Board
|Females and children
|
|Dr. Durgabai Deshmukh
|
|
|-
|Hindu Widow Marriage Association
|Females
|Maharashtra
|Dhondo Keshav Karve
|Educated at BHU
|
|-
|Hindustani Seva Dal
|Females
|Every province
|Dr. Narayan Subbarao Hardikar
|
|Established the Hindustani Seva Mandal (later became Rashtriya Seva Dal) in 1923, established the Arya Bala Sabha, taught the Gita during his student days in Kolkata, was a fan of Lokmanya Tilak, and had enthusiastically worked with Lala Rai
|-
|Indian Reform Association
|Females
|West Bengal
|Keshub Chandra Sen
|
|Brahmo Samaji, founded ''Sulabh Samachar'' as weekly newspaper of group
|-
|Kasthurbha Gandhi Kanya Gurukulam[http://www.kgkgurukulam.org/]
|Girls
|Tamil Nadu (Vedaranyam)
|Vedaratnam Pillai
|
|Involved in temple-based philanthropy and donated to Sri Ramakrishna Mission too
|-
|Lakshmi Ashram
|Females
|Uttarakhand
|Sarla Behn
|
|Established individual Mahila Mandals throughout Uttarakhand and promoted important skills as well as ecological awareness
|-
|Lokahitawadi Mandal
|General public
|Maharashtra
|Vishnu Vaman Shirwadkar
|
|Wrote about Hindu themes, including persons from scriptures and about Shivaji poetically, philosophically, and nationally
|-
|Maharshi Karve Stree Shikshan Samstha
|Females
|Maharashtra
|Dhondo Keshav Karve
|Educated at BHU
|
|-
|Mahila Vidyalaya (Pune)
|Females
|Maharashtra
|Dhondo Keshav Karve
|Educated at BHU
|
|-
|Nishkam Karma Math
|Females
|Maharashtra
|Dhondo Keshav Karve
|Educated at BHU
|
|-
|Poona Seva Sadan
|Females
|Maharashtra (at its peak, included M.P. and T.N.)
|Ramabai Ranade
|
|
|-
|Samata Sangh
|General public
|Maharashtra
|Dhondo Keshav Karve
|Educated at BHU
|
|-
|Self Employed Women's Association (SEWA)
|Females
|18 states
|Ela Bhatt
|Gandhian Textile Labour Association
|Established: own bank (Shri Mahila Sewa Sahakari Bank, or 'SEWA Cooperative Bank'), SEWA Mahila Housing Trust
|-
|Servants of the People Society
|Females
|Kerala, Maharashtra, M.P., Odisha T.N., Uttarakhand U.P.
|
|
|
|-
|Shraddhanand Ashram[https://shraddhanandmahilashram.org] (alias Hindu Women's Welfare Society)
|Females and boys
|Maharashtra (Mumbai)
|Swami Shraddhanand
|
|Has cared for thousands of destitute women and orphans, and educated them and provided skills development, as well as fostered personal development
|-
|Stree Hitaishini Mandali
|Females
|Andhra Pradesh
|Kanuparti Varalakshmamma
|
|Educated many females
|-
|Widow Marriage Association
|Females
|Maharashtra
|Dhondo Keshav Karve
|Educated at BHU
|
|-
|}

==Inspiration to Madras Presidency==
[[image:M.C. Rajah.jpg|right|thumb|200px|Mylai Chinna Thambi Pillai Rajah (the real 'Periyar'.)]]
While the Arya Samaj, Brahmo Samaj, Prarthana Samaj, and a host of other Hindu-based humanitarian and sociopolitical institutions existed in the-then Madras Presidency of southern India, they inspired local organizations as well. Shahu Maharaj had friends in the-then Justice Party (JP, est. 1916), like Arcot Ramasamy Mudaliar and Panaganti Ramarayaningar. While some ethnic groups, like certain castes even falsely supported the idea of an 'Aryan Invasion Theory' and themselves (Dravidian-languages speakers) as indigenous, they still appreciated Hinduism and did not consider it alien.

The biggest uplifter of the party was M.C. Rajah, who had the highest influence upon the policies that improved the lives of the Dalits in Madras Presidency. The party itself was founded primarily by 3 individuals — Sir Pitti Theagaraya Chetty (political founder who built the political machine), Dr. Taravath Madhavan Nair (ideological co-founder), and Dr. Chintadripet Natesa Mudaliar (cultural/grassroots mobilizer who helped shape cultural legitimacy.) Dr. Nair had said that Hindu society had originally possessed broader equality before caste dominance hardened it. Chetty occasionally used dharm-based ethical framing. He is consistently described as arguing that governance must align with "''dharma and justice''". The Dr. Mudaliar was a devout Shaiva that infused into the party Shaivism as a cultural identity for southerners.
[[image:P.T. Rajan.jpg|right|thumb|200px|P.T. Rajan (centre-right, wearing glasses next to priest), touring with the idol of [[Ayyappan|Ayyappa]] he had made at Swamimalai Temple[https://swamimalaiswaminathar.hrce.tn.gov.in/] and it was placed in the Sabarimala Temple[https://www.sabarimalauptodate.in/].]]
An ideologue of influence to the JP and Self-Respect Movement was Maraimalai Adigal, a Shaiv preacher and writer, who claimed that both the JP and Self-Respect Movement were from his teachings and that militant atheist Erode Venkatappa Ramasami Naicker had hijacked them. JP founder Dr. Nair died in 1919 and Chetty in 1925, so had no interaction Naicker. Ponnambala Thiaga Rajan was an active party member and disagreed with Naicker's ideology, so joined Congress-aligned politics. Mudaliar died in 1935 around the time Naicker entered the JP. Naicker was also a prejudiced castist that criticized but did not contribute to build schools and shelters for women and children, as Rajah[https://www.news18.com/opinion/opinion-m-c-rajah-the-forgotten-hindu-mahasabha-dalit-8937192.html][https://vskbharat.com/m-c-rajah-a-staunch-hindu-leader/?lang=en][https://thecommunemag.com/m-c-rajah-the-hindu-mahasabha-dalit/], a practicing Hindu of the party did. Rajah even once formed a political alliance with the Hindu Mahasabha, was the contributor. Before Rajah, the party's caste disparity was mainly about civil service occupations and education access for underprivileged castes. Rajah was recommended by Ambedkar to convert but Rajah replied there's no religion better than Hinduism.<ref>P. 92 ''The Political Evolution of Muslims in Tamilnadu and Madras, 1930-1947'' By J.B. Prashant More (1997) </ref><ref> In a public meeting of the All India Adi Dravida Mahajana Sabha in Nungambakkam, Chennai he said, "''The president (of this meeting) mentioned that no other community other than us has more right to be called Hindus. Conversion will not bring about any good. By saying so, I am not undermining or wishing away the oppression and ills we have faced. We need to fight for our rights. The speed at which reforms are happening might be slow. But think about our current situation and how much it has improved. I beseech you to please abandon any move that will weaken us. I request the government to bring about the Untouchability Abolition Bill and pass it quickly. The Harijans are proud Hindus. That is the only reason why even after years of oppression by higher castes and a barrage of proselytization efforts by other religions hasn't changed their resolve being Hindus.''" P. 123 ''Evolution of Hindu Nationalism - Icons of HMS, RSS & BJS'' By Sankara Narayanan T (2025)</ref> Adigal's writings had a profound impact on Subramania Ramanathan, the founder of the Self-Respect Movement, and on the Naicker but the latter only wanted pro-Tamil and castist societal changes, not promotion of Shaivism. Naicker would later break away from the party and form his own Dravidar Kazhagam, a title he copied from Adigal's Shaiv association (Podhunilak Kazhagam.) (His own pupil, Conjeevaram Natarajan Annadurai, would eventually disown him after he married his own adopted daughter, and Annadurai would leave his group.)
[[image:Alamelu.jpg|right|thumb|200px|Alamelu Mangai Thayarammal, a Brahmo Samaji, was co-founder of the party among 29 others (all men.)]]
The Hindu sentiment was definitely present in the JP. Many left after Naicker's hijacking. Important members bothered by Naicker's rhetoric apart from Rajan were Ananda Prasad Patro, Arunachalam Thamaraiselvam Panneerselvam, Muthiah Annamalai Chettiar, Ramasamy Kandasamy Shanmukham Chetty, and Subbarayalu Kumaraswami Reddiar. Chettiar even personally regularly donated to temple renovations, endowing temple lands or festivals, supporting pilgrimage facilities, and Hindu-managed schools. Rajan, the last leader of the JP, was the head-of-government of the Presidency, and was a big devotee a [[Ayyappan|Swami Ayyappa]]. Rajan even solemnized a marriage of a German couple converted to Hinduism in Coimbatore (Oct 31, 1962.) He further discouraged conversion of Dalits from Hinduism to another religion<ref>"''If by mass conversion you expect to achieve your object, you will be disappointed, because of a mere change of religion it will not give you all that you want.''" 
P. 147 ''Sir P. T. Rajan's Eighty Second Birthday Souvenir, 1973'' By P.T. Rajan and K. Paramasivam</ref> while encouraging caste-Hindus to better treat Dalits. His family had deep ties to the Meenakshi Amman Temple[https://maduraimeenakshi.hrce.tn.gov.in/] in Madurai, with his son (Palanivel Rajan), serving as a minister, and his daughter-in-law (Rukmani), serving as the first female chairperson of the temple's board of trustees. His predecessor Ramakrishna Ranga Rao denied that the JP was anti-Hindu and declared that it aimed to purify Hindu society from "''absurdities''" and return "''Hinduism greater and more glorious than it was in the past...''"<ref>"''As I understand it, the Self-Respect movement stands for certain great ideals to make Hinduism greater and more glorious than it was in the past, to rid it of all those absurdities which are the accretions of an unfortunate era of the past, and unite us in a solid federation so that all those who profess to follow the Hindu faith may feel that they are brethren following one of the most ancient and glorious religions of the world. No longer should the foreigner point his finger of scorn at this or that particular phase of Hinduism which belies its cosmopolitan tendency by inflicting personal hardship on classes or communities. If a few youths in their exuberant enthusiasm have been carried away beyond the bounds of Hinduism it will not do to fight shy of the new movements, but political wisdom and sagacity lie in taking them into our fold and guiding them aright along the paths of duty and rectitude.''" 
P. 289 ''The Indian Annual Register An Annual Digest of Public Affairs of India Recording the Nation's Activities Each Year in Matters Political, Economic, Industrial, Educational, Social, Etc · Volume 2'' By Nipendra Nath Mitra (1934)</ref> Alamelu Mangai Thayarammal, conferred 'Pandithai' title by Saiva Sabha in Palamcottah, was a JP co-founder [with 29 co-founders being men] who was a Brahmo Samaji, meaning the influence of the Hindu-based organizations wasn't insignificant. Paramasivan Subbarayan Gounder, while not technically a JP member, worked with it closely, and both he and his women's rights activist wife Kailash Radhabai Kulmud were Brahmos. It is also noteworthy that [[Ascetics|ascetic]] Swamiyar Kaivalyar who supported the party without being a member wrote pro-Shaiv material. Cattamanchi Ramalinga Reddy, an ex-member who formed his own party in 1923 was a close friend of Dr. Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan, and he himself engaged with Hindu texts on a literary artistic level. As Hinduism isn't a scripture-dependent religion, some JP members like A.R. Mudaliar heavily criticized certain scriptures but were devout Hindus ([[Vaiśnava|Vaishnav]] in his case.) And while orthodox opposition was present, the majority of Indians, including religious leaders, supported reforms, like when Shankaracharya of Kanchi[https://www.kamakoti.org/] supported the "Hindu Religious Endowments Bill" (1921) even while voicing some concerns in within. Mentionable is that [[Shatata-Unnati#Female upliftment|Dr. Muthulakshmi Reddy]] wasn't part of the JP but it still nominated her in 1926 for the Madras Legislative Council to bring about positive changes.

==Related articles==
*[[Women]]
*[[Women as Rishikas in the Vedas]]
*[[Worship of God as Mother]]

==External resources==
*[https://www.ijhsss.com/files/08.-ABHISEK-KARMAKAR_6813z4a4.pdf "Changing status of women in Indian politics (1917-1947): the role of civil society"], P. 42-45 ''International Journal of Humanities & Social Science Studies'' Volume-I, Issue-II (September 2014) By Abhisek Karmakar
*[https://www.besanthill.org/about/history-heritage/annie-besant/ Besant Hill School of Happy Valley in Ojai, California]
*[https://www.anniebesant.org Annie Besant Women's College in Hyderabad, Telangana]
*[https://www.aryasabha.mu/cultural-programme-arya-mahila-mandal-in-the-context-of-the-200th-birth-anniversary-of-swami-dayananda-saraswati/ Arya Mahila Mandal (Mauritius)]
*[https://www.thearyasamaj.org/ammkarolbagh Arya Mahila Mandal Karol Bagh]
*[https://vatikashaktipeeth.com/seven-agitations/women-awakening.html Vatika Shakti Peeth]

==References==
{{reflist}}

[[Category: History]]
[[Category: Economics]]
[[Category: Societal altruism]]

Shatata-Unnati

2026-06-12T03:21:18Z

Himanshu Bhatt: /* Hindu-led social betterment */

{{Author|Himanshu Bhatt}}
'Shatata-Unnati' is ''continual change'', 'abhyas' means improvement, 'kram-parivartanam' is ''incremental reformation'', while 'shodhanam' is ''refinement''. All of these terms are descriptive of Hindu society throughout the ages.

Continual social betterment has been one of the defining characteristics of Hindu society. All major cultures have had evils in their histories, including Hindu societies, but the shining examples to enforce positive changes and adaptability to a changing world are the Hinduism, Christianity, and Judaism.

In an era wherein colonial norms meant imprisonment or executions for speaking out against imperial rule, Mahatma Gandhi challenged the ideas of forcing nations to be subservient, fighting oppression by violence, and purging one's own nation of evils (i.e., inequality and superstition.) Today, much of the world still looks to Gandhi's perseverance to bring positive change into society.

Transformation of India's political systems made India into the world's largest democracy, and for accomplishing that, [[Indian Freedom Fighters#INC's Hindu activist roots|Hindu doctrines were rationalize to promote democracy]]. Even in India's political spectrum, Hindu principles were used to make liberalism and communism resonate with people, like Ram Rajya being a communist utopia. Some of the Communist Party of India's [[Indian Freedom Fighters#CPI's Hindu activist roots|founders were idealogues for both communism and Hinduism]], such as Swami Kumaranand, Swami Satyabhakt, and Swami Sahajanand Saraswati, as well as Keezhedathu Damodaran, Radhamohan Gokulji, and Rahul Sankrityayan.

==Comparison in societal reformation (India and Europe)==
:''See also: [[Contribution of Hindu Diaspora]]''
Whereas even in modern times, in most European Christian societies, witch-hunts and slavery were the norm, in Indian Hindu societies, widow-burning was the norm among certain communities (usually northwestern) and caste prejudice was prevalent. Both the Christian and Hindu communities worked to extinguish these and other evils.

Historical societal injustices have been acknowledged and reconciled. Even today, the lasting legacy of important Hindu reformers is visible wherein quotas employment and educational quotas are implemented for social upward mobility to ensure poorer castes and women do not fall behind.

During the colonial era, as human rights improved in Western societies as results from agricultural/economic advancements, Western writers of non-Christian societies took a chauvinistic, parochialist, and Eurocentric approach towards Hindu societies, claiming that they:
#Would never improve in human rights, morality, or rationality
#Are permanently stagnant
#Cannot produce modern or political economic institutions

Critics of the colonial era were proven wrong in these concrete ways:
#Large-scale societal reforms led by Hindu activists themselves improved Hindu societies — i.e., promoting window remarriage and caste integration while also creating quotas for females and historically-disadvantaged castes
#Rapid expansion of education and intellectual mobility — i.e., growth of global Hindu academic presence
#Global economic and corporate leadership — i.e., entrepreneurship and CEOs of major multinational companies like Adobe, Google, and Microsoft
#Democratic political evolution — i.e., maintaining electoral democracies like Hindu-majority nations, providing peaceful transfers of power, and granting significant autonomy to judiciary, press, and civil societies
#Religious and philosophical continuity + adaptation
#Ritual practice has diversified massively by religion and class — i.e., clerics ([[Rta and Spiritual Authority|priests]] and [[ascetics|monks]]) are from many backgrounds
#Reinterpretation of scriptures became internationally influential — i.e., Aldous Huxley loved the perennialism of Upanishads, Erwin Schrödinger the idea of aikatmyam, and Henry David Thoreau that of Ishavasyam
#Non-Hindus from outside of the Indian Subcontinent have converted to Sanatan Dharm and have promoted the religion — James Donald Walters who founded Ananda Sangha, Richard Alpert who founded Hanuman Foundation, John Edwin Favors who founded iFast[https://ifastdc.com/][https://ifastglobal.com/], and Robert Hansen who founded Saiva Siddhanta Church[https://www.himalayanacademy.com/]
#Hindu-based intellectual practices have popularized globally — i.e., [[Ayurveda|Ayurvedic medicine]], divination, political activism, [[Animal rights#Influence upon Westerners|animal rights]], [[Animal_rights#Vegetarianism|vegetarianism]], and [[yoga]]

==Hindu-led social betterment==
What is extraordinary in the case of India is that it was the religious institutions ([[Organizations|Hindu organizations]] and [[Hindu Post-Secondary Institutes|schools]]) that made revolutionary changes, not normally secular or non-Hindu ones. Practicing Hindus saw that superstitious and chauvinistic practices had become institutionalized (caste system and misogyny) within Hindu society, so they formed associations to help, uplift, educate the destitute. They would even go steps further to privilege the marginalized through reservations.

Even women who were more exploratory and not members of specific religions engaged with Hinduism positively. The best example might be Annette Beveridge, an Englishwoman who was the daughter of a Unitarian Christian herself became affiliated with Keshub Chandra Sen in England. She was drawn to his lectures and this fascination with his philosophy inspired her to begin life in India, where she even established<ref>Its expenses were financed by Ananda Mohan Bose and Durga Mohan Das, Dwarkanath Ganguly was its headmaster, and others Brahmos involved with the school were Sibnath Sastri and Monomohun Ghose.</ref> the Hindu Mahila Vidyalaya (''Hindu Women's School''.) Her husband Henry Beveridge was an orientalist (westerners intrigued with Asian cultures) working in India, meaning they were not Westerners critical of Hindu identity. Mrs. Emily Phear was an honorary teacher, and she too was involved in Brahmo Samaji circles for societal development. (Her husband Sir John Budd Phear helped Brahmo Samaj legally.) A non-Hindu that likewise began a girls school (Hindu Female School[https://www.bethunecollegiateschool.com/]) with Brahmos and other Hindus was John Bethune, whose accomplices were Dakshinaranjan Mukherjee, Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar, Ramgopal Ghosh, and Madanmohan Tarkalanka (the last even taught at the school without pay.) Others foreign women in India that engaged positively with Hindu activist organizations were Mary Carpenter[https://southasianbritain.org/people/mary-carpenter/] and Sophia Dobson Collet with Brahmo Samaj, Alma B.R.A. with Arya Samaj, and Mary Hobson with Prarthana Samaj[https://puneprarthanasamaj.org/].

Hindu women that set women's rights activism into motion were Arya Samaj's Lajwanti Sood and Satyavati Devi, and Brahmo Samaj's Kadambini Ganguly and Sarala Devi Chaudhurani. Swarnakumari Devi was both an Arya Samaji and a Brahmo Samaji.
[[image:Dr. Anandi Gopal Joshi.jpg|right|thumb|200px|Dr. Anandi Gopal Joshi in 1886 marking a milestone with 2 other Asian women.]]
What is also worth mentioning is that there were women not members of sociopolitical organizations who pursued and achieved new societal achievements, showing that many Hindu women thought for themselves. Dr. Anandibai Joshi was India's first female doctor to trained in Western medicine. Her education and trip to U.S. was funded by [[Shatata-Unnati#Shahu's royal authority to implement reforms|Chhatrapati Shahu Maharaj]]. Upon return, he even funded her return journey and offer her supervisory role at Kolhapur's largest hospital[https://old.rcsmgmc.ac.in/]. Foundations[https://anandibai.org/resources/], institutions (i.e., Dr. Anandi Gopal Higher Education & Medical Facilities), awards (i.e., IRDS's[https://ngosindia.org/uttar-pradesh-ngos/irds-institute-for-research-documentation-in-social-sciences-lucknow/] Anandibai Joshi Award for Medicine), and scholarships (i.e., Dr. Anandi Gopal Scholarship Scheme) are named after her in commemoration. (Dr. Anandi Gopal Higher Education & Medical Facilities itself is a collaboration between the U.S. university she graduated in (DUCM[https://drexel.edu/medicine/news-events/publications/pulse/spring-2018/]) and SMCW. She let people know that she was not ashamed of being a Hindu. She was often pressured by Christian missionaries to convert[https://knowledge.lancashire.ac.uk/id/eprint/48487/1/bharadwaj-et-al-2023-journey-across-the-world-to-study-medicine-the-anandi-joshi-story.pdf]. Dr. Anandi had written her thesis, "Obstetrics among the Aryan Hindus", containing references from both the traditional Ayurvedic (''Susruta Samhita'' and ''Charaka Samhita'') and modern American medical literatures. (Mentionable is that although her husband Gopalrao Joshi's relentless, public letter-writing campaigns and essays targeted Lokmanya Tilak for being not liberal enough and Justice Ranade for being too liberal Tilak's ''Kesari'' and ''Mahratta'' newspapers glorified Dr. Joshi as a rolemodel for women.)

===Female upliftment===
:''See also: [[Indian Freedom Fighters]] 
;Theosophical Society wing
[[image:Paris Women's Congress.jpg|right|thumb|200px|Dr. Reddy and 3 Indian women at the Paris Women's Congress (1926.)]]
The top 3 champions who politically improved Indian women's rights in the modern era were foreigners — Dr. Annie Besant, Dorothy Jinarajadasa, and Margaret Cousins. They did not tell Indian women to leave Hinduism but rather they themselves became Hindu in practice and Indian in habit. They then sought to restore the Vedic-era of womanhood wherein women had authority (i.e., to become clerics, scholars, and leaders.) Emma Mitchell (American) and Francesca Arundale (English) greatly contributed to building of Hindu educational institutions (i.e., Central Hindu College.)

Dr. Muthulakshmi Reddy is a big name in female rights, and she was influenced by Dr. Besant in her college years (1907-1912) and was guided by Dr. Besant in both her social reform and political work. She worked with Dr. Besant and others to establish the Women's Indian Association (1917.) After Dr. Besant's death, she took over the presidency of the WIA. Gandhi was another major mentor but Reddy never formally joined the INC but sometimes protested colonial injustices (i.e., Gandhi's arrest.)

;Ramakrishna Mission wing
[[image:Nivedita & Vivekanand.jpg|right|thumb|200px|Nivedita with Vivekanand.]]
[[Niveditā, Sister|Sister Nivedita (Margaret Noble)]], a convert from Ireland became a disciple of [[Swami Vivekananda|Swami Vivekanand]] and joined Aurobindo's Dawn Society and had also founded and ran girls' schools in Kolkata (i.e., Ramakrishna Sarada Mission Sister Nivedita Girls' School[https://www.sisterniveditagirlsschool.org/home.html] in Baghbazar) to educate girls who had little to no access to education (i.e., poorest of the poor.) She advocated for women's intellectual and moral development, influenced by Vivekanand's vision of strong Indian womanhood. Her work included lectures, fundraising (India, England, and U.S.), and writings that promoted gender equality in access to knowledge and opportunities. She had worked with Dr. Annie Besant at times. Likewise, Sister Christine, disciple of Vivekanand, is another example of a Westerner who utilized the Ramakrishna Mission and Vivekanand's circles as vehicles for improving female rights in India.

;INC wing
:''See also: [[Indian Freedom Fighters#INC's Hindu activist roots|INC's Hindu activist roots]] 
[[image:Nellie Sen Gupta.jpg|right|thumb|100px|N.S. Gupta.]]
Nellie Sen Gupta[https://www.thedailystar.net/in-focus/news/deshpriya-jatindra-mohan-nellie-sengupta-2036981] (nee Edith Ellen Gray) had married freedom fighter Jatindra Mohan Sen Gupta, and both joined the INC — she also founded Deepali Sangha, a women's organization aimed at promoting social and political awareness, leadership, training, and empowerment among women. Her husband passed away but she was advised to stay in the-then East Pakistan to take care of Hindu rights, which she did. Umadevi (born Wanda Dynowska), a Polish convert to Sanatan Dharm too championed women's rights in India and translated ''[[Bhagavad Gita]]'', ''[[Mahabharata]]'', ''[[Ramayana]]'', and other [[Hindu Scriptures|Hindu and Bauddh literature]] into Polish. Mira Behn (born Madeleine Slade), the daughter of a British Royal Navy admiral, gave up her affluent lifestyle to become Gandhi's servant in India.
[[image:Sarla Behn Chipko Movement.jpg|right|thumb|200px|Sarla Behn's Chipko act[https://www.adda247.com/school/chipko-movement/].]]
Sarla Behn[https://growbilliontrees.com/blogs/knowledge/sarla-behn-tree-nurturing-nature-and-empowering-communities-for-a-sustainable-future?srsltid=AfmBOoq4h0d0skQBNr4w4zOvISuhYz02_EXtPvD3pUoQYjTlcvNHEbQ-#fullcontent] (born Catherine Mary Heilman) from England setup the Lakshmi Ashram Kausani in 1946 within Uttarakhand to uplift women, after having lived in the Sevagram Ashram[https://gandhiashramsevagram.org/] in Maharashtra. The organization educated rural hill girls academically, trained women of self-reliance and industrial skills (i.e., khadi weaving), taught personal care (i.e., literacy, hygiene, anti-liquor campaigns), and promoted [[Environmentalism|ecological awareness]] (Chipko Movement.) It also worked with the INC to encourage nationalist fervour. Lakshmi Ashram individual units were known as Mahila Mandals. This ashram attracted foreign residents intrigued with Sanatan Dharm even after independence, like David Hopkins, who relocated to there in the 1990's.
[[image:Durgabai Deshmukh.jpg|right|thumb|100px|Dr. D.D.]]
Dr. Durgabai Deshmukh, pupil of Gandhi and freedom fighter in the colonial era, established the Central Social Welfare Board (1953.) She later became president of the All India Women's Conference (1931.) Taraben Premchand is an important mention, as she was an important member of this organization, as well as the Jain Mahila Parishad[https://www.dbjainsabha.com], Jyoti Sangh[https://jyotisangh.org/about-us/] (local women's advancement group in Gujarat), and Shraddhanand Ashram[https://shraddhanandmahilashram.org/].

Madeleine Rolland was Women's International League for Peace and Freedom's[https://www.wilpf.org/] French section and never settled in India. However, upon engaging with Hindu culture in the 1920's, she translated Ananda Coomaraswamy's ''[[Nataraja Dasakam|The Dance of Shiva]]'' into French, introducing Hinduism to the-then residents of France. She also translated Rabindranath Tagore's writings of Sanatan themes and universal humanism, helping popularize them in Europe. She welcomed Gandhi on his visit to Marseille, France. [[image:Kanuparti Varalakshmamma.jpg|right|thumb|100px|'Sarada'.]]
Kanuparti Varalakshmamma (alias 'Sarada'), a devout Gandhian, used Hindu themes like providing ethical refences (i.e., Savitri, Sita) to depict women's morality, dignity, and conduct. She often engaged with the idea of a grihalakshmi (idea woman of the household.) She also founded the Stree Hitaishini Mandali for uplifting women. She used ''Andhra Patrika'', a newspaper created by a promoter of the ''Bhagavad Gita'', Kasinathuni Nageswara Rao, to preach her ideas.
[[image:Vijaya Lakshmi Pandit.jpg|right|thumb|100px|'Vijaya Lakshmi Pandit'.]]
It is also noteworthy that the 1st female head of government in the world was a [[Bauddh Dharm|Bauddh]] (Sirimavo Bandaranaike of Sri Lanka, non-INC member), and 2nd was a Hindu (Indira Gandhi, INC member.) Also Vijaya Lakshmi Pandit[https://news.un.org/en/story/2024/03/1147327] (born Swaroop Rani Nehru) played a significant role in global representation of women, particularly in the United Nations. She was the first woman to serve as the President of the UN General Assembly (1953-1954), a position she held to advocate for decolonization and the independence of countries in Asia and Africa. Hansa Mehta[https://india.un.org/en/311450-hansa-mehta%E2%80%99s-life-story-continues-inspire] had an impact on the UN's constitution wording wherein "''all human beings''" instead of "all men" in the Universal Declaration of Human Rights. (She was also one of only 2 women delegates working alongside Eleanor Roosevelt in the UN Human Rights Commission 1946-48.)
[[image:Nilla Cram Cook.jpg|right|thumb|100px|'Nilla Nagini Devi'.]]
Nilla Cram Cook, an American who settled at Gandhi's ashrams, had [[Conversion|converted to Hinduism]] in the 1930's but identified with the '[[Samyag Darshan#Samadarshan|sarva dharma sambhava]]' ideal, so considered herself a [[Bhakta|devotee]] of not only [[Krishna]] but of Jesus too, and so she later also translated the Quran and engaged with Islamic practices in a syncretic way with her Hindu and Christian customs. Her final literary work was ''The Way of the Swam: Poems of Kashmir'' (1958), which was mostly focused around the [[Saiva|Shaiv]] mystic poetess Lal Ded[https://hindupost.in/society-culture/lal-ded-her-life-and-works/#][https://homegrown.co.in/homegrown-voices/the-poetry-of-lal-ded-mysticism-resistance-the-female-voice-in-14th-century-kashmir] and others from Kashmir syncretic Sanatan-[[Bauddh Dharm|Bauddh]]-[[Sufism with Vaishnavism|Sufi]] tradition. She dedicated the book to Pandit. She didn't work on women's upliftment directly but did participate with Gandhi's Harijan Sevak Sangh. She had also written about Sarojini Naidu.

;Other associations
[[image:Maharani Chimnabai Gaekwad II.jpg|right|thumb|100px|Maharani Chimnabai.]]
[[image:Sethu Parvathi Bayi.jpg|right|thumb|100px|Junior Queen Bayi.]]
The National Council of Women in India[https://www.ncwi.in/], founded 1925, was also a monumental organization to make progress for women — it mainly focused on female literacy, vocational training, public participation, and legal reform. It was primarily the initiative of Lady Meherbai Tata, a Mazdaean icon, and its first president was Maharani Chimnabai Gaekwad II, born Gajrabai Ghatge, a princess of Dewas (M.P.) She supported societal progress of women that did not compromise on Hindu identity (i.e., traditional customs like wearing sari and sindhoor or like celebrating Raksha Bandhan), which is how she framed her ''The Position of Women in Indian Life'' book. She financed schools for girls, as well as Hindu charities and temples. The Gaekwad family also funded libraries and women's institutions and social reform initiatives. She discussed the eradication or the purdah, child marriage, women's restrictions (i.e., obtaining education and employment), and other obstacles towards advancement. Following her presidentship, Sethu Parvathi Bayi took over. She was from the royal family of Travancore (Kerala), and her family was deeply connected to the Padmanabhaswamy Temple[https://spst.in/][https://www.padmanabhaswamytemple.com/]. She financed Hindu institutions as well. It is notable that Sucharu Deo, daughter of Brahmo leader K.C. Sen was a prominent member and she had also helped build the Maharani Girls' High School[https://school.banglarshiksha.gov.in/ws/website/index/19013701705] in Darjeeling (W.B.) together with her sister (Suniti) and Hemlata Sarkar, daughter of Brahmo leader Sibnath Sastri.

From Hindu-based institutions like sociopolitical organizations and schools came a number of philanthropic associations.
;Most influential persons for women's upliftment
{| class="wikitable sortable"
|-
! Area of Contribution
! Meaning
! Steps Taken
! Activists
! Organizations
! Founder's Affiliation(s)
|-
|Political rights and visibility
|1. Women appearing in public political spaces 2. Women being recognized as leaders (not just participants) 3. Changing social norms about women's public roles 4. Symbolic representation
|Helped institutionalize women's leadership through bodies like Women's Indian Association
|Dr. Annie Besant (women's political rights + organizational leadership), Kamaladevi Chattopadhyay (political participation, economic empowerment, cooperatives), Margaret Cousins[https://www.womensmuseumofireland.ie/exhibits/margaret-elizabeth-cousins] (Suffarage, WIA), Sarojini Naidu (mass mobilization of women in politics)
|
|
|-
|Modern institutional equality
|
|Helped institutionalize institutional equality through contributing policy influence (Hansa Mehta) and constitutional rights (Dr. Durgabai Deshmukh)
|Dr. Durgabai Deshmukh (welfare systems), Hansa Mehta
|
|
|-
|Foundational legal reform
|
|
|Raja Ram Mohan Roy (abolition of sati), Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar (widow remarriage)
|
|
|-
|Education
|
|
|Raja Ram Mohan Roy, Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar
|
|
|-
|}

===Hindu influence internationally===
Even outside of India during the 20th century, women's rights were not perfect, and so many women incorporated Hindu symbolism (i.e., worship) and concepts towards promoting societies where women would have equal rights.
[[image:M.J. Gage.jpg|right|thumb|200px|Matilda Joslyn Gage.]]
[[image: Charlotte Despard.jpg|right|thumb|200px|Charlotte Despard, an Anglo-Irish suffragist who supported Indian independence.]]
As [[Worship of God as Mother|worship of God as a female or mother]] has been common in Sanatan Dharm since its foundation, that made validating female upliftment in India quicker. Even in Western nations, prominent women's rights organizations implemented imagery of goddesses from pertinent ancient cultures, like U.K.'s Women's Freedom League and National Union of Women's Suffrage Societies, and the global International Woman Suffrage Alliance, to legitimize female equality and women being in positions of power. Some Western feminists and women's rights activists, like Matilda Joslyn Gage<ref>"''While the sale of daughters was practiced in England for seven hundred years after the introduction of Christianity, we note that by the ancient law of India, a father was forbidden to sell his daughter in marriage, or receive the smallest present therefor.''" - P. 79-82 ''Woman, Church and State'' (1893) By Matilda Joslyn Gage</ref> (U.S. suffragist) and Helena Petrovna Blavatsky<ref>"''The pre- and post-Vedic woman was as free as man; and no impure terrestrial thought was ever mixed with the religious symbology of the early Aryans.''" 
"''This is proven by the fact that in the Vedic period their women were not placed apart from men in penetralia, or ‘Zenanas.’ Their seclusion began when the Mahomedans … had conquered the land and gradually enforced their ways and customs upon the Hindus.''" 
- P. 379-380 ''The Secret Doctrine: Volume I'' By Helena Blavatsky </ref> (European feminist), even used the examples of [[Worship of God as Mother|Hindu goddess-worship]] and Hindu queens to support their examples. (M.J. Gage[https://www.smithsonianmag.com/history/the-feminist-inspired-witches-of-oz-180985334/] in her ''Woman, Church, and State'' even highlighted Hindu texts to counter the male-centric theology of the West and referenced ''[[Bhagavad Gita]]'' to validate the concept of a female [[divinity]].) Even feminists of the colonial era like Victoria Woodhull that was skeptical of organized religion, respected "''Christna and Buddha''" (Krishna and Gautama.) Mary Lowe Dickinson at the World's Parliament Circles (1893) was so impressed by [[Swami Vivekananda|Swami Vivekanand]]'s speech, that she developed a fascination with female divinity of Hinduism, and in her editorials and public circles, argued that Hinduism's recognition of a feminine aspect within the divine was spiritually superior to the rigidly patriarchal, all-male Trinity of mainstream American Christianity. Emily Pitts Stevens and Charlotte LeMoyne Wills (wrote about the genderless [[Brahm]]) became disciples of Vivekanand. Laura de Force Gordon wrote about the immortal soul and continuous cycle of life. Alice Moore McComas wrote about the interconnectedness (aikatmyam) of all things. In U.K., Charlotte Despard's specific pamphlets linked [[karma]] to political activism. Margaret Louise Sanger was influenced by Vivekanand and Rabindranath Tagore. Sarah Bull<ref> P. 483 ''Western Admirers of Ramakrishna and His Disciples'' By Gopal Stavig, Swami Shuddhidananda </ref>, who particularly focused on women's education and reform was connected to both Vivekanand and Sister Nivedita. Josephine MacLeod was a major promoter of Vivekanand in the West and was involved in transatlantic reform-intellectual networks. Viktoria Ocampo of Argentina was deeply influenced by Tagore, even hosting him in Argentina and promoting his ideas widely. Gabriela Mistral of Chile was too, and she applied Tagore's ideas to women's education, child welfare, and cultural reform. Mabel Dodge Luhan was fascinated with Sanatan philosophy and influenced by Vivekanand. Mentionable is Emma Calve of France, who wasn't a political feminist leader but influential in women's intellectual-cultural circles, and she was deeply influenced by Vivekanand.
[[image:Carol Patrice Christ.jpg|right|thumb|200px|Carol Patrice Christ.]]
After suffragists had attained complete institutional equality, they them progressed to the next stage of female liberation by ensuring that their own spiritual faith wasn't male-chauvinistic or making them subordinates of males. Feminists were inspired by goddess deity of Hinduism to then promote it within generic spirituality. Valerie Saiving, Isaac Bonewits and Naomi Goldenberg founded in the 1970's, Thealogy, a feminine-specific theology. Carol Patrice Christ launched the Goddess Movement, which provided 4 aspects of Goddess symbolism as reasons to needing a goddess in women's lives; 1) the Goddess as affirmation of female power, 2) the female body, 3) the female will, and 4) women's bond and heritage. She specifically used the Shakti concept to prove that a major global religion (Hinduism) explicitly defined the [[Brahmanda|material universe]]/nature/change ([[Darshana#Sankhya|Prakriti]]) as an inherently active, female, and sacred force. She was an ecofeminist, as were Charlene Spretnak and Miriam Simos were ecofeminists too. Merlin Stone wrote ''Ancient Mirrors of Womanhood: Our Goddess and Heroine Heritage'' (1979) and in a chapter analyzes goddesses like [[Durga]], [[Kali]], [[Lakshmi Puja|Lakshmi]], Parvati, and Saraswati. Devout Christian women feminists too drew on Hindu practices and ideas to support women's advocacy, and they include Ivone Gebara, Pearl Sydenstricker Buck, and Sally McFague.

'Matriarchal religion' is a philosophy stating that societies were Goddess worshippers with females having the same status and rights as men before male gods began being worshipped, and the latter led to patriarchy. Goddesses being worshipped contiguously in Hindu societies for thousands of years was the backing this thought utilized, in addition to feminist archaeology (i.e., ancient idols and temples of goddesses uncovered.)

==Start of modern reforms==
In modern India, most positive social changes within Indian Hindu societies came not first as enforcement or pressure from European rulers but from advocacy of forward-thinking Hindus. Raja Ram Mohan Roy had led the campaign to purge Hindu societies of Sati and caste prejudices. Roy worked with British imperial authority, specifically Lord William Bentinck to have sati outlawed. Roy himself was a religious leader that reiterated Upanishads for their principles.

Other institutions of positive social changes were mainly Hindu ones or were governed by Hindu religious leaders, not secular ones.

The Indian National Social Conference of 1887 was organized by Justice Ranade, Rai Raghunath Rao, Narendra Nath Sen Gupta, and Janki Nath Ghoshal. Ranade was founder of the Prarthana Samaj, a religious group.

Arya Samajis, Brahmo Samajis, and Prarthana Samajis were the most vocal and active forces advocating: 
#Widow Remarriage (i.e., Widow Remarriage Act 1856—initiative of Brahmo Samaj)
#Women's right to divorce (i.e., Native Marriage Act 1872—initiative of Brahmo Samaj) 
#Property rights for women 
#Opposition to child marriages (i.e., Age of Consent Act 1891—initiative of Brahmo Samaj and Prarthana Samaj, Child Marriage Restraint Act 1929—initiative of Arya Samaj) 
#Universal accessible education (built schools, including colleges and gurukuls) 
#Caste-based reservations
[[image:Justice Ranade.jpg|right|thumb|200px|Mahadev Govind Ranade (alias 'Justice Ranade'.)]]
[[image:Jagannath Shankarshet.jpg|right|thumb|200px|Jagannath Shankarshet (alias 'Architect of Modern Mumbai'.)]]
The Indian Factories Act 1881's ratification was a landmark in workers' rights and the credit goes mainly to Sorabjee Shapoorjee Bengalee, and then Prarthana Samaj. He did work alongside the Prarthana Samaj to lobby the British authority through the First Factory Commission in 1875 (made to investigate the brutal conditions of Indian labour.) Prarthana Samaj's ''Subodh Patrika'' newspaper specifically critiqued mill owners. Rahnumai Mazdayasnan Sabha, its newspaper ''Rast Goftar'', and Bengalee himself referenced labour reformers Sasipada Banerji and Protap Chunder Mozumdar, and used the former's methods of worker upliftment as a blueprint for their own legislative arguments. Collaboration between the Sabha and Prarthana Samaj began with the latter's creation of the Theistic Association, on which the Parsi Naoroji Furdonji was its 1st Chairman. Ranade and Bhandarkar drove the Association from discussing only theism to improving society through finding solutions of work hardships. The Night School Initiative was launched, helping workers receive adequate training, particularly in labourer-heavy neighborhoods Byculla, Dongri, Khetwadi, and Thakurdwar. (From 1886-1890 alone, over 2,750 industrial workers successfully studied through this initiative.)

Brahmo Samaj's K.C. Sen’s first visit to Mumbai in March-April 1864 engaged him with Bengalee, Furdonji, Ranade, and Bhandarkar (all then members of Young India.) They all discussed ways to develop India. They also shared strategies on how to bypass orthodox religious resistance—Furdonji within Zoroastrianism and Sen within Sanatan Dharm. Bengalee's First Labor Bill (1878) laid the groundwork for the later Indian Factories Act.

Prior to all of this, Jagannath Shankarshet[https://www.vishwakonkani.org/hall-of-fame/hon-jagannath-shankar-sheth/] spent the 1850s petitioning the British Parliament for local governance. As a result, it codified the Indian Councils Act of 1861, thus creating the Bombay Legislative Council as a political body to better govern the-then Bombay Presidency. Shankarshet was the main founder of Bombay Association. In its first leadership were also Dr. Ramachandra Vitthal Lad (alias 'Dr. Bhau Daji'), a Hindu intellectual who used his Sanskrit knowledge to decipher inscriptions, preserve manuscripts, and help reconstruct the forgotten timelines of ancient Guptas and Western Kshatrapa dynasties. Mentionable is the Parsi Sir Jamsetjee Jeejeebhoy of the group. Shankarshet was a wealthy philanthropist that constructed and financed Sanatan and secular infrastructure, most notably the Bhavani Shankar Mandir[https://www.mcgm.gov.in/irj/go/km/docs/documents/D%20Ward/Heritage-Sites/73_Legacy%20of%20D%20Ward_Article_Bhavani%20Shankar%20Temple.pdf] (Mumbai), Sanskrit Seminary and Sanskrit Library (both in Mumbai too.) Elphinstone Educational Institution[https://elphinstone.ac.in/index.php] and Grant Medical College[https://gmcjjh.edu.in/] were his creations too. (Jeejeebhoy contributed to constructing the Grant Medical College.)

===Shahu's royal authority to implement reforms===
[[image:Shahu adoption.jpg|right|thumb|200px|Prince Yeshwantrao Ghatge being adopted by the royal family of Kohlapur.]]
[[image:Rajarshi.jpg|right|thumb|200px|Rajarshi Chhatrapati Shahu Maharaj.]]
[[image:School foundation.jpg|right|thumb|200px|Foundation of Shri Shahu Chhatrapati Shikshan Sanstha.]]
The greatest champion on all of these sections for reforms was Chhatrapati Shahu Maharaj[https://aissms.org/breaking-barriers-chhatrapati-shahu-maharaj-and-his-enduring-impact-on-progress-and-modernity/] (born Yeshwantrao Ghatge), '[[Rta and Spiritual Authority#Rishis|Rajarshi]]', the ruler of Kohlapur Kingdom who affiliated with organizations but probably the Arya Samaj[https://thearyasamaj.org] more than any other. Shahu definitely was not shy to publicly perform prayers, as he famously attended temples of goddesses Ambabai[https://www.mahalaxmikolhapur.com/home] and Bhavani[https://shrituljabhavani.org/] when having returned from his Europe trip in 1902. Also in 1902, Pratap Singh Maharaj of Idhar (Gujarat) introduced and educated him about the Arya Samaj. He provided patronage to the Arya Samaj.[https://navjyot.net/wp-content/uploads/2022/12/10.pdf]

The king passed many policies for for the upliftment of untouchable, nomadic, non-Brahmin communities and for females.<ref>Act of Free and Compulsory Primary Education (1917), Widow remarriage Act (1917), End of Balutedari (1918), Repeal of Kulkarni Watan (1918), Intercaste and Interreligious Marriages and Sanctioning of Registered Marriage Act (1919), Act relating to protection of Harassment of Women (1919), Divorce act (1919), Order on prohibition of Untouchability practice (1919), Illegitimate Children's Rights and Devadasi Prohibition Act (1920); 
[https://www.indiejournal.in/article/rajarshi-shahu-maharaj-and-his-tryst-with-the-arya-samaj "Rajarshi Shahu Maharaj & his tryst with the Arya Samaj Lessons for our times"] By Devkumar Ahire (Jun 26, 2023 6:42 PM)</ref>

;Prejudiced disgruntled castists promoting anti-Brahman hate, not universalism
While Shahu was affiliated with the Satyashodhak Samaj (SS) because it wanted to uplift the non-dwija castes, he did not feel they had any religious foundations, whereas the Arya Samaj was encompassed both a spiritual and social movement.<ref>"Beyond Reformism: Chhatrapati Shahu and Hinduism Reimagined" By Surajkumar Thube P. 124-144 ''Nidān: International Journal for Indian Studies, Volume 8'', Issue 1 (July 2023)</ref> Also, the SS of Pune was antithetical to social cohesion because it targeted the Brahman caste as an enemy, and while its main founder (Jyotirao Phule) made absurd claims like 'Shiv-Dharma'<ref>"''The real Shiv-Dharma that is ours, we are re-establishing it as Sarvajanik Satya Dharma.''" Chapter 4, ''Sarvajanik Satya Pustak''</ref> or 'Mahadev-Dharma' (worship of [[Shiva|Shiv]] as God and some local gods like Khandoba as avatars) being the true religion of Indians whereas every other Hindu belief and practice was an imposition by 'non-Indian Brahman invaders'. Being a chauvinist, he also criticized freedom fighter martyrs Lakshmi Bai, Nana Sahib, Tantia Tope for being Brahmans. He also wrote positively that freedom fighters lost the 1857 War of Independence against the British colonialists. He was also openly criticized by his own relative Baburao Phule, who accused the former of being a Christian convert who destroyed the Hindu religion.<ref>P. 58-59 ''The Caste Question: Dalits and the Politics of Modern India'' (2009) By Anupama Rao </ref>

Phule though anti-Brahman, was influenced by some Brahmans, such as Balshastri Jambhekar (a Hindu activist) who pushed scientific knowledge and history through Marathi, criticized caste segregation, and attacked other or kinds or orthodoxy like widowhood. He was also influenced by some Hindu activists who were not anti-Brahman (i.e., Karsandas Mulji.)

The organization would receive the most aid from Shahu (financial and social work), Karmvir (social work), and Padval (intellectual) but they themselves always kept a distance from the SS because of its explicitly castist vitriol. People would choose to align or become members of other associations for their inclusivity and harmonious vision for the future.

;Satyashodhak Samaj becoming less anti-Brahman
"''All Hindus are equal. No one is superior, no one is inferior. Let all flesh and blood be one. Four varnas are a real deceit. It's a tool to keep the non-Brahmins in slavery. There is no difference among the Hindus. Hindu is the only varna. If a Hindu eats or marries with another Hindu that's not ''[[adharma]].'' In contrast, what divide Hindus in the name of religion is not a dharma, but a trick by Brahmins. One who calls themselves a Hindu, whether they are Europeans or Africans, they are our coreligionists.''" - P. 39 ''Deshache Dushman'' (1925) By Dinkarrao Javalkar
[[image:Sasipada Banerji.jpg|right|thumb|100px|Sasipada Banerji (alias 'Sevabrata'.)]]
Notable is that Phule's friend Narayan Meghaji Lokhande, a labour organization leader, was close friends with Phule and used Khandoba-worship and the reverence of Sundays for Khandoba in his petition to British authority to achieve Sunday as a holiday for factory labourers. Phule and Lokhande emulated Brahmans, like forming the political lobby group Deenbandhu Sarvajanik Sabha after Ranade's Poona Sarvajanik Sabha and forming the Bombay Mill Hands Association based and its mouthpiece ''Deenbandhu'' on the Working Men's Club (India's 1st labour welfare platform) and its mouthpiece ''Bharat Sramajibi'' (India's 1st labour journal) of Sasipada Banerji (Brahmo Samaji.)

Though Dinkarrao Javalkar portrayed himself as pan-Hindu when discussing the specific topic of Hindu unity, he still prejudicially criticized the Brahman caste in general<ref>"''This day will be counted among the most important days in the history of Hindus. There is no reason for you to fear jail. The Brahmans who eat ghee and roti should have that fear. To make the touchable people behave is in your hands. You are the sons of Hindus. You capture the tank saying 'har har Mahadev' and follow the advice of your leader Dr. Ambedkar Saheb. This is my own position.''" -Dinkarrao Javalkar at satyagraha with Keshavrao Jedhe and Dr. Ambedkar among a Mahar crowd</ref> and targeted some prominent Brahmans like Lokmanya Tilak. (Javalkar and Keshavrao Jedhe also portrayed themselves as pro-woman but derogatory remarks about women from the Brahman and certain other castes<ref>P. 44 ''19th Century Maharashtra: A Reassessment'' (2020) By Shraddha Kumbhojkar </ref> and both appealed to Dr. B.R. Ambedkar in 1927 to exclude Brahmans from the Mahad Satyagraha<ref> P. 27 ''Social Reform Movements in India: A Historical Perspective'' (1991) By V.D. Divekar</ref>.) Jedhe did protest with other activists (including Brahmans like Narhar Vishnu Gadgil, Seshdas Ranade, Shreedhar Mahadev Joshi, and members of Arya Samaj) for the right of Dalits to worship at Pune's Devdeveshwar Mandir[https://devdeveshwarsanthan.org/home.html]. Javalkar did write favourably about some like Ranade, Gopal Ganesh Agarkar, and Krishna Gopal Gokhale but even they were rarely mentioned. He rightfully partook in the Kalaram Mandir[https://www.shrikalaramsansthannasik.org/] Satyagraha in Nasik that protested for Dalits to be able to enter the temple. He was a communist and 10 years after his death, the Peasants and Workers Party (PWP) was formed.

SS branches outside of Pune were less hateful of Brahmans. It is also noteworthy, however, is that Nana Patil, a founder of the PWP, was affiliated with both the Satyashodhak and Prarthana associations [meaning that he, like most other Satyashodhaks didn't believe in Phule's religious ideology.] Some other PWP founders like Jedhe and Madhavrao Bagal were Satyashodhaks, they popularized Shiv Jayanti and Ganesh Chathuri. The latter and his son Vasantrao even wrote devotional pieces inspired from Bhakti Era saints (i.e., [[Tukaram]], [[Eknath]]) and valourizing pieces about Shahu. Tulshidas Jadhav, a Gandian within the PWP, championed the Bhakti Era's Warkari Movement, which was still popular in his time, because it was based on social equality and public seva. Also noteworthy is, that even some prominent members supported the Arya Samaj, like Krishnarao Bhalekar (1 of the founders of SS with Phule) defended Dayanand Saraswati (Arya Samaj’s founder), when the latter’s procession was opposed by some orthodox Hindus in Pune, and Bhalekar organized a speech to be delivered by Saraswati at a dharmshal near a Rokdoba Temple in Pune.

Bhalekar himself made the claim that the SS is the true follower of Sant Tukaram's [[Bhāgavata-dharma|Bhagwat Dharma]] ([[Krishna|Krishnaite]] [[Vaishnava|Vaishnavism]].) His son was Mukundrao Patil, who made the claim, "''The Satyasodhak Samaj is the true heir of the Hindu religion. Brahmanism is not Hinduism.''"<ref>''Dinmitra'' newspaper (1920s)</ref> Javalkar claimed SS is the true representative of the Hindu religion and that SS members are liberating Hinduism from the supremacy of the Brahmins. Shivram Janma Kamble stated the SS is a revival movement of the true Hinduism. Kisan Faguji Bansode argued "Shivdharma" was the true Hindu religion and that the SS advocates that version.

There were those in his organization that promoted about how in ancient Sanatan society, there were no caste distinctions and that people were recognized by their merits. Their view was promoted by Tukaram Tatya Padval, who wrote ''Jatibhed Vivekshar'' (1861) after being inspired by Ashwaghosha's ''Vajrasuchi''. Phule republished copies of Padval's books, and the 2 developed a friendship. He did write at that in ancient India, certain sages were had Sudra or Avarna status but rose to the rank of a Brahman through their intellect, and used examples of Valmiki (wrote a ''Ramayan''), Sankhya, and Kabilar rishis. He also published copies of the ''Bhagavad Gita'', ''Yogasutra'', and compilations of the ''Rajayoga'' and ''Sankhya Karika.'' He further compiled the ''Tukarambaba ani Tyanche Shisya Yanchi Abhanga Gatha'' (1889) and ''Eknath Maharajancha Abhangachi Gatha'' (1903.) Padval, however, never became a member of Phule's organization and instead became a member of the Theosophical Society.

;Shahu forming his own Satyashodhak Samaj focused on upliftment (free of anti-Brahman distractions)
As a result of the Satyashodhak Samaj of Pune being too antagonistic of Brahmans, Shahu had instead founded his own branch in 1911 — Shri Shahu Satyashodhak Samaj. By an order, Shahu replaced the Brahman priests in the Patgaon Sansthan (Mauni Maharaj Math[https://durgbharari.in/maunibaba-patgaon/]) and Jyotiba Devasthan[https://shreejyotiba.com/?lang=E][https://maharashtratourism.gov.in/temple/jyotiba/] with Maratha priests. Bhaskarrao Jadhav and Anna Babaji Latthe were leaders of Shahu's Kolhapur Satyashodhak Samaj. Whereas Phule mostly only wrote positively of Shiva and local-born gods, Jadhav in his ''Marathas and their Religion'' wrote positively about Krishna and the ''Bhagavad Gita''. He further worked with Shahu to aid Arya Samaj in its activities and goals (i.e., train non-Brahmans to become priests too.) Noteworthy is that Latthe, who worked personally with Shahu Maharaj, was its first VP and that he worked to dismantle priestly (Jain priests, not usually Brahmans) intermediation within the Jain clergy. (He was a big-time activist for general upliftment and for reform within the Jain community (i.e., wrote ''Jain Dharmacha Parichay''.)

Latthe founded the Dakshin Bharat Jain Sabha[https://dbjainsabha.com/], of which Dr. Bhaurao Patil (from a Jain family) became a member and through he wasn't a member of any SS branch, he did sometimes participate in its activities and himself founded the Rayat Shikshan Sansthan[https://rayatshikshan.edu/], which educated students in a multitude of topics, including Sanskrit. Patil (alias 'Karmvir Anna') was deeply influenced by Mahatma Gandhi and Vitthal Ramji Shinde.

;Shahu distancing himself formally from Satyashodhak Samaj
The SS had earned a bad reputation in Maharashtra with the general public, particularly for the outright anti-Brahman vitriol spewed in the SS's publications and events. Because the goal of Shahu and true reformers was to achieve a harmonious society with all people cooperating, it would not make sense to support an organization that's known for abusing persons (i.e., Brahmans) specifically over their caste identity.

In 1921, Shahu made a public statement in a Baroda newspaper that even though he granted significant support to the non-Brahman movement and introduced measures to eliminate Brahman dominance, he had never been affiliated with Phule's SS, and that he always accepted [[Rta and Spiritual Authority#Rishis|Vedic ritual authority]].

;Granting, accommodating, and expanding Arya Samaj
Shahu attended Arya Samaj sessions like the one at Navsari in 1918 and another at Bhavnagar in 1920<ref>P. 6. ''People's Raj Volume 30'' (1974) By Directorate-General of Information and Public Relations </ref>. He provided funding for Gurukul Boarding House to be built at Kerle, wherein large buildings and well-irrigated lands were granted to the Arya Samaj. Later, the Rajaram Anathalaya orphanage was added to this grant. He also brought educational institutions in his domain under the leadership of Arya Pratinidhi Sabha. Rajaram College's administration was also granted to the Arya Samaj.

;Spiritual Authority as Rajarshi
Shahu Maharaj, being a devout Sanatan wanted to proclaim the rights that warriors of history had and so participated in important ceremonies and worked with priests (i.e., Brahmans) to achieve the rights to learn and perform Vedic ceremonies. He established the Vedokta Committee for Marathas to be able to perform Vedic rites without requiring priests. In 1905, the Karveer Peeth's (or Kolhapur Math's) Shankaracharya declared full rights of Vedokta to Chhatrapati Shahu.

Tatyarao Joshirao was appointed by Shahu Maharaj as new royal purohit, replacing the Rajopadhye (creator of the infamous 'Vedokta Controversy'), who denied the Maharaj to perform Vedic rites. Joshirao was from a family that had traditional ownership of the historic Binkhambi Ganapati Mandir in Kolhapur.

Rajaram Shastri (alias 'Bhagavata'), a Brahman scholar, linguist, and researcher, openly challenged the religious orthodoxy, arguing from scripture that Shahu Maharaj had full rights to the Vedas. Vishnu Topkhane was another Brahman who greatly helped the Chhatrapati with his progressive reforms. Topkhane the educationalist helped the latter establish the Vidyapeeth High School near the Shri Karveer Niwasini Ambabai Mahalakshmi Temple. Freedom fighter Gokhale was someone who worked with Shahu. When the Vedokta Controversy broke out and the conservative press attacked the Maharaja, Gokhale privately and publicly validated Shahu Maharaj's stance, recognizing that social reform was a prerequisite for true political freedom. Ranade, though passed away before much Shahu's reforms began, was admired by the latter for his progressive ideals and actions.

Chhatrapati Shahu founded the Satyashodhak School for spiritual training in 1913, in which seminarians (predominantly from castes such as Marathas, Mahars, and Chambhars) were taught to recite and preach the poems (i.e., abhangs of Tukaram) of sants. He also created the Shivaji Vedic School (aliases 'Shahu Vedic School', 'Shahu Vedic Pathshala', 'Shri Shahu Vaidik Vidyalay') in 1920 and had invited scholars from Varanasi (spiritual capital of Sanatan Dharm) to ensure the highest standard of scriptural and linguistic training. The school trained seminarians (of all castes) to learn Sanskrit and become priests and conduct ceremonies. He further established and financed the office of the Kshatra Jagadguru (''Warrior Universal Teacher''), a pontiff seat open to anyone of any caste. The first Kshatra Jagadguru was Sadashivrao Lakshmanrao Sankpal Patil Benadikar, was an accomplished Sanskrit scholar who received his formal higher education at Rajaram College in Kolhapur. The Kshatra Jagadguru Peeth was the pontiff's seat at Patgaon (in the Bhudargad region of Kolhapur.) Patgaon was chosen because it was the historic site of the Mauni Maharaj Math, a highly respected spiritual center that had historically blessed Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj[https://pilgrimdata.in/temple/mouni-maharaj-math-temple-patgaon-bhudargarh-dist-kolhapur/]. The Kshatra Jagadguru had the Shri Sadashivrao Patil Shikshan Sanstha educationalist association named after him, and it runs schools[https://www.mwssm.org/][https://sspiop.com/] in Maharashtra still. Other organizations too use his name for schools like Sadashivrao Mandlik Mahavidyalaya (Kolhapur) of the ⁠Jay Shivray Education Society.

===Successive associations===
From Hindu-based institutions like sociopolitical organizations and schools came a number of philanthropic associations. Even other humanitarian associations that were not established by Hindu activists, were established by their influence. For example, Krishna Gopal Gokhale had participated in many sessions of the Prarthana Samaj as he was Ranade's pupil, and he later joined the Deccan Education Society, which he left to establish the Servants of India Society. Narayan Malhar Joshi was a member of Gokhale's group and later formed his own Social Service League[https://socialserviceleague.org.in/]. Hriday Nath Kunzru too was part of Gokhale's group and left to establish the Seva Samiti.

{| class="wikitable sortable"
|-
! Organization
! Demographic of Focus
! Region(s)
! Founder
! Founder's Affiliation(s)
! Achievement
|-
|Anath Balikashram Society
|Widows
|Maharashtra
|Dhondo Keshav Karve
|Educated at BHU
|
|-
|Andhra Mahila Sabha
|Females
|Andhra Pradesh
|Durgabai Deshmukh
|
|
|-
|Bharat Stree Mahamandal
|Females
|Bengal, Bihar, Punjab, Sindh, U.P.
|Sarala Devi Chaudhurani
|Arya Samaji, Brahmo Samaji, accepted Bijoy Krishna Chattopadhyaya as her guru
|
|-
|Buddhi Vardhak Sabha
|General public
|Gujarat
|Narmadashankar Labheshankar Dave
|
|Exposed people in positions of power that abused their privileges, build schools for girls
|-
|Central Social Welfare Board
|Females and children
|
|Dr. Durgabai Deshmukh
|
|
|-
|Hindu Widow Marriage Association
|Females
|Maharashtra
|Dhondo Keshav Karve
|Educated at BHU
|
|-
|Hindustani Seva Dal
|Females
|Every province
|Dr. Narayan Subbarao Hardikar
|
|Established the Hindustani Seva Mandal (later became Rashtriya Seva Dal) in 1923, established the Arya Bala Sabha, taught the Gita during his student days in Kolkata, was a fan of Lokmanya Tilak, and had enthusiastically worked with Lala Rai
|-
|Indian Reform Association
|Females
|West Bengal
|Keshub Chandra Sen
|
|Brahmo Samaji, founded ''Sulabh Samachar'' as weekly newspaper of group
|-
|Kasthurbha Gandhi Kanya Gurukulam[http://www.kgkgurukulam.org/]
|Girls
|Tamil Nadu (Vedaranyam)
|Vedaratnam Pillai
|
|Involved in temple-based philanthropy and donated to Sri Ramakrishna Mission too
|-
|Lakshmi Ashram
|Females
|Uttarakhand
|Sarla Behn
|
|Established individual Mahila Mandals throughout Uttarakhand and promoted important skills as well as ecological awareness
|-
|Lokahitawadi Mandal
|General public
|Maharashtra
|Vishnu Vaman Shirwadkar
|
|Wrote about Hindu themes, including persons from scriptures and about Shivaji poetically, philosophically, and nationally
|-
|Maharshi Karve Stree Shikshan Samstha
|Females
|Maharashtra
|Dhondo Keshav Karve
|Educated at BHU
|
|-
|Mahila Vidyalaya (Pune)
|Females
|Maharashtra
|Dhondo Keshav Karve
|Educated at BHU
|
|-
|Nishkam Karma Math
|Females
|Maharashtra
|Dhondo Keshav Karve
|Educated at BHU
|
|-
|Poona Seva Sadan
|Females
|Maharashtra (at its peak, included M.P. and T.N.)
|Ramabai Ranade
|
|
|-
|Samata Sangh
|General public
|Maharashtra
|Dhondo Keshav Karve
|Educated at BHU
|
|-
|Self Employed Women's Association (SEWA)
|Females
|18 states
|Ela Bhatt
|Gandhian Textile Labour Association
|Established: own bank (Shri Mahila Sewa Sahakari Bank, or 'SEWA Cooperative Bank'), SEWA Mahila Housing Trust
|-
|Servants of the People Society
|Females
|Kerala, Maharashtra, M.P., Odisha T.N., Uttarakhand U.P.
|
|
|
|-
|Shraddhanand Ashram[https://shraddhanandmahilashram.org] (alias Hindu Women's Welfare Society)
|Females and boys
|Maharashtra (Mumbai)
|Swami Shraddhanand
|
|Has cared for thousands of destitute women and orphans, and educated them and provided skills development, as well as fostered personal development
|-
|Stree Hitaishini Mandali
|Females
|Andhra Pradesh
|Kanuparti Varalakshmamma
|
|Educated many females
|-
|Widow Marriage Association
|Females
|Maharashtra
|Dhondo Keshav Karve
|Educated at BHU
|
|-
|}

==Inspiration to Madras Presidency==
[[image:M.C. Rajah.jpg|right|thumb|200px|Mylai Chinna Thambi Pillai Rajah (the real 'Periyar'.)]]
While the Arya Samaj, Brahmo Samaj, Prarthana Samaj, and a host of other Hindu-based humanitarian and sociopolitical institutions existed in the-then Madras Presidency of southern India, they inspired local organizations as well. Shahu Maharaj had friends in the-then Justice Party (JP, est. 1916), like Arcot Ramasamy Mudaliar and Panaganti Ramarayaningar. While some ethnic groups, like certain castes even falsely supported the idea of an 'Aryan Invasion Theory' and themselves (Dravidian-languages speakers) as indigenous, they still appreciated Hinduism and did not consider it alien.

The biggest uplifter of the party was M.C. Rajah, who had the highest influence upon the policies that improved the lives of the Dalits in Madras Presidency. The party itself was founded primarily by 3 individuals — Sir Pitti Theagaraya Chetty (political founder who built the political machine), Dr. Taravath Madhavan Nair (ideological co-founder), and Dr. Chintadripet Natesa Mudaliar (cultural/grassroots mobilizer who helped shape cultural legitimacy.) Dr. Nair had said that Hindu society had originally possessed broader equality before caste dominance hardened it. Chetty occasionally used dharm-based ethical framing. He is consistently described as arguing that governance must align with "''dharma and justice''". The Dr. Mudaliar was a devout Shaiva that infused into the party Shaivism as a cultural identity for southerners.
[[image:P.T. Rajan.jpg|right|thumb|200px|P.T. Rajan (centre-right, wearing glasses next to priest), touring with the idol of [[Ayyappan|Ayyappa]] he had made at Swamimalai Temple[https://swamimalaiswaminathar.hrce.tn.gov.in/] and it was placed in the Sabarimala Temple[https://www.sabarimalauptodate.in/].]]
An ideologue of influence to the JP and Self-Respect Movement was Maraimalai Adigal, a Shaiv preacher and writer, who claimed that both the JP and Self-Respect Movement were from his teachings and that militant atheist Erode Venkatappa Ramasami Naicker had hijacked them. JP founder Dr. Nair died in 1919 and Chetty in 1925, so had no interaction Naicker. Ponnambala Thiaga Rajan was an active party member and disagreed with Naicker's ideology, so joined Congress-aligned politics. Mudaliar died in 1935 around the time Naicker entered the JP. Naicker was also a prejudiced castist that criticized but did not contribute to build schools and shelters for women and children, as Rajah[https://www.news18.com/opinion/opinion-m-c-rajah-the-forgotten-hindu-mahasabha-dalit-8937192.html][https://vskbharat.com/m-c-rajah-a-staunch-hindu-leader/?lang=en][https://thecommunemag.com/m-c-rajah-the-hindu-mahasabha-dalit/], a practicing Hindu of the party did. Rajah even once formed a political alliance with the Hindu Mahasabha, was the contributor. Before Rajah, the party's caste disparity was mainly about civil service occupations and education access for underprivileged castes. Rajah was recommended by Ambedkar to convert but Rajah replied there's no religion better than Hinduism.<ref>P. 92 ''The Political Evolution of Muslims in Tamilnadu and Madras, 1930-1947'' By J.B. Prashant More (1997) </ref><ref> In a public meeting of the All India Adi Dravida Mahajana Sabha in Nungambakkam, Chennai he said, "''The president (of this meeting) mentioned that no other community other than us has more right to be called Hindus. Conversion will not bring about any good. By saying so, I am not undermining or wishing away the oppression and ills we have faced. We need to fight for our rights. The speed at which reforms are happening might be slow. But think about our current situation and how much it has improved. I beseech you to please abandon any move that will weaken us. I request the government to bring about the Untouchability Abolition Bill and pass it quickly. The Harijans are proud Hindus. That is the only reason why even after years of oppression by higher castes and a barrage of proselytization efforts by other religions hasn't changed their resolve being Hindus.''" P. 123 ''Evolution of Hindu Nationalism - Icons of HMS, RSS & BJS'' By Sankara Narayanan T (2025)</ref> Adigal's writings had a profound impact on Subramania Ramanathan, the founder of the Self-Respect Movement, and on the Naicker but the latter only wanted pro-Tamil and castist societal changes, not promotion of Shaivism. Naicker would later break away from the party and form his own Dravidar Kazhagam, a title he copied from Adigal's Shaiv association (Podhunilak Kazhagam.) (His own pupil, Conjeevaram Natarajan Annadurai, would eventually disown him after he married his own adopted daughter, and Annadurai would leave his group.)
[[image:Alamelu.jpg|right|thumb|200px|Alamelu Mangai Thayarammal, a Brahmo Samaji, was co-founder of the party among 29 others (all men.)]]
The Hindu sentiment was definitely present in the JP. Many left after Naicker's hijacking. Important members bothered by Naicker's rhetoric apart from Rajan were Ananda Prasad Patro, Arunachalam Thamaraiselvam Panneerselvam, Muthiah Annamalai Chettiar, Ramasamy Kandasamy Shanmukham Chetty, and Subbarayalu Kumaraswami Reddiar. Chettiar even personally regularly donated to temple renovations, endowing temple lands or festivals, supporting pilgrimage facilities, and Hindu-managed schools. Rajan, the last leader of the JP, was the head-of-government of the Presidency, and was a big devotee a [[Ayyappan|Swami Ayyappa]]. Rajan even solemnized a marriage of a German couple converted to Hinduism in Coimbatore (Oct 31, 1962.) He further discouraged conversion of Dalits from Hinduism to another religion<ref>"''If by mass conversion you expect to achieve your object, you will be disappointed, because of a mere change of religion it will not give you all that you want.''" 
P. 147 ''Sir P. T. Rajan's Eighty Second Birthday Souvenir, 1973'' By P.T. Rajan and K. Paramasivam</ref> while encouraging caste-Hindus to better treat Dalits. His family had deep ties to the Meenakshi Amman Temple[https://maduraimeenakshi.hrce.tn.gov.in/] in Madurai, with his son (Palanivel Rajan), serving as a minister, and his daughter-in-law (Rukmani), serving as the first female chairperson of the temple's board of trustees. His predecessor Ramakrishna Ranga Rao denied that the JP was anti-Hindu and declared that it aimed to purify Hindu society from "''absurdities''" and return "''Hinduism greater and more glorious than it was in the past...''"<ref>"''As I understand it, the Self-Respect movement stands for certain great ideals to make Hinduism greater and more glorious than it was in the past, to rid it of all those absurdities which are the accretions of an unfortunate era of the past, and unite us in a solid federation so that all those who profess to follow the Hindu faith may feel that they are brethren following one of the most ancient and glorious religions of the world. No longer should the foreigner point his finger of scorn at this or that particular phase of Hinduism which belies its cosmopolitan tendency by inflicting personal hardship on classes or communities. If a few youths in their exuberant enthusiasm have been carried away beyond the bounds of Hinduism it will not do to fight shy of the new movements, but political wisdom and sagacity lie in taking them into our fold and guiding them aright along the paths of duty and rectitude.''" 
P. 289 ''The Indian Annual Register An Annual Digest of Public Affairs of India Recording the Nation's Activities Each Year in Matters Political, Economic, Industrial, Educational, Social, Etc · Volume 2'' By Nipendra Nath Mitra (1934)</ref> Alamelu Mangai Thayarammal, conferred 'Pandithai' title by Saiva Sabha in Palamcottah, was a JP co-founder [with 29 co-founders being men] who was a Brahmo Samaji, meaning the influence of the Hindu-based organizations wasn't insignificant. Paramasivan Subbarayan Gounder, while not technically a JP member, worked with it closely, and both he and his women's rights activist wife Kailash Radhabai Kulmud were Brahmos. It is also noteworthy that [[Ascetics|ascetic]] Swamiyar Kaivalyar who supported the party without being a member wrote pro-Shaiv material. Cattamanchi Ramalinga Reddy, an ex-member who formed his own party in 1923 was a close friend of Dr. Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan, and he himself engaged with Hindu texts on a literary artistic level. As Hinduism isn't a scripture-dependent religion, some JP members like A.R. Mudaliar heavily criticized certain scriptures but were devout Hindus ([[Vaiśnava|Vaishnav]] in his case.) And while orthodox opposition was present, the majority of Indians, including religious leaders, supported reforms, like when Shankaracharya of Kanchi[https://www.kamakoti.org/] supported the "Hindu Religious Endowments Bill" (1921) even while voicing some concerns in within. Mentionable is that [[Shatata-Unnati#Female upliftment|Dr. Muthulakshmi Reddy]] wasn't part of the JP but it still nominated her in 1926 for the Madras Legislative Council to bring about positive changes.

==Related articles==
*[[Women]]
*[[Women as Rishikas in the Vedas]]
*[[Worship of God as Mother]]

==External resources==
*[https://www.ijhsss.com/files/08.-ABHISEK-KARMAKAR_6813z4a4.pdf "Changing status of women in Indian politics (1917-1947): the role of civil society"], P. 42-45 ''International Journal of Humanities & Social Science Studies'' Volume-I, Issue-II (September 2014) By Abhisek Karmakar
*[https://www.besanthill.org/about/history-heritage/annie-besant/ Besant Hill School of Happy Valley in Ojai, California]
*[https://www.anniebesant.org Annie Besant Women's College in Hyderabad, Telangana]
*[https://www.aryasabha.mu/cultural-programme-arya-mahila-mandal-in-the-context-of-the-200th-birth-anniversary-of-swami-dayananda-saraswati/ Arya Mahila Mandal (Mauritius)]
*[https://www.thearyasamaj.org/ammkarolbagh Arya Mahila Mandal Karol Bagh]
*[https://vatikashaktipeeth.com/seven-agitations/women-awakening.html Vatika Shakti Peeth]

==References==
{{reflist}}

[[Category: History]]
[[Category: Economics]]
[[Category: Societal altruism]]

File:Dr. Anandi Gopal Joshi.jpg

2026-06-12T03:19:58Z

Himanshu Bhatt: Retrieved: https://historicalsnapshots.substack.com/p/dr-anandibai-joshi

== Summary ==
Retrieved:
https://historicalsnapshots.substack.com/p/dr-anandibai-joshi

Shatata-Unnati

2026-06-12T03:17:01Z

Himanshu Bhatt: /* Hindu-led social betterment */

{{Author|Himanshu Bhatt}}
'Shatata-Unnati' is ''continual change'', 'abhyas' means improvement, 'kram-parivartanam' is ''incremental reformation'', while 'shodhanam' is ''refinement''. All of these terms are descriptive of Hindu society throughout the ages.

Continual social betterment has been one of the defining characteristics of Hindu society. All major cultures have had evils in their histories, including Hindu societies, but the shining examples to enforce positive changes and adaptability to a changing world are the Hinduism, Christianity, and Judaism.

In an era wherein colonial norms meant imprisonment or executions for speaking out against imperial rule, Mahatma Gandhi challenged the ideas of forcing nations to be subservient, fighting oppression by violence, and purging one's own nation of evils (i.e., inequality and superstition.) Today, much of the world still looks to Gandhi's perseverance to bring positive change into society.

Transformation of India's political systems made India into the world's largest democracy, and for accomplishing that, [[Indian Freedom Fighters#INC's Hindu activist roots|Hindu doctrines were rationalize to promote democracy]]. Even in India's political spectrum, Hindu principles were used to make liberalism and communism resonate with people, like Ram Rajya being a communist utopia. Some of the Communist Party of India's [[Indian Freedom Fighters#CPI's Hindu activist roots|founders were idealogues for both communism and Hinduism]], such as Swami Kumaranand, Swami Satyabhakt, and Swami Sahajanand Saraswati, as well as Keezhedathu Damodaran, Radhamohan Gokulji, and Rahul Sankrityayan.

==Comparison in societal reformation (India and Europe)==
:''See also: [[Contribution of Hindu Diaspora]]''
Whereas even in modern times, in most European Christian societies, witch-hunts and slavery were the norm, in Indian Hindu societies, widow-burning was the norm among certain communities (usually northwestern) and caste prejudice was prevalent. Both the Christian and Hindu communities worked to extinguish these and other evils.

Historical societal injustices have been acknowledged and reconciled. Even today, the lasting legacy of important Hindu reformers is visible wherein quotas employment and educational quotas are implemented for social upward mobility to ensure poorer castes and women do not fall behind.

During the colonial era, as human rights improved in Western societies as results from agricultural/economic advancements, Western writers of non-Christian societies took a chauvinistic, parochialist, and Eurocentric approach towards Hindu societies, claiming that they:
#Would never improve in human rights, morality, or rationality
#Are permanently stagnant
#Cannot produce modern or political economic institutions

Critics of the colonial era were proven wrong in these concrete ways:
#Large-scale societal reforms led by Hindu activists themselves improved Hindu societies — i.e., promoting window remarriage and caste integration while also creating quotas for females and historically-disadvantaged castes
#Rapid expansion of education and intellectual mobility — i.e., growth of global Hindu academic presence
#Global economic and corporate leadership — i.e., entrepreneurship and CEOs of major multinational companies like Adobe, Google, and Microsoft
#Democratic political evolution — i.e., maintaining electoral democracies like Hindu-majority nations, providing peaceful transfers of power, and granting significant autonomy to judiciary, press, and civil societies
#Religious and philosophical continuity + adaptation
#Ritual practice has diversified massively by religion and class — i.e., clerics ([[Rta and Spiritual Authority|priests]] and [[ascetics|monks]]) are from many backgrounds
#Reinterpretation of scriptures became internationally influential — i.e., Aldous Huxley loved the perennialism of Upanishads, Erwin Schrödinger the idea of aikatmyam, and Henry David Thoreau that of Ishavasyam
#Non-Hindus from outside of the Indian Subcontinent have converted to Sanatan Dharm and have promoted the religion — James Donald Walters who founded Ananda Sangha, Richard Alpert who founded Hanuman Foundation, John Edwin Favors who founded iFast[https://ifastdc.com/][https://ifastglobal.com/], and Robert Hansen who founded Saiva Siddhanta Church[https://www.himalayanacademy.com/]
#Hindu-based intellectual practices have popularized globally — i.e., [[Ayurveda|Ayurvedic medicine]], divination, political activism, [[Animal rights#Influence upon Westerners|animal rights]], [[Animal_rights#Vegetarianism|vegetarianism]], and [[yoga]]

==Hindu-led social betterment==
What is extraordinary in the case of India is that it was the religious institutions ([[Organizations|Hindu organizations]] and [[Hindu Post-Secondary Institutes|schools]]) that made revolutionary changes, not normally secular or non-Hindu ones. Practicing Hindus saw that superstitious and chauvinistic practices had become institutionalized (caste system and misogyny) within Hindu society, so they formed associations to help, uplift, educate the destitute. They would even go steps further to privilege the marginalized through reservations.

Even women who were more exploratory and not members of specific religions engaged with Hinduism positively. The best example might be Annette Beveridge, an Englishwoman who was the daughter of a Unitarian Christian herself became affiliated with Keshub Chandra Sen in England. She was drawn to his lectures and this fascination with his philosophy inspired her to begin life in India, where she even established<ref>Its expenses were financed by Ananda Mohan Bose and Durga Mohan Das, Dwarkanath Ganguly was its headmaster, and others Brahmos involved with the school were Sibnath Sastri and Monomohun Ghose.</ref> the Hindu Mahila Vidyalaya (''Hindu Women's School''.) Her husband Henry Beveridge was an orientalist (westerners intrigued with Asian cultures) working in India, meaning they were not Westerners critical of Hindu identity. Mrs. Emily Phear was an honorary teacher, and she too was involved in Brahmo Samaji circles for societal development. (Her husband Sir John Budd Phear helped Brahmo Samaj legally.) A non-Hindu that likewise began a girls school (Hindu Female School[https://www.bethunecollegiateschool.com/]) with Brahmos and other Hindus was John Bethune, whose accomplices were Dakshinaranjan Mukherjee, Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar, Ramgopal Ghosh, and Madanmohan Tarkalanka (the last even taught at the school without pay.) Others foreign women in India that engaged positively with Hindu activist organizations were Mary Carpenter[https://southasianbritain.org/people/mary-carpenter/] and Sophia Dobson Collet with Brahmo Samaj, Alma B.R.A. with Arya Samaj, and Mary Hobson with Prarthana Samaj[https://puneprarthanasamaj.org/].

Hindu women that set women's rights activism into motion were Arya Samaj's Lajwanti Sood and Satyavati Devi, and Brahmo Samaj's Kadambini Ganguly and Sarala Devi Chaudhurani. Swarnakumari Devi was both an Arya Samaji and a Brahmo Samaji.
[[image:Dr. Anandi Gopal Joshi.jpg|right|thumb|200px|Dr. Anandi Gopal Joshi in 1886 marking a milestone with 2 other Asian women.]]
What is also worth mentioning is that there were women not members of sociopolitical organizations who pursued and achieved new societal achievements, showing that many Hindu women thought for themselves. Dr. Anandibai Joshi was India's first female doctor to trained in Western medicine. Her education and trip to U.S. was funded by Chhatrapati Shahu Maharaj. Upon return, he even funded her return journey and offer her supervisory role at Kolhapur's largest hospital[https://old.rcsmgmc.ac.in/]. Foundations[https://anandibai.org/resources/], institutions (i.e., Dr. Anandi Gopal Higher Education & Medical Facilities), awards (i.e., IRDS's[https://ngosindia.org/uttar-pradesh-ngos/irds-institute-for-research-documentation-in-social-sciences-lucknow/] Anandibai Joshi Award for Medicine), and scholarships (i.e., Dr. Anandi Gopal Scholarship Scheme) are named after her in commemoration. (Dr. Anandi Gopal Higher Education & Medical Facilities itself is a collaboration between the U.S. university she graduated in (DUCM[https://drexel.edu/medicine/news-events/publications/pulse/spring-2018/]) and SMCW. She let people know that she was not ashamed of being a Hindu. She was often pressured by Christian missionaries to convert[https://knowledge.lancashire.ac.uk/id/eprint/48487/1/bharadwaj-et-al-2023-journey-across-the-world-to-study-medicine-the-anandi-joshi-story.pdf]. Dr. Anandi had written her thesis, "Obstetrics among the Aryan Hindus", containing references from both the traditional Ayurvedic (''Susruta Samhita'' and ''Charaka Samhita'') and modern American medical literatures. (Mentionable is that although her husband Gopalrao Joshi's relentless, public letter-writing campaigns and essays targeted Lokmanya Tilak for being not liberal enough and Justice Ranade for being too liberal Tilak's ''Kesari'' and ''Mahratta'' newspapers glorified Dr. Joshi as a rolemodel for women.)

===Female upliftment===
:''See also: [[Indian Freedom Fighters]] 
;Theosophical Society wing
[[image:Paris Women's Congress.jpg|right|thumb|200px|Dr. Reddy and 3 Indian women at the Paris Women's Congress (1926.)]]
The top 3 champions who politically improved Indian women's rights in the modern era were foreigners — Dr. Annie Besant, Dorothy Jinarajadasa, and Margaret Cousins. They did not tell Indian women to leave Hinduism but rather they themselves became Hindu in practice and Indian in habit. They then sought to restore the Vedic-era of womanhood wherein women had authority (i.e., to become clerics, scholars, and leaders.) Emma Mitchell (American) and Francesca Arundale (English) greatly contributed to building of Hindu educational institutions (i.e., Central Hindu College.)

Dr. Muthulakshmi Reddy is a big name in female rights, and she was influenced by Dr. Besant in her college years (1907-1912) and was guided by Dr. Besant in both her social reform and political work. She worked with Dr. Besant and others to establish the Women's Indian Association (1917.) After Dr. Besant's death, she took over the presidency of the WIA. Gandhi was another major mentor but Reddy never formally joined the INC but sometimes protested colonial injustices (i.e., Gandhi's arrest.)

;Ramakrishna Mission wing
[[image:Nivedita & Vivekanand.jpg|right|thumb|200px|Nivedita with Vivekanand.]]
[[Niveditā, Sister|Sister Nivedita (Margaret Noble)]], a convert from Ireland became a disciple of [[Swami Vivekananda|Swami Vivekanand]] and joined Aurobindo's Dawn Society and had also founded and ran girls' schools in Kolkata (i.e., Ramakrishna Sarada Mission Sister Nivedita Girls' School[https://www.sisterniveditagirlsschool.org/home.html] in Baghbazar) to educate girls who had little to no access to education (i.e., poorest of the poor.) She advocated for women's intellectual and moral development, influenced by Vivekanand's vision of strong Indian womanhood. Her work included lectures, fundraising (India, England, and U.S.), and writings that promoted gender equality in access to knowledge and opportunities. She had worked with Dr. Annie Besant at times. Likewise, Sister Christine, disciple of Vivekanand, is another example of a Westerner who utilized the Ramakrishna Mission and Vivekanand's circles as vehicles for improving female rights in India.

;INC wing
:''See also: [[Indian Freedom Fighters#INC's Hindu activist roots|INC's Hindu activist roots]] 
[[image:Nellie Sen Gupta.jpg|right|thumb|100px|N.S. Gupta.]]
Nellie Sen Gupta[https://www.thedailystar.net/in-focus/news/deshpriya-jatindra-mohan-nellie-sengupta-2036981] (nee Edith Ellen Gray) had married freedom fighter Jatindra Mohan Sen Gupta, and both joined the INC — she also founded Deepali Sangha, a women's organization aimed at promoting social and political awareness, leadership, training, and empowerment among women. Her husband passed away but she was advised to stay in the-then East Pakistan to take care of Hindu rights, which she did. Umadevi (born Wanda Dynowska), a Polish convert to Sanatan Dharm too championed women's rights in India and translated ''[[Bhagavad Gita]]'', ''[[Mahabharata]]'', ''[[Ramayana]]'', and other [[Hindu Scriptures|Hindu and Bauddh literature]] into Polish. Mira Behn (born Madeleine Slade), the daughter of a British Royal Navy admiral, gave up her affluent lifestyle to become Gandhi's servant in India.
[[image:Sarla Behn Chipko Movement.jpg|right|thumb|200px|Sarla Behn's Chipko act[https://www.adda247.com/school/chipko-movement/].]]
Sarla Behn[https://growbilliontrees.com/blogs/knowledge/sarla-behn-tree-nurturing-nature-and-empowering-communities-for-a-sustainable-future?srsltid=AfmBOoq4h0d0skQBNr4w4zOvISuhYz02_EXtPvD3pUoQYjTlcvNHEbQ-#fullcontent] (born Catherine Mary Heilman) from England setup the Lakshmi Ashram Kausani in 1946 within Uttarakhand to uplift women, after having lived in the Sevagram Ashram[https://gandhiashramsevagram.org/] in Maharashtra. The organization educated rural hill girls academically, trained women of self-reliance and industrial skills (i.e., khadi weaving), taught personal care (i.e., literacy, hygiene, anti-liquor campaigns), and promoted [[Environmentalism|ecological awareness]] (Chipko Movement.) It also worked with the INC to encourage nationalist fervour. Lakshmi Ashram individual units were known as Mahila Mandals. This ashram attracted foreign residents intrigued with Sanatan Dharm even after independence, like David Hopkins, who relocated to there in the 1990's.
[[image:Durgabai Deshmukh.jpg|right|thumb|100px|Dr. D.D.]]
Dr. Durgabai Deshmukh, pupil of Gandhi and freedom fighter in the colonial era, established the Central Social Welfare Board (1953.) She later became president of the All India Women's Conference (1931.) Taraben Premchand is an important mention, as she was an important member of this organization, as well as the Jain Mahila Parishad[https://www.dbjainsabha.com], Jyoti Sangh[https://jyotisangh.org/about-us/] (local women's advancement group in Gujarat), and Shraddhanand Ashram[https://shraddhanandmahilashram.org/].

Madeleine Rolland was Women's International League for Peace and Freedom's[https://www.wilpf.org/] French section and never settled in India. However, upon engaging with Hindu culture in the 1920's, she translated Ananda Coomaraswamy's ''[[Nataraja Dasakam|The Dance of Shiva]]'' into French, introducing Hinduism to the-then residents of France. She also translated Rabindranath Tagore's writings of Sanatan themes and universal humanism, helping popularize them in Europe. She welcomed Gandhi on his visit to Marseille, France. [[image:Kanuparti Varalakshmamma.jpg|right|thumb|100px|'Sarada'.]]
Kanuparti Varalakshmamma (alias 'Sarada'), a devout Gandhian, used Hindu themes like providing ethical refences (i.e., Savitri, Sita) to depict women's morality, dignity, and conduct. She often engaged with the idea of a grihalakshmi (idea woman of the household.) She also founded the Stree Hitaishini Mandali for uplifting women. She used ''Andhra Patrika'', a newspaper created by a promoter of the ''Bhagavad Gita'', Kasinathuni Nageswara Rao, to preach her ideas.
[[image:Vijaya Lakshmi Pandit.jpg|right|thumb|100px|'Vijaya Lakshmi Pandit'.]]
It is also noteworthy that the 1st female head of government in the world was a [[Bauddh Dharm|Bauddh]] (Sirimavo Bandaranaike of Sri Lanka, non-INC member), and 2nd was a Hindu (Indira Gandhi, INC member.) Also Vijaya Lakshmi Pandit[https://news.un.org/en/story/2024/03/1147327] (born Swaroop Rani Nehru) played a significant role in global representation of women, particularly in the United Nations. She was the first woman to serve as the President of the UN General Assembly (1953-1954), a position she held to advocate for decolonization and the independence of countries in Asia and Africa. Hansa Mehta[https://india.un.org/en/311450-hansa-mehta%E2%80%99s-life-story-continues-inspire] had an impact on the UN's constitution wording wherein "''all human beings''" instead of "all men" in the Universal Declaration of Human Rights. (She was also one of only 2 women delegates working alongside Eleanor Roosevelt in the UN Human Rights Commission 1946-48.)
[[image:Nilla Cram Cook.jpg|right|thumb|100px|'Nilla Nagini Devi'.]]
Nilla Cram Cook, an American who settled at Gandhi's ashrams, had [[Conversion|converted to Hinduism]] in the 1930's but identified with the '[[Samyag Darshan#Samadarshan|sarva dharma sambhava]]' ideal, so considered herself a [[Bhakta|devotee]] of not only [[Krishna]] but of Jesus too, and so she later also translated the Quran and engaged with Islamic practices in a syncretic way with her Hindu and Christian customs. Her final literary work was ''The Way of the Swam: Poems of Kashmir'' (1958), which was mostly focused around the [[Saiva|Shaiv]] mystic poetess Lal Ded[https://hindupost.in/society-culture/lal-ded-her-life-and-works/#][https://homegrown.co.in/homegrown-voices/the-poetry-of-lal-ded-mysticism-resistance-the-female-voice-in-14th-century-kashmir] and others from Kashmir syncretic Sanatan-[[Bauddh Dharm|Bauddh]]-[[Sufism with Vaishnavism|Sufi]] tradition. She dedicated the book to Pandit. She didn't work on women's upliftment directly but did participate with Gandhi's Harijan Sevak Sangh. She had also written about Sarojini Naidu.

;Other associations
[[image:Maharani Chimnabai Gaekwad II.jpg|right|thumb|100px|Maharani Chimnabai.]]
[[image:Sethu Parvathi Bayi.jpg|right|thumb|100px|Junior Queen Bayi.]]
The National Council of Women in India[https://www.ncwi.in/], founded 1925, was also a monumental organization to make progress for women — it mainly focused on female literacy, vocational training, public participation, and legal reform. It was primarily the initiative of Lady Meherbai Tata, a Mazdaean icon, and its first president was Maharani Chimnabai Gaekwad II, born Gajrabai Ghatge, a princess of Dewas (M.P.) She supported societal progress of women that did not compromise on Hindu identity (i.e., traditional customs like wearing sari and sindhoor or like celebrating Raksha Bandhan), which is how she framed her ''The Position of Women in Indian Life'' book. She financed schools for girls, as well as Hindu charities and temples. The Gaekwad family also funded libraries and women's institutions and social reform initiatives. She discussed the eradication or the purdah, child marriage, women's restrictions (i.e., obtaining education and employment), and other obstacles towards advancement. Following her presidentship, Sethu Parvathi Bayi took over. She was from the royal family of Travancore (Kerala), and her family was deeply connected to the Padmanabhaswamy Temple[https://spst.in/][https://www.padmanabhaswamytemple.com/]. She financed Hindu institutions as well. It is notable that Sucharu Deo, daughter of Brahmo leader K.C. Sen was a prominent member and she had also helped build the Maharani Girls' High School[https://school.banglarshiksha.gov.in/ws/website/index/19013701705] in Darjeeling (W.B.) together with her sister (Suniti) and Hemlata Sarkar, daughter of Brahmo leader Sibnath Sastri.

From Hindu-based institutions like sociopolitical organizations and schools came a number of philanthropic associations.
;Most influential persons for women's upliftment
{| class="wikitable sortable"
|-
! Area of Contribution
! Meaning
! Steps Taken
! Activists
! Organizations
! Founder's Affiliation(s)
|-
|Political rights and visibility
|1. Women appearing in public political spaces 2. Women being recognized as leaders (not just participants) 3. Changing social norms about women's public roles 4. Symbolic representation
|Helped institutionalize women's leadership through bodies like Women's Indian Association
|Dr. Annie Besant (women's political rights + organizational leadership), Kamaladevi Chattopadhyay (political participation, economic empowerment, cooperatives), Margaret Cousins[https://www.womensmuseumofireland.ie/exhibits/margaret-elizabeth-cousins] (Suffarage, WIA), Sarojini Naidu (mass mobilization of women in politics)
|
|
|-
|Modern institutional equality
|
|Helped institutionalize institutional equality through contributing policy influence (Hansa Mehta) and constitutional rights (Dr. Durgabai Deshmukh)
|Dr. Durgabai Deshmukh (welfare systems), Hansa Mehta
|
|
|-
|Foundational legal reform
|
|
|Raja Ram Mohan Roy (abolition of sati), Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar (widow remarriage)
|
|
|-
|Education
|
|
|Raja Ram Mohan Roy, Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar
|
|
|-
|}

===Hindu influence internationally===
Even outside of India during the 20th century, women's rights were not perfect, and so many women incorporated Hindu symbolism (i.e., worship) and concepts towards promoting societies where women would have equal rights.
[[image:M.J. Gage.jpg|right|thumb|200px|Matilda Joslyn Gage.]]
[[image: Charlotte Despard.jpg|right|thumb|200px|Charlotte Despard, an Anglo-Irish suffragist who supported Indian independence.]]
As [[Worship of God as Mother|worship of God as a female or mother]] has been common in Sanatan Dharm since its foundation, that made validating female upliftment in India quicker. Even in Western nations, prominent women's rights organizations implemented imagery of goddesses from pertinent ancient cultures, like U.K.'s Women's Freedom League and National Union of Women's Suffrage Societies, and the global International Woman Suffrage Alliance, to legitimize female equality and women being in positions of power. Some Western feminists and women's rights activists, like Matilda Joslyn Gage<ref>"''While the sale of daughters was practiced in England for seven hundred years after the introduction of Christianity, we note that by the ancient law of India, a father was forbidden to sell his daughter in marriage, or receive the smallest present therefor.''" - P. 79-82 ''Woman, Church and State'' (1893) By Matilda Joslyn Gage</ref> (U.S. suffragist) and Helena Petrovna Blavatsky<ref>"''The pre- and post-Vedic woman was as free as man; and no impure terrestrial thought was ever mixed with the religious symbology of the early Aryans.''" 
"''This is proven by the fact that in the Vedic period their women were not placed apart from men in penetralia, or ‘Zenanas.’ Their seclusion began when the Mahomedans … had conquered the land and gradually enforced their ways and customs upon the Hindus.''" 
- P. 379-380 ''The Secret Doctrine: Volume I'' By Helena Blavatsky </ref> (European feminist), even used the examples of [[Worship of God as Mother|Hindu goddess-worship]] and Hindu queens to support their examples. (M.J. Gage[https://www.smithsonianmag.com/history/the-feminist-inspired-witches-of-oz-180985334/] in her ''Woman, Church, and State'' even highlighted Hindu texts to counter the male-centric theology of the West and referenced ''[[Bhagavad Gita]]'' to validate the concept of a female [[divinity]].) Even feminists of the colonial era like Victoria Woodhull that was skeptical of organized religion, respected "''Christna and Buddha''" (Krishna and Gautama.) Mary Lowe Dickinson at the World's Parliament Circles (1893) was so impressed by [[Swami Vivekananda|Swami Vivekanand]]'s speech, that she developed a fascination with female divinity of Hinduism, and in her editorials and public circles, argued that Hinduism's recognition of a feminine aspect within the divine was spiritually superior to the rigidly patriarchal, all-male Trinity of mainstream American Christianity. Emily Pitts Stevens and Charlotte LeMoyne Wills (wrote about the genderless [[Brahm]]) became disciples of Vivekanand. Laura de Force Gordon wrote about the immortal soul and continuous cycle of life. Alice Moore McComas wrote about the interconnectedness (aikatmyam) of all things. In U.K., Charlotte Despard's specific pamphlets linked [[karma]] to political activism. Margaret Louise Sanger was influenced by Vivekanand and Rabindranath Tagore. Sarah Bull<ref> P. 483 ''Western Admirers of Ramakrishna and His Disciples'' By Gopal Stavig, Swami Shuddhidananda </ref>, who particularly focused on women's education and reform was connected to both Vivekanand and Sister Nivedita. Josephine MacLeod was a major promoter of Vivekanand in the West and was involved in transatlantic reform-intellectual networks. Viktoria Ocampo of Argentina was deeply influenced by Tagore, even hosting him in Argentina and promoting his ideas widely. Gabriela Mistral of Chile was too, and she applied Tagore's ideas to women's education, child welfare, and cultural reform. Mabel Dodge Luhan was fascinated with Sanatan philosophy and influenced by Vivekanand. Mentionable is Emma Calve of France, who wasn't a political feminist leader but influential in women's intellectual-cultural circles, and she was deeply influenced by Vivekanand.
[[image:Carol Patrice Christ.jpg|right|thumb|200px|Carol Patrice Christ.]]
After suffragists had attained complete institutional equality, they them progressed to the next stage of female liberation by ensuring that their own spiritual faith wasn't male-chauvinistic or making them subordinates of males. Feminists were inspired by goddess deity of Hinduism to then promote it within generic spirituality. Valerie Saiving, Isaac Bonewits and Naomi Goldenberg founded in the 1970's, Thealogy, a feminine-specific theology. Carol Patrice Christ launched the Goddess Movement, which provided 4 aspects of Goddess symbolism as reasons to needing a goddess in women's lives; 1) the Goddess as affirmation of female power, 2) the female body, 3) the female will, and 4) women's bond and heritage. She specifically used the Shakti concept to prove that a major global religion (Hinduism) explicitly defined the [[Brahmanda|material universe]]/nature/change ([[Darshana#Sankhya|Prakriti]]) as an inherently active, female, and sacred force. She was an ecofeminist, as were Charlene Spretnak and Miriam Simos were ecofeminists too. Merlin Stone wrote ''Ancient Mirrors of Womanhood: Our Goddess and Heroine Heritage'' (1979) and in a chapter analyzes goddesses like [[Durga]], [[Kali]], [[Lakshmi Puja|Lakshmi]], Parvati, and Saraswati. Devout Christian women feminists too drew on Hindu practices and ideas to support women's advocacy, and they include Ivone Gebara, Pearl Sydenstricker Buck, and Sally McFague.

'Matriarchal religion' is a philosophy stating that societies were Goddess worshippers with females having the same status and rights as men before male gods began being worshipped, and the latter led to patriarchy. Goddesses being worshipped contiguously in Hindu societies for thousands of years was the backing this thought utilized, in addition to feminist archaeology (i.e., ancient idols and temples of goddesses uncovered.)

==Start of modern reforms==
In modern India, most positive social changes within Indian Hindu societies came not first as enforcement or pressure from European rulers but from advocacy of forward-thinking Hindus. Raja Ram Mohan Roy had led the campaign to purge Hindu societies of Sati and caste prejudices. Roy worked with British imperial authority, specifically Lord William Bentinck to have sati outlawed. Roy himself was a religious leader that reiterated Upanishads for their principles.

Other institutions of positive social changes were mainly Hindu ones or were governed by Hindu religious leaders, not secular ones.

The Indian National Social Conference of 1887 was organized by Justice Ranade, Rai Raghunath Rao, Narendra Nath Sen Gupta, and Janki Nath Ghoshal. Ranade was founder of the Prarthana Samaj, a religious group.

Arya Samajis, Brahmo Samajis, and Prarthana Samajis were the most vocal and active forces advocating: 
#Widow Remarriage (i.e., Widow Remarriage Act 1856—initiative of Brahmo Samaj)
#Women's right to divorce (i.e., Native Marriage Act 1872—initiative of Brahmo Samaj) 
#Property rights for women 
#Opposition to child marriages (i.e., Age of Consent Act 1891—initiative of Brahmo Samaj and Prarthana Samaj, Child Marriage Restraint Act 1929—initiative of Arya Samaj) 
#Universal accessible education (built schools, including colleges and gurukuls) 
#Caste-based reservations
[[image:Justice Ranade.jpg|right|thumb|200px|Mahadev Govind Ranade (alias 'Justice Ranade'.)]]
[[image:Jagannath Shankarshet.jpg|right|thumb|200px|Jagannath Shankarshet (alias 'Architect of Modern Mumbai'.)]]
The Indian Factories Act 1881's ratification was a landmark in workers' rights and the credit goes mainly to Sorabjee Shapoorjee Bengalee, and then Prarthana Samaj. He did work alongside the Prarthana Samaj to lobby the British authority through the First Factory Commission in 1875 (made to investigate the brutal conditions of Indian labour.) Prarthana Samaj's ''Subodh Patrika'' newspaper specifically critiqued mill owners. Rahnumai Mazdayasnan Sabha, its newspaper ''Rast Goftar'', and Bengalee himself referenced labour reformers Sasipada Banerji and Protap Chunder Mozumdar, and used the former's methods of worker upliftment as a blueprint for their own legislative arguments. Collaboration between the Sabha and Prarthana Samaj began with the latter's creation of the Theistic Association, on which the Parsi Naoroji Furdonji was its 1st Chairman. Ranade and Bhandarkar drove the Association from discussing only theism to improving society through finding solutions of work hardships. The Night School Initiative was launched, helping workers receive adequate training, particularly in labourer-heavy neighborhoods Byculla, Dongri, Khetwadi, and Thakurdwar. (From 1886-1890 alone, over 2,750 industrial workers successfully studied through this initiative.)

Brahmo Samaj's K.C. Sen’s first visit to Mumbai in March-April 1864 engaged him with Bengalee, Furdonji, Ranade, and Bhandarkar (all then members of Young India.) They all discussed ways to develop India. They also shared strategies on how to bypass orthodox religious resistance—Furdonji within Zoroastrianism and Sen within Sanatan Dharm. Bengalee's First Labor Bill (1878) laid the groundwork for the later Indian Factories Act.

Prior to all of this, Jagannath Shankarshet[https://www.vishwakonkani.org/hall-of-fame/hon-jagannath-shankar-sheth/] spent the 1850s petitioning the British Parliament for local governance. As a result, it codified the Indian Councils Act of 1861, thus creating the Bombay Legislative Council as a political body to better govern the-then Bombay Presidency. Shankarshet was the main founder of Bombay Association. In its first leadership were also Dr. Ramachandra Vitthal Lad (alias 'Dr. Bhau Daji'), a Hindu intellectual who used his Sanskrit knowledge to decipher inscriptions, preserve manuscripts, and help reconstruct the forgotten timelines of ancient Guptas and Western Kshatrapa dynasties. Mentionable is the Parsi Sir Jamsetjee Jeejeebhoy of the group. Shankarshet was a wealthy philanthropist that constructed and financed Sanatan and secular infrastructure, most notably the Bhavani Shankar Mandir[https://www.mcgm.gov.in/irj/go/km/docs/documents/D%20Ward/Heritage-Sites/73_Legacy%20of%20D%20Ward_Article_Bhavani%20Shankar%20Temple.pdf] (Mumbai), Sanskrit Seminary and Sanskrit Library (both in Mumbai too.) Elphinstone Educational Institution[https://elphinstone.ac.in/index.php] and Grant Medical College[https://gmcjjh.edu.in/] were his creations too. (Jeejeebhoy contributed to constructing the Grant Medical College.)

===Shahu's royal authority to implement reforms===
[[image:Shahu adoption.jpg|right|thumb|200px|Prince Yeshwantrao Ghatge being adopted by the royal family of Kohlapur.]]
[[image:Rajarshi.jpg|right|thumb|200px|Rajarshi Chhatrapati Shahu Maharaj.]]
[[image:School foundation.jpg|right|thumb|200px|Foundation of Shri Shahu Chhatrapati Shikshan Sanstha.]]
The greatest champion on all of these sections for reforms was Chhatrapati Shahu Maharaj[https://aissms.org/breaking-barriers-chhatrapati-shahu-maharaj-and-his-enduring-impact-on-progress-and-modernity/] (born Yeshwantrao Ghatge), '[[Rta and Spiritual Authority#Rishis|Rajarshi]]', the ruler of Kohlapur Kingdom who affiliated with organizations but probably the Arya Samaj[https://thearyasamaj.org] more than any other. Shahu definitely was not shy to publicly perform prayers, as he famously attended temples of goddesses Ambabai[https://www.mahalaxmikolhapur.com/home] and Bhavani[https://shrituljabhavani.org/] when having returned from his Europe trip in 1902. Also in 1902, Pratap Singh Maharaj of Idhar (Gujarat) introduced and educated him about the Arya Samaj. He provided patronage to the Arya Samaj.[https://navjyot.net/wp-content/uploads/2022/12/10.pdf]

The king passed many policies for for the upliftment of untouchable, nomadic, non-Brahmin communities and for females.<ref>Act of Free and Compulsory Primary Education (1917), Widow remarriage Act (1917), End of Balutedari (1918), Repeal of Kulkarni Watan (1918), Intercaste and Interreligious Marriages and Sanctioning of Registered Marriage Act (1919), Act relating to protection of Harassment of Women (1919), Divorce act (1919), Order on prohibition of Untouchability practice (1919), Illegitimate Children's Rights and Devadasi Prohibition Act (1920); 
[https://www.indiejournal.in/article/rajarshi-shahu-maharaj-and-his-tryst-with-the-arya-samaj "Rajarshi Shahu Maharaj & his tryst with the Arya Samaj Lessons for our times"] By Devkumar Ahire (Jun 26, 2023 6:42 PM)</ref>

;Prejudiced disgruntled castists promoting anti-Brahman hate, not universalism
While Shahu was affiliated with the Satyashodhak Samaj (SS) because it wanted to uplift the non-dwija castes, he did not feel they had any religious foundations, whereas the Arya Samaj was encompassed both a spiritual and social movement.<ref>"Beyond Reformism: Chhatrapati Shahu and Hinduism Reimagined" By Surajkumar Thube P. 124-144 ''Nidān: International Journal for Indian Studies, Volume 8'', Issue 1 (July 2023)</ref> Also, the SS of Pune was antithetical to social cohesion because it targeted the Brahman caste as an enemy, and while its main founder (Jyotirao Phule) made absurd claims like 'Shiv-Dharma'<ref>"''The real Shiv-Dharma that is ours, we are re-establishing it as Sarvajanik Satya Dharma.''" Chapter 4, ''Sarvajanik Satya Pustak''</ref> or 'Mahadev-Dharma' (worship of [[Shiva|Shiv]] as God and some local gods like Khandoba as avatars) being the true religion of Indians whereas every other Hindu belief and practice was an imposition by 'non-Indian Brahman invaders'. Being a chauvinist, he also criticized freedom fighter martyrs Lakshmi Bai, Nana Sahib, Tantia Tope for being Brahmans. He also wrote positively that freedom fighters lost the 1857 War of Independence against the British colonialists. He was also openly criticized by his own relative Baburao Phule, who accused the former of being a Christian convert who destroyed the Hindu religion.<ref>P. 58-59 ''The Caste Question: Dalits and the Politics of Modern India'' (2009) By Anupama Rao </ref>

Phule though anti-Brahman, was influenced by some Brahmans, such as Balshastri Jambhekar (a Hindu activist) who pushed scientific knowledge and history through Marathi, criticized caste segregation, and attacked other or kinds or orthodoxy like widowhood. He was also influenced by some Hindu activists who were not anti-Brahman (i.e., Karsandas Mulji.)

The organization would receive the most aid from Shahu (financial and social work), Karmvir (social work), and Padval (intellectual) but they themselves always kept a distance from the SS because of its explicitly castist vitriol. People would choose to align or become members of other associations for their inclusivity and harmonious vision for the future.

;Satyashodhak Samaj becoming less anti-Brahman
"''All Hindus are equal. No one is superior, no one is inferior. Let all flesh and blood be one. Four varnas are a real deceit. It's a tool to keep the non-Brahmins in slavery. There is no difference among the Hindus. Hindu is the only varna. If a Hindu eats or marries with another Hindu that's not ''[[adharma]].'' In contrast, what divide Hindus in the name of religion is not a dharma, but a trick by Brahmins. One who calls themselves a Hindu, whether they are Europeans or Africans, they are our coreligionists.''" - P. 39 ''Deshache Dushman'' (1925) By Dinkarrao Javalkar
[[image:Sasipada Banerji.jpg|right|thumb|100px|Sasipada Banerji (alias 'Sevabrata'.)]]
Notable is that Phule's friend Narayan Meghaji Lokhande, a labour organization leader, was close friends with Phule and used Khandoba-worship and the reverence of Sundays for Khandoba in his petition to British authority to achieve Sunday as a holiday for factory labourers. Phule and Lokhande emulated Brahmans, like forming the political lobby group Deenbandhu Sarvajanik Sabha after Ranade's Poona Sarvajanik Sabha and forming the Bombay Mill Hands Association based and its mouthpiece ''Deenbandhu'' on the Working Men's Club (India's 1st labour welfare platform) and its mouthpiece ''Bharat Sramajibi'' (India's 1st labour journal) of Sasipada Banerji (Brahmo Samaji.)

Though Dinkarrao Javalkar portrayed himself as pan-Hindu when discussing the specific topic of Hindu unity, he still prejudicially criticized the Brahman caste in general<ref>"''This day will be counted among the most important days in the history of Hindus. There is no reason for you to fear jail. The Brahmans who eat ghee and roti should have that fear. To make the touchable people behave is in your hands. You are the sons of Hindus. You capture the tank saying 'har har Mahadev' and follow the advice of your leader Dr. Ambedkar Saheb. This is my own position.''" -Dinkarrao Javalkar at satyagraha with Keshavrao Jedhe and Dr. Ambedkar among a Mahar crowd</ref> and targeted some prominent Brahmans like Lokmanya Tilak. (Javalkar and Keshavrao Jedhe also portrayed themselves as pro-woman but derogatory remarks about women from the Brahman and certain other castes<ref>P. 44 ''19th Century Maharashtra: A Reassessment'' (2020) By Shraddha Kumbhojkar </ref> and both appealed to Dr. B.R. Ambedkar in 1927 to exclude Brahmans from the Mahad Satyagraha<ref> P. 27 ''Social Reform Movements in India: A Historical Perspective'' (1991) By V.D. Divekar</ref>.) Jedhe did protest with other activists (including Brahmans like Narhar Vishnu Gadgil, Seshdas Ranade, Shreedhar Mahadev Joshi, and members of Arya Samaj) for the right of Dalits to worship at Pune's Devdeveshwar Mandir[https://devdeveshwarsanthan.org/home.html]. Javalkar did write favourably about some like Ranade, Gopal Ganesh Agarkar, and Krishna Gopal Gokhale but even they were rarely mentioned. He rightfully partook in the Kalaram Mandir[https://www.shrikalaramsansthannasik.org/] Satyagraha in Nasik that protested for Dalits to be able to enter the temple. He was a communist and 10 years after his death, the Peasants and Workers Party (PWP) was formed.

SS branches outside of Pune were less hateful of Brahmans. It is also noteworthy, however, is that Nana Patil, a founder of the PWP, was affiliated with both the Satyashodhak and Prarthana associations [meaning that he, like most other Satyashodhaks didn't believe in Phule's religious ideology.] Some other PWP founders like Jedhe and Madhavrao Bagal were Satyashodhaks, they popularized Shiv Jayanti and Ganesh Chathuri. The latter and his son Vasantrao even wrote devotional pieces inspired from Bhakti Era saints (i.e., [[Tukaram]], [[Eknath]]) and valourizing pieces about Shahu. Tulshidas Jadhav, a Gandian within the PWP, championed the Bhakti Era's Warkari Movement, which was still popular in his time, because it was based on social equality and public seva. Also noteworthy is, that even some prominent members supported the Arya Samaj, like Krishnarao Bhalekar (1 of the founders of SS with Phule) defended Dayanand Saraswati (Arya Samaj’s founder), when the latter’s procession was opposed by some orthodox Hindus in Pune, and Bhalekar organized a speech to be delivered by Saraswati at a dharmshal near a Rokdoba Temple in Pune.

Bhalekar himself made the claim that the SS is the true follower of Sant Tukaram's [[Bhāgavata-dharma|Bhagwat Dharma]] ([[Krishna|Krishnaite]] [[Vaishnava|Vaishnavism]].) His son was Mukundrao Patil, who made the claim, "''The Satyasodhak Samaj is the true heir of the Hindu religion. Brahmanism is not Hinduism.''"<ref>''Dinmitra'' newspaper (1920s)</ref> Javalkar claimed SS is the true representative of the Hindu religion and that SS members are liberating Hinduism from the supremacy of the Brahmins. Shivram Janma Kamble stated the SS is a revival movement of the true Hinduism. Kisan Faguji Bansode argued "Shivdharma" was the true Hindu religion and that the SS advocates that version.

There were those in his organization that promoted about how in ancient Sanatan society, there were no caste distinctions and that people were recognized by their merits. Their view was promoted by Tukaram Tatya Padval, who wrote ''Jatibhed Vivekshar'' (1861) after being inspired by Ashwaghosha's ''Vajrasuchi''. Phule republished copies of Padval's books, and the 2 developed a friendship. He did write at that in ancient India, certain sages were had Sudra or Avarna status but rose to the rank of a Brahman through their intellect, and used examples of Valmiki (wrote a ''Ramayan''), Sankhya, and Kabilar rishis. He also published copies of the ''Bhagavad Gita'', ''Yogasutra'', and compilations of the ''Rajayoga'' and ''Sankhya Karika.'' He further compiled the ''Tukarambaba ani Tyanche Shisya Yanchi Abhanga Gatha'' (1889) and ''Eknath Maharajancha Abhangachi Gatha'' (1903.) Padval, however, never became a member of Phule's organization and instead became a member of the Theosophical Society.

;Shahu forming his own Satyashodhak Samaj focused on upliftment (free of anti-Brahman distractions)
As a result of the Satyashodhak Samaj of Pune being too antagonistic of Brahmans, Shahu had instead founded his own branch in 1911 — Shri Shahu Satyashodhak Samaj. By an order, Shahu replaced the Brahman priests in the Patgaon Sansthan (Mauni Maharaj Math[https://durgbharari.in/maunibaba-patgaon/]) and Jyotiba Devasthan[https://shreejyotiba.com/?lang=E][https://maharashtratourism.gov.in/temple/jyotiba/] with Maratha priests. Bhaskarrao Jadhav and Anna Babaji Latthe were leaders of Shahu's Kolhapur Satyashodhak Samaj. Whereas Phule mostly only wrote positively of Shiva and local-born gods, Jadhav in his ''Marathas and their Religion'' wrote positively about Krishna and the ''Bhagavad Gita''. He further worked with Shahu to aid Arya Samaj in its activities and goals (i.e., train non-Brahmans to become priests too.) Noteworthy is that Latthe, who worked personally with Shahu Maharaj, was its first VP and that he worked to dismantle priestly (Jain priests, not usually Brahmans) intermediation within the Jain clergy. (He was a big-time activist for general upliftment and for reform within the Jain community (i.e., wrote ''Jain Dharmacha Parichay''.)

Latthe founded the Dakshin Bharat Jain Sabha[https://dbjainsabha.com/], of which Dr. Bhaurao Patil (from a Jain family) became a member and through he wasn't a member of any SS branch, he did sometimes participate in its activities and himself founded the Rayat Shikshan Sansthan[https://rayatshikshan.edu/], which educated students in a multitude of topics, including Sanskrit. Patil (alias 'Karmvir Anna') was deeply influenced by Mahatma Gandhi and Vitthal Ramji Shinde.

;Shahu distancing himself formally from Satyashodhak Samaj
The SS had earned a bad reputation in Maharashtra with the general public, particularly for the outright anti-Brahman vitriol spewed in the SS's publications and events. Because the goal of Shahu and true reformers was to achieve a harmonious society with all people cooperating, it would not make sense to support an organization that's known for abusing persons (i.e., Brahmans) specifically over their caste identity.

In 1921, Shahu made a public statement in a Baroda newspaper that even though he granted significant support to the non-Brahman movement and introduced measures to eliminate Brahman dominance, he had never been affiliated with Phule's SS, and that he always accepted [[Rta and Spiritual Authority#Rishis|Vedic ritual authority]].

;Granting, accommodating, and expanding Arya Samaj
Shahu attended Arya Samaj sessions like the one at Navsari in 1918 and another at Bhavnagar in 1920<ref>P. 6. ''People's Raj Volume 30'' (1974) By Directorate-General of Information and Public Relations </ref>. He provided funding for Gurukul Boarding House to be built at Kerle, wherein large buildings and well-irrigated lands were granted to the Arya Samaj. Later, the Rajaram Anathalaya orphanage was added to this grant. He also brought educational institutions in his domain under the leadership of Arya Pratinidhi Sabha. Rajaram College's administration was also granted to the Arya Samaj.

;Spiritual Authority as Rajarshi
Shahu Maharaj, being a devout Sanatan wanted to proclaim the rights that warriors of history had and so participated in important ceremonies and worked with priests (i.e., Brahmans) to achieve the rights to learn and perform Vedic ceremonies. He established the Vedokta Committee for Marathas to be able to perform Vedic rites without requiring priests. In 1905, the Karveer Peeth's (or Kolhapur Math's) Shankaracharya declared full rights of Vedokta to Chhatrapati Shahu.

Tatyarao Joshirao was appointed by Shahu Maharaj as new royal purohit, replacing the Rajopadhye (creator of the infamous 'Vedokta Controversy'), who denied the Maharaj to perform Vedic rites. Joshirao was from a family that had traditional ownership of the historic Binkhambi Ganapati Mandir in Kolhapur.

Rajaram Shastri (alias 'Bhagavata'), a Brahman scholar, linguist, and researcher, openly challenged the religious orthodoxy, arguing from scripture that Shahu Maharaj had full rights to the Vedas. Vishnu Topkhane was another Brahman who greatly helped the Chhatrapati with his progressive reforms. Topkhane the educationalist helped the latter establish the Vidyapeeth High School near the Shri Karveer Niwasini Ambabai Mahalakshmi Temple. Freedom fighter Gokhale was someone who worked with Shahu. When the Vedokta Controversy broke out and the conservative press attacked the Maharaja, Gokhale privately and publicly validated Shahu Maharaj's stance, recognizing that social reform was a prerequisite for true political freedom. Ranade, though passed away before much Shahu's reforms began, was admired by the latter for his progressive ideals and actions.

Chhatrapati Shahu founded the Satyashodhak School for spiritual training in 1913, in which seminarians (predominantly from castes such as Marathas, Mahars, and Chambhars) were taught to recite and preach the poems (i.e., abhangs of Tukaram) of sants. He also created the Shivaji Vedic School (aliases 'Shahu Vedic School', 'Shahu Vedic Pathshala', 'Shri Shahu Vaidik Vidyalay') in 1920 and had invited scholars from Varanasi (spiritual capital of Sanatan Dharm) to ensure the highest standard of scriptural and linguistic training. The school trained seminarians (of all castes) to learn Sanskrit and become priests and conduct ceremonies. He further established and financed the office of the Kshatra Jagadguru (''Warrior Universal Teacher''), a pontiff seat open to anyone of any caste. The first Kshatra Jagadguru was Sadashivrao Lakshmanrao Sankpal Patil Benadikar, was an accomplished Sanskrit scholar who received his formal higher education at Rajaram College in Kolhapur. The Kshatra Jagadguru Peeth was the pontiff's seat at Patgaon (in the Bhudargad region of Kolhapur.) Patgaon was chosen because it was the historic site of the Mauni Maharaj Math, a highly respected spiritual center that had historically blessed Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj[https://pilgrimdata.in/temple/mouni-maharaj-math-temple-patgaon-bhudargarh-dist-kolhapur/]. The Kshatra Jagadguru had the Shri Sadashivrao Patil Shikshan Sanstha educationalist association named after him, and it runs schools[https://www.mwssm.org/][https://sspiop.com/] in Maharashtra still. Other organizations too use his name for schools like Sadashivrao Mandlik Mahavidyalaya (Kolhapur) of the ⁠Jay Shivray Education Society.

===Successive associations===
From Hindu-based institutions like sociopolitical organizations and schools came a number of philanthropic associations. Even other humanitarian associations that were not established by Hindu activists, were established by their influence. For example, Krishna Gopal Gokhale had participated in many sessions of the Prarthana Samaj as he was Ranade's pupil, and he later joined the Deccan Education Society, which he left to establish the Servants of India Society. Narayan Malhar Joshi was a member of Gokhale's group and later formed his own Social Service League[https://socialserviceleague.org.in/]. Hriday Nath Kunzru too was part of Gokhale's group and left to establish the Seva Samiti.

{| class="wikitable sortable"
|-
! Organization
! Demographic of Focus
! Region(s)
! Founder
! Founder's Affiliation(s)
! Achievement
|-
|Anath Balikashram Society
|Widows
|Maharashtra
|Dhondo Keshav Karve
|Educated at BHU
|
|-
|Andhra Mahila Sabha
|Females
|Andhra Pradesh
|Durgabai Deshmukh
|
|
|-
|Bharat Stree Mahamandal
|Females
|Bengal, Bihar, Punjab, Sindh, U.P.
|Sarala Devi Chaudhurani
|Arya Samaji, Brahmo Samaji, accepted Bijoy Krishna Chattopadhyaya as her guru
|
|-
|Buddhi Vardhak Sabha
|General public
|Gujarat
|Narmadashankar Labheshankar Dave
|
|Exposed people in positions of power that abused their privileges, build schools for girls
|-
|Central Social Welfare Board
|Females and children
|
|Dr. Durgabai Deshmukh
|
|
|-
|Hindu Widow Marriage Association
|Females
|Maharashtra
|Dhondo Keshav Karve
|Educated at BHU
|
|-
|Hindustani Seva Dal
|Females
|Every province
|Dr. Narayan Subbarao Hardikar
|
|Established the Hindustani Seva Mandal (later became Rashtriya Seva Dal) in 1923, established the Arya Bala Sabha, taught the Gita during his student days in Kolkata, was a fan of Lokmanya Tilak, and had enthusiastically worked with Lala Rai
|-
|Indian Reform Association
|Females
|West Bengal
|Keshub Chandra Sen
|
|Brahmo Samaji, founded ''Sulabh Samachar'' as weekly newspaper of group
|-
|Kasthurbha Gandhi Kanya Gurukulam[http://www.kgkgurukulam.org/]
|Girls
|Tamil Nadu (Vedaranyam)
|Vedaratnam Pillai
|
|Involved in temple-based philanthropy and donated to Sri Ramakrishna Mission too
|-
|Lakshmi Ashram
|Females
|Uttarakhand
|Sarla Behn
|
|Established individual Mahila Mandals throughout Uttarakhand and promoted important skills as well as ecological awareness
|-
|Lokahitawadi Mandal
|General public
|Maharashtra
|Vishnu Vaman Shirwadkar
|
|Wrote about Hindu themes, including persons from scriptures and about Shivaji poetically, philosophically, and nationally
|-
|Maharshi Karve Stree Shikshan Samstha
|Females
|Maharashtra
|Dhondo Keshav Karve
|Educated at BHU
|
|-
|Mahila Vidyalaya (Pune)
|Females
|Maharashtra
|Dhondo Keshav Karve
|Educated at BHU
|
|-
|Nishkam Karma Math
|Females
|Maharashtra
|Dhondo Keshav Karve
|Educated at BHU
|
|-
|Poona Seva Sadan
|Females
|Maharashtra (at its peak, included M.P. and T.N.)
|Ramabai Ranade
|
|
|-
|Samata Sangh
|General public
|Maharashtra
|Dhondo Keshav Karve
|Educated at BHU
|
|-
|Self Employed Women's Association (SEWA)
|Females
|18 states
|Ela Bhatt
|Gandhian Textile Labour Association
|Established: own bank (Shri Mahila Sewa Sahakari Bank, or 'SEWA Cooperative Bank'), SEWA Mahila Housing Trust
|-
|Servants of the People Society
|Females
|Kerala, Maharashtra, M.P., Odisha T.N., Uttarakhand U.P.
|
|
|
|-
|Shraddhanand Ashram[https://shraddhanandmahilashram.org] (alias Hindu Women's Welfare Society)
|Females and boys
|Maharashtra (Mumbai)
|Swami Shraddhanand
|
|Has cared for thousands of destitute women and orphans, and educated them and provided skills development, as well as fostered personal development
|-
|Stree Hitaishini Mandali
|Females
|Andhra Pradesh
|Kanuparti Varalakshmamma
|
|Educated many females
|-
|Widow Marriage Association
|Females
|Maharashtra
|Dhondo Keshav Karve
|Educated at BHU
|
|-
|}

==Inspiration to Madras Presidency==
[[image:M.C. Rajah.jpg|right|thumb|200px|Mylai Chinna Thambi Pillai Rajah (the real 'Periyar'.)]]
While the Arya Samaj, Brahmo Samaj, Prarthana Samaj, and a host of other Hindu-based humanitarian and sociopolitical institutions existed in the-then Madras Presidency of southern India, they inspired local organizations as well. Shahu Maharaj had friends in the-then Justice Party (JP, est. 1916), like Arcot Ramasamy Mudaliar and Panaganti Ramarayaningar. While some ethnic groups, like certain castes even falsely supported the idea of an 'Aryan Invasion Theory' and themselves (Dravidian-languages speakers) as indigenous, they still appreciated Hinduism and did not consider it alien.

The biggest uplifter of the party was M.C. Rajah, who had the highest influence upon the policies that improved the lives of the Dalits in Madras Presidency. The party itself was founded primarily by 3 individuals — Sir Pitti Theagaraya Chetty (political founder who built the political machine), Dr. Taravath Madhavan Nair (ideological co-founder), and Dr. Chintadripet Natesa Mudaliar (cultural/grassroots mobilizer who helped shape cultural legitimacy.) Dr. Nair had said that Hindu society had originally possessed broader equality before caste dominance hardened it. Chetty occasionally used dharm-based ethical framing. He is consistently described as arguing that governance must align with "''dharma and justice''". The Dr. Mudaliar was a devout Shaiva that infused into the party Shaivism as a cultural identity for southerners.
[[image:P.T. Rajan.jpg|right|thumb|200px|P.T. Rajan (centre-right, wearing glasses next to priest), touring with the idol of [[Ayyappan|Ayyappa]] he had made at Swamimalai Temple[https://swamimalaiswaminathar.hrce.tn.gov.in/] and it was placed in the Sabarimala Temple[https://www.sabarimalauptodate.in/].]]
An ideologue of influence to the JP and Self-Respect Movement was Maraimalai Adigal, a Shaiv preacher and writer, who claimed that both the JP and Self-Respect Movement were from his teachings and that militant atheist Erode Venkatappa Ramasami Naicker had hijacked them. JP founder Dr. Nair died in 1919 and Chetty in 1925, so had no interaction Naicker. Ponnambala Thiaga Rajan was an active party member and disagreed with Naicker's ideology, so joined Congress-aligned politics. Mudaliar died in 1935 around the time Naicker entered the JP. Naicker was also a prejudiced castist that criticized but did not contribute to build schools and shelters for women and children, as Rajah[https://www.news18.com/opinion/opinion-m-c-rajah-the-forgotten-hindu-mahasabha-dalit-8937192.html][https://vskbharat.com/m-c-rajah-a-staunch-hindu-leader/?lang=en][https://thecommunemag.com/m-c-rajah-the-hindu-mahasabha-dalit/], a practicing Hindu of the party did. Rajah even once formed a political alliance with the Hindu Mahasabha, was the contributor. Before Rajah, the party's caste disparity was mainly about civil service occupations and education access for underprivileged castes. Rajah was recommended by Ambedkar to convert but Rajah replied there's no religion better than Hinduism.<ref>P. 92 ''The Political Evolution of Muslims in Tamilnadu and Madras, 1930-1947'' By J.B. Prashant More (1997) </ref><ref> In a public meeting of the All India Adi Dravida Mahajana Sabha in Nungambakkam, Chennai he said, "''The president (of this meeting) mentioned that no other community other than us has more right to be called Hindus. Conversion will not bring about any good. By saying so, I am not undermining or wishing away the oppression and ills we have faced. We need to fight for our rights. The speed at which reforms are happening might be slow. But think about our current situation and how much it has improved. I beseech you to please abandon any move that will weaken us. I request the government to bring about the Untouchability Abolition Bill and pass it quickly. The Harijans are proud Hindus. That is the only reason why even after years of oppression by higher castes and a barrage of proselytization efforts by other religions hasn't changed their resolve being Hindus.''" P. 123 ''Evolution of Hindu Nationalism - Icons of HMS, RSS & BJS'' By Sankara Narayanan T (2025)</ref> Adigal's writings had a profound impact on Subramania Ramanathan, the founder of the Self-Respect Movement, and on the Naicker but the latter only wanted pro-Tamil and castist societal changes, not promotion of Shaivism. Naicker would later break away from the party and form his own Dravidar Kazhagam, a title he copied from Adigal's Shaiv association (Podhunilak Kazhagam.) (His own pupil, Conjeevaram Natarajan Annadurai, would eventually disown him after he married his own adopted daughter, and Annadurai would leave his group.)
[[image:Alamelu.jpg|right|thumb|200px|Alamelu Mangai Thayarammal, a Brahmo Samaji, was co-founder of the party among 29 others (all men.)]]
The Hindu sentiment was definitely present in the JP. Many left after Naicker's hijacking. Important members bothered by Naicker's rhetoric apart from Rajan were Ananda Prasad Patro, Arunachalam Thamaraiselvam Panneerselvam, Muthiah Annamalai Chettiar, Ramasamy Kandasamy Shanmukham Chetty, and Subbarayalu Kumaraswami Reddiar. Chettiar even personally regularly donated to temple renovations, endowing temple lands or festivals, supporting pilgrimage facilities, and Hindu-managed schools. Rajan, the last leader of the JP, was the head-of-government of the Presidency, and was a big devotee a [[Ayyappan|Swami Ayyappa]]. Rajan even solemnized a marriage of a German couple converted to Hinduism in Coimbatore (Oct 31, 1962.) He further discouraged conversion of Dalits from Hinduism to another religion<ref>"''If by mass conversion you expect to achieve your object, you will be disappointed, because of a mere change of religion it will not give you all that you want.''" 
P. 147 ''Sir P. T. Rajan's Eighty Second Birthday Souvenir, 1973'' By P.T. Rajan and K. Paramasivam</ref> while encouraging caste-Hindus to better treat Dalits. His family had deep ties to the Meenakshi Amman Temple[https://maduraimeenakshi.hrce.tn.gov.in/] in Madurai, with his son (Palanivel Rajan), serving as a minister, and his daughter-in-law (Rukmani), serving as the first female chairperson of the temple's board of trustees. His predecessor Ramakrishna Ranga Rao denied that the JP was anti-Hindu and declared that it aimed to purify Hindu society from "''absurdities''" and return "''Hinduism greater and more glorious than it was in the past...''"<ref>"''As I understand it, the Self-Respect movement stands for certain great ideals to make Hinduism greater and more glorious than it was in the past, to rid it of all those absurdities which are the accretions of an unfortunate era of the past, and unite us in a solid federation so that all those who profess to follow the Hindu faith may feel that they are brethren following one of the most ancient and glorious religions of the world. No longer should the foreigner point his finger of scorn at this or that particular phase of Hinduism which belies its cosmopolitan tendency by inflicting personal hardship on classes or communities. If a few youths in their exuberant enthusiasm have been carried away beyond the bounds of Hinduism it will not do to fight shy of the new movements, but political wisdom and sagacity lie in taking them into our fold and guiding them aright along the paths of duty and rectitude.''" 
P. 289 ''The Indian Annual Register An Annual Digest of Public Affairs of India Recording the Nation's Activities Each Year in Matters Political, Economic, Industrial, Educational, Social, Etc · Volume 2'' By Nipendra Nath Mitra (1934)</ref> Alamelu Mangai Thayarammal, conferred 'Pandithai' title by Saiva Sabha in Palamcottah, was a JP co-founder [with 29 co-founders being men] who was a Brahmo Samaji, meaning the influence of the Hindu-based organizations wasn't insignificant. Paramasivan Subbarayan Gounder, while not technically a JP member, worked with it closely, and both he and his women's rights activist wife Kailash Radhabai Kulmud were Brahmos. It is also noteworthy that [[Ascetics|ascetic]] Swamiyar Kaivalyar who supported the party without being a member wrote pro-Shaiv material. Cattamanchi Ramalinga Reddy, an ex-member who formed his own party in 1923 was a close friend of Dr. Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan, and he himself engaged with Hindu texts on a literary artistic level. As Hinduism isn't a scripture-dependent religion, some JP members like A.R. Mudaliar heavily criticized certain scriptures but were devout Hindus ([[Vaiśnava|Vaishnav]] in his case.) And while orthodox opposition was present, the majority of Indians, including religious leaders, supported reforms, like when Shankaracharya of Kanchi[https://www.kamakoti.org/] supported the "Hindu Religious Endowments Bill" (1921) even while voicing some concerns in within. Mentionable is that [[Shatata-Unnati#Female upliftment|Dr. Muthulakshmi Reddy]] wasn't part of the JP but it still nominated her in 1926 for the Madras Legislative Council to bring about positive changes.

==Related articles==
*[[Women]]
*[[Women as Rishikas in the Vedas]]
*[[Worship of God as Mother]]

==External resources==
*[https://www.ijhsss.com/files/08.-ABHISEK-KARMAKAR_6813z4a4.pdf "Changing status of women in Indian politics (1917-1947): the role of civil society"], P. 42-45 ''International Journal of Humanities & Social Science Studies'' Volume-I, Issue-II (September 2014) By Abhisek Karmakar
*[https://www.besanthill.org/about/history-heritage/annie-besant/ Besant Hill School of Happy Valley in Ojai, California]
*[https://www.anniebesant.org Annie Besant Women's College in Hyderabad, Telangana]
*[https://www.aryasabha.mu/cultural-programme-arya-mahila-mandal-in-the-context-of-the-200th-birth-anniversary-of-swami-dayananda-saraswati/ Arya Mahila Mandal (Mauritius)]
*[https://www.thearyasamaj.org/ammkarolbagh Arya Mahila Mandal Karol Bagh]
*[https://vatikashaktipeeth.com/seven-agitations/women-awakening.html Vatika Shakti Peeth]

==References==
{{reflist}}

[[Category: History]]
[[Category: Economics]]
[[Category: Societal altruism]]

The Spread of Hinduism

2026-06-09T18:10:00Z

Himanshu Bhatt: /* Americas */ added names of mentors

{{Author|Himanshu Bhatt}}
[[image:Submerged Indian coast.jpg|right|thumb|200px|Indian shoreline before submersion from sea levels increasing, which began after end of last ice age in 10000 BCE, devastating the [[Indus Valley Civilization]] and leading to an exodus.]]
[[image:Out of Eurasia diffusion.jpg|right|thumb|200px|Out of Eurasia theory of human dispersion contradicts the mainstream viewpoint known as Out of Africa and has gained ground among geneticists, and further supports Out of India theory and [[History of ancient geography|Hindu myths]] of the sons of Emperor Priyavrata inheriting the eastern world island from their father.]]
[[image:Human migration patterns.jpg|right|thumb|200px|M130 is believed to have originated in India, as well as others, such as M20 and M45.]]
[[image:IVC trade.jpg|right|thumb|200px|Trade of the IVC.]]
<blockquote>
“Hinduism the perennial philosophy that is at the core of all religions.” - Aldous Huxley
</blockquote>
[[Hindu]] teachings were spread not just by Indian Hindus migrating and preaching outside of the Indian Subcontinent, but also by visitors to India who came for understanding [[Hinduism|Hindu spirituality]]. This latter section includes Greek philosophers such as Pythagoras, Orpheus and Plato, who had all returned to Greece and preached the concepts of [[karma]], [[bhakti]], [[gyāna]], reincarnation and [[Mokṣa]]. Iranian philosophers such as Mani also visited India and later preached similar messages as the Greeks who had become Hindu.

Hindu scholars noted for their wisdom had further promoted the religion through becoming advisers to monarchs outside of India. [[Kingdoms]] Kucha<ref>It means Kumarayāna.</ref> and Tukhara<ref>It means Dhitika.</ref> in Central Asia, Mongolia<ref>It means Śakya Pandita.</ref>, Naiman<ref>It means Tatatungya.</ref> in Western Mongolia, Tibet<ref>It means Padmasambhava.</ref> and mainland China<ref> It means [[Bodhidharma]]. </ref>, all chose Indian [[Rulers in Hinduism|Hindu advisers]] who promoted [[Hinduism]] throughout their kingdoms. Soon an era came in which Greek philosophers describe that 'Greater India' came into being with cultural similarities between many regions outside India. Central Asia was known as Serindia, while from Burma to the Strait of Malacca became Indochina and the islands of the Strait of Malacca became Indonesia.

Around 4000-3000 BCE, is when exploration in the Indian Ocean had began, and the international regions to communicate with one another were India, Gulf (i.e., Mesopotamia), and Oman.<ref> P. 15 ''Indian Ocean In Antiquity'' By Julian Reade </ref> The curiosity of places outside of India and knowledge of trading routes had led to the Indian diaspora both from sea and land. Following this the [[Historical racial diversity of Hindus#Integration of Indian Hindu migrants with Europeans|Yamnaya culture of Europe]] that prospered from 3500-2500 BCE, which consisted of mixed peoples from both Indo-Iranian and native European ancestry was established around 3500-3200 BCE. Hindu scholars, including scientists and missionaries, remained explorers and documented the [[History of ancient geography|various geographies of global places]] wherein they traveled.

Of the Indian Hindus in the ancient times that established colonies abroad, noteworthy are the [[Danavas]] of Sind province that, with their navigation expertise, had settled in various places where they had come to be been known as Danuna, Danunites, Danaoi, Danaus, Danaids, Dene, Danai, Danaian, and Dananns. Historians have noted tribes with the demonym 'Sindi' among the Thracians, Colchis, and both ancient and modern Kurds.

With the spread of British colonialism in the modern era, many Indians started regularly traveling and emigrating to other British colonies outside of India. Many others also traveled to other colonies, such as of France and Netherlands. Resulting from this diffusion and establishment of communities abroad, Indian Hindus have gone on to democratically achieve becoming leaders of countries such as Guyana, Suriname, Fiji and Mauritius. From colonialism, Europeans also received the opportunities to travel to India and then [[Hindu-inspired organizations|share spiritual ideas]] with Western nations. As such, the establishment of the [[Theosophical Society]] by Helena Blavatsky and [[Agni]] [[Yoga]] by Nicholas Roerich. The modern age has given a boost to Hinduism through [[Hindu-inspired organizations|organizations]] such as the [[Hare Krishna]]s, [[Ananda Margi]]s, [[Brahma Kumari]]s and others. [[Yoga]] has spread now and is practiced by many non-Hindus for improving and maintaining both physical and mental health.

<blockquote>
“South Asia, which is where Bos Indicus (zebu cattle) originated, was not isolated during this period. People seem to have migrated from the Indus Valley civilization into Central Asia around the same time as the climatic effect that happened around 4,200 years ago. This may have introduced zebu cattle ancestry into Near Eastern cattle populations.” - Iosif Lazaridis, Harvard Medical School geneticist<ref> [https://www.natureasia.com/en/nmiddleeast/article/10.1038/nmiddleeast.2019.100 "Ancient cattle DNA reveals a bullish tale"] By Lara Reid, Published online 12 July 2019 </ref>
</blockquote>

The influence of Hindus and Moksh-based religions to the history of the world is definitely undeniable. Mahatma Gandhi changed the world forever and his message of peaceful non-cooperation to obtain freedom and justice was implemented by other freedom fighters in former colonies, and by notable figures towards national reform as in the cases of Martin Luther King Junior and Aung San Suu Kyi. Time Magazine ranked him as number 54 on the list the most significant figures in all of history[https://ideas.time.com/2013/12/10/whos-biggest-the-100-most-significant-figures-in-history/], on the list of the important 20th century persons while WondersList[https://www.wonderslist.com/10-most-influential-people-of-the-20th-century/#:~:text=1%20Albert%20Einstein.%20Most%20Influential%20People%20of%2020th,9%20Princess%20Diana.%20...%2010%20Alexander%20Fleming.%20] as number 5 for that list, Time as number 9 for one of history’s most important leaders[http://content.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,988159,00.html], BBC as one of the most important philosophers, and other sources like Historyplex[https://historyplex.com/influential-people-in-history] as one of the most important persons overall in all of history.

==Middle East==
[[image:Ancient_Ariana_lands.jpg|right|thumb|200px|Ancient Greek historian Aelianus in ''De natura animalium'' (16.16), also mentions that there were "Indian Arianians" and there is some suggestion that control of Ariana fluctuated between Indian and Arian Arianians.]]
"''Slowly and gradually, it dawned upon them that the language of the ''Gatha'' and Zendavesta has very great kinship with the [[Sanskrta]] language; when the grammar of Panini, Katyayana, and Patanjali was applied then the Gatha and Zendavesta came to be understood by the westerners. The lesson from this amazing fact is clear that once the Iranians of the ''Gatha and Zendavesta'' and the Indo-Aryans of the [[Vedas]] formed one single race, speaking language akin to Samskrta. Indeed this is clear from the city tablets found in Tell-El-Amarna in Egypt and Boghaz Keui in Asia Minor. On the tablets are mentioned Indra, Varuna, Mitra and Nasatya as witnesses of the treaty between the King Subiluliuma of the Hittites, and the Mitanni King Mattiwaza. These tablets date to about 1600 B.C. These tablets clearly indicate that these Vedic gods who were quite familiar in the region about 1600 B.C. and that the people living there then had more or less a common religion''." - Yaqub Masih<ref> P. 21-22 ''A Comparative Study of Religions'' By Y. Masih </ref>

The process of Hinduism spreading in the Middle East is whereby Hindus left India and had traveled to regions within the ancient Neat East and had preached the doctrine and customs. Hindus of Mitanni were Hurrians while those of Anatolia were Hittites, those of Levant the Hurus and those of Egypt, the Hyksos.

{{Cquote|Ketumalavarsha indeed extends from Romakapura to [the] Gandhamadana [mountain].|4=Srimad Bhagavatam}}

===Iranian Plateau===
''See also: [[Zoroastrianism and Hinduism]]''
[[image:Vishnu statue Mashad.jpg|right|thumb|200px|Statue of Vishnu sitting cross-legged while holding conch and lotus (underneath peacock) at mosque in Mashad, Khorasan, Iran.]]
[[image:Agathocles Indo-Bactrian coin.jpg|right|thumb|200px|One of Greco-Bactrian Empire's coins from King Agathocles Dikaios issued around 190-180 BCE, featuring Balarama (left) and Krishna (right) holding [[Dharmachakra]].<Ref> P. 330 ''The Serpent The Eagle The Lion & The Disk'' By Brannon Parke </ref>]]
[[image:Kadphises Kushan coin.jpg|right|thumb|200px|Four of Kushan Empire's coins from King Vima Katphisa issued around 166-230 CE, featuring Shiva with his bull attendant. They read, "[Coin] of the great King Vima Kathphisa, the king of kings, lord of all the world, the Mahavesvara."<ref> P. 370'' Studies in Indian Coins'' By D.C. Sircar </ref>]]
[[image:Lakshmi displayed on coin.jpg|right|thumb|200px|Hunnic Empire's coin of Bactria in Brahmi from 400-500 CE displaying Lakshmi holding a lotus in one hand and a cornucopia in the other.]]
[[image:Hindu Temple Bandar Abbas.jpg|right|thumb|200px|Vaiśnava temple in Bandar Abbas, southern Iran. The temple was built in 1892 particularly for the recent Indian immigrants, many of whom were merchants and soldiers. In 1965 the temple was vacant as Indians emigrated. Whereas temples are usually made by stone, dew the climate of Bandar Abbas, rubble stones, mortar, coral rock, soil material and plaster was used in this temple’s construction.]]

;Movement of Indians into Iran
<blockquote>
"Slowly and gradually, it dawned upon them that the language of the ''Gatha'' and Zendavesta has very great kinship with the Sanskrta language; when the grammar of Panini, Katyayana, and Patanjali was applied then the Gatha and Zendavesta came to be understood by the westerners. The lesson from this amazing fact is clear that once the Iranians of the ''Gatha'' and ''Zendavesta'' and the Indo-Aryans of the Vedas formed one single race, speaking language akin to Samskrta." - Yaqub Masih<ref> P. 21-22 ''A Comparative Study of Religions'' By Y. Masih </ref>
</blockquote>

Ancient Iranian lands had a diversity of spiritual beliefs and the religions included Zoroastrianism, Manicheism, Yazdanism, Mandeanism and others. As the original Indo-Iranian homeland was eastwards in the [[Himalayas]], the nations of those areas spread westwards and found existing non-Indo-European peoples there such as Kasodians in Gilan, Taporians in Mazandaran, Urartians in the Caucus Mountain Range, Turukkus, Kassites and Lolobites in the Zagros Mountain Range and Elamites on the southern shoreline. The Turkic groups were known collectively to the natives as the 'Turani'<ref>They were called '[[Turiya]]' in the Avesta.</ref> and they were [[Danava#Turkic affiliation|associated with Dānu]], just as the Tarukṣas coming into India were too. The non-Indo-Iranians (or non-Aryans) were known to the Aryans as 'Anariakoi' (''non-Aryan people''), and this was the term documented by Greek writers for Hyrcanians<ref> P. 25 ''An Inquiry Into the Ethnography of Afghanistan: Prepared and Presented to ...'' By Henry Walter Bellew </ref> and others. Overtime, the Indo-Iranian cultural significance in the societies of the plateau led to the formation of Indo-Iranian nations that were native to the region (i.e., [[The spread of Hinduism#Mitanni|Hurrians]], Baluchis, Armenians.) A Turani monarch had however opposed the Indo-Iranian influence on the plateau and invaded Balkh.<ref>It is in northern Afghanistan.</ref> After its conquest both its king and the king's close friend Zarathustra were executed by invading Turanis.<ref> P. 62 ''Mute [[Dreams]], Blind Owls, and Dispersed Knowledges: Persian Poesis in the Transnational Circuitry'' By Michael M. J. Fischer </ref>

Sir William Jones notes:
<blockquote>Thus it has been proved by clear evidence and plain reasoning that a powerful monarch was established in Iran long before the Assyrian or Pishadi government. That it was in fact, a '''Hindu monarchy''', though any may choose to call it Cusian, Casdean or Scythian..."<ref> P. 133 ''The works of Sir William Jones: with the life of the author by Lord Teignmouth in Thirteen Volumes Volume 3'' By Sir William Jones </ref> </blockquote>

;Closeness between religions of Iran to Hinduism
Zoroastrianism, which is also known as ''Mazdayasna'' (''Sacrifice to [[Asura|Ahura Mazda]]'') and as ''Vehdin'' (''Good Religion''), resembles Hinduism in many ways, such as in its origin, beliefs (i.e., common [[deities]]) and iconography. Dr. Mills says, "The Avesta is nearer the [[Veda]] than the [[Veda]] to its own epic [[Sanskrit]]." Major gods or yazatas<ref>Yazatas means ''venerable ones''.</ref> included Varuṇa and [[Mitra]]. Zarathustra (Greek: Zoroaster) Spitama was an Athravan priest, a descendant of the Vedic Atharvans. The swastika has been a popular symbol throughout the history of Iran and it has been called by Persians, "The four horses of [[Mitra]]."

Among the followers of Zoroastrianism, while the scriptures do not mention the idea of [[re-incarnation]], it is not denied either<ref> ''Textual Sources for the Study of Zoroastrianism'' edited by Mary Boyce </ref> and some Zoroastrians of India<ref>It is particularly members of the Parsi Theosophy.</ref> believe in reincarnation.<ref> P. 264 The Parsis of India: Preservation of Identity in Bombay City By Jesse S. Palsetia </ref> Some esoteric Parsi mystics such as Beaman adhered to the belief in reincarnation.<ref> P. 178 Parsis in India and the Diaspora edited by John Hinnells, Alan Williams </ref> The belief in karma and re-incarnation are perpetuated in the ''Desatir'', wherein it declares that those who are happy now have done good deeds in a previous life while those who suffer now have done bad deeds in former life.<ref>P. 522 ''The British Critic: A New Review, Volume 20'' </ref> It is therefore discredited as a Mazdaean work.

Of Mandeans, Chevalier Emerys writes, "Modern Johannite Mandean Christians of Iraq, also known as Nazoreans, still believe in the doctrine of reincarnation and also teach that Jesus was the reincarnation of the prophet Melchizedek."<ref>P. 49 Revelation of the Holy Grail By Chevalier Emerys </ref> The Mandeans also believe in reincarnation of the human, if a human does not marry within his or her lifetime.<ref>P. 41 ''Gnostic Ethics and Mandaean [[Origins]]'' By Edwin M. Yamauchi </ref> Islamic Druzism believes in reincarnation, and is named after Persian Batinite missionary named Muhammad bin Ismail Nashtakin ad-Darazi. Muslim Shah Ismail the Persian Sultan was one of the founders of Alevism or the "People of Fire" and this Islamic sect believes in reincarnation. The Islamic sects of Shabak, Bajalan, Sarli, and Kakais are also very closely affiliated with Iranians and has a belief in re-incarnation.

After the Islamization of the Iranian Plateau, some intellectuals resisted and established their own new religions, which contained some hindu ideas and some other themes that they were familiar with. This includes, Yarsanism (Ahl-e Haqq) established in the 14th century by Sultan Sahak as a Yazdan sect and Baha'ism by Bahá'u'lláh in the 19th century. Whereas both traditional Hinduism and [[Buddhism]] were popular in the eastern part of the Iranian Plateau, Mithraism became popular within Zoroastrianism particularly in the western part. From here the popularity of the god Mitra spread to Assyria, Anatola and Europe. The Avesta declares, "This Mitra, the lord of the wide pastures, I have created as worthy of sacrifice, as I, Ahura Mazda, am myself."<ref>P. 1xi ''The Zend-Avesta: The Sîrôzahs, Yasts, and Nyâyis'' edited by James Darmesteter, Lawrence Heyworth Mills </ref> Philosopher Mani of Persia had spent time in India, and after having accepted the ideas of re-incarnation and [[Means to Salvation|the three paths to Mokṣa]], he began preaching of them in Iran. His set of beliefs are called Manicheism.

;Association of regions within Iranian Plateau to India
The Zoroastrian Vendidad reads, "The country of Hind extends from east of the Indus to west of it." This, India in the Vendidad's definition includes Baluchistan and Seistan.

Ancient Persians called the regions stretching from Hormuz to Baluchistan as 'Hind'<ref>It is the original name of India.</ref> because those areas had more in common with India than with the other Iranian cultures located west to them. King Dhrishataketu of Kaikeya Kingdom married Śrutakirtti and had by her Santarddana, and four other sons, known together as the five Kaikeyas. The Kaikeyas were a major dynasty in India and it was on both sides of the Indus River. The Anava Kingdom of Uśinara Sibi, extended from Baluchistan to the Punjab. Even modern times Sibi is a district within Baluchistan.

Further, the Helmand region of Afghanistan was called by Persians as 'White India'. Siestan was also referred by Greek philosophers to as White India. Referring to the peoples of this region, Alexander called them, "the Indians on this side of the [[Indus River|river Indus]]."<ref>P. 128 ''Handbuch der Orientalistik. Abt. 1, Der Nahe und der Mittlere Osten, Bd 8, Religion, Abschnitt 1, Religionsgeschichte des Alten Orients, Lief. 2. H. 2, A history of Zoroastrianism, Vol. 3, Zoroastrianism under Macedonian and Roman rule'' By Mary Boyce; Frantz Grenet</ref>

Overtime, the natives of this region stayed and many became Buddhist in modern-day Afghanistan and the Afghans turned Kandahar into a Buddhist pilgrimage center which was visited by devout Buddhists from China and Indonesia. While Takśaśila was a city in east of the Indian river on the Iranian side, there were other important centres. The two great Indian grammarians [[Panini]] and [[Patanjali]] have mentioned a number of north-western cities like Balkh or Vahika, Kapisa, Pushkalavati, Masakavati, Takśaśila and Sakala. Takśaśila was the greatest and most flourishing city.<ref> P. viii ''A History of Indian Civilization: Ancient and classical traditions'' By Radhakamal Mukerjee, Gurmukh Ram Madan, Viśvaprakāśa Gupta</ref>

;Modern Relations between the Plateau and Hinduism
Hare [[Krishna]]'s founder [[A.C. Bhaktivedanta Swami Prabhupada]] traveled to Tehran in 1976. Since 1977, [[ISKCON]] runs a vegetarian restaurant in Tehran.

===Assyria===
Assyria was known as Asuristan.<Ref> P. 10 ''The [[Sound]] System of Modern Assyrian (Neo-Aramaic)'' By Edward Y. Odisho </ref> The name of Assyria comes from Rigvedic 'Asurya', the original name of the sun-god [[Surya]]. Syrians still to this day, pronounce the name of Syria as '[[Surya]]'. Hence, Assyria's name would have been pronounced as 'Asurya'.

In the 6th century CE, the Lower Euphrates was known as 'India within land' or just 'Hind' (India) in general.<ref> P. 421 ''Gazetteer of the Bombay Presidency: Tha'na (2 pts.) Volume XIII, Part II'' By Government Central Press </ref> Oderic in 1320 CE also speaks of the Lower Euphrates as 'India within land'. Much like how the [[Indus Valley Civilization|Indus River Civilization]] had priest-kings as ruler of certain towns and cities, Assyria too had a priest-prince ruler. Hence, from the Indian Hindu influence, [[Parshurama]] is also believed to have been worshiped in the region. In the ancient Sumerian [[Social Structure|social structure]] as well, there was a leader of the Baramas (i.e., [[Brahmana]]s) named Bur-Sin and the belief by some scholars is that he is Parshurama.

The patriarchal god of the Assyrians was Assur, who is always portrayed on a winged chakkra-sun or sundisk, just as the frahavars<ref>Frahavars means angels.</ref> of Iranian spirituality are shown. The Assyrians, referred to a [[dharmachakra|chakkra]] as a wheel. The cultural and political capital of the Assyrians was Assur, named after the god. Assur was also known as ''Asara Mazas''<ref>For them some scholars believe that they origin from the proto-Indo-Iranian form ''[[Asura]] Mazdas''.</ref><ref> ''History of Civilizations of Central Asia: The development of sedentary and nomadic civilizations: 700 B.C. to A.D. 250'' By Ahmad Hasan Dani </ref> Furthermore, god Enki was also known as Masda and Masenda. God Assur had later been identified within Judeo-Christian Biblical mythology as Ashur, the son of Shem.

It is believed that Europe had borrowed the planetary names for the week's days that the Babylonians used. Babylon was a part of the Assyrian Empire. When Hindus had spread to Assyria, they had brought this system of the week with them.

{| cellspacing="1" style="width:100%;" class="wikitable sortable"
|-
| || Sunday || Monday || Tuesday || Wednesday || Thursday || Friday || Saturday
|-
|Planet
| style="width:12%;"| Sun
| style="width:12%;"| Moon
| style="width:12%;"| Mars
| style="width:12%;"| Mercury
| style="width:12%;"| Jupiter
| style="width:12%;"| Venus
| style="width:12%;"| Saturn
|-
| [[Hindu gods|Hindu deity]]
| [[Ravi]]
| [[Soma]]
| [[Mangala]]
| [[Buddha]]
| [[Guru]]
| [[Shukra]]
| [[Shani]]
|-
|Mazdaen deity<ref> P. 253 ''The Wiley-Blackwell Companion to Zoroastrianism'' By Michael Stausberg, Yuhan Sohrab-Dinshaw Vevaina, [[Anna]] Tessmann </ref><REF> P. 37 ''Persian Architectural Heritage: Architecture, Structure and Conservation'' By Mehrdad Hejazi, Fatemeh Mehdizadeh Saradj </REF>
|Mitra
|
|Vrarayna
|Tiriya
|Ahura Mazda
|Ardvi Anahita [[Sura]]
|Kayvanu
|-
|Assyrian deity<ref> P. 253 ''The Wiley-Blackwell Companion to Zoroastrianism'' By Michael Stausberg, Yuhan Sohrab-Dinshaw Vevaina, [[Anna]] Tessmann </ref>
|
|
|Nergal
|Nabu
|Marduk
|Ishtar
|Kajamanu
|-
| Greco-Roman deity
| style="width:12%;"| Helios-Sol
| style="width:12%;"| Selene-Luna
| style="width:12%;"| Ares-Mars
| style="width:12%;"| Hermes-Mercury
| style="width:12%;"| Zeus-Jupiter
| style="width:12%;"| Aphrodite-Venus
| style="width:12%;"| Cronus-Saturn
|-
|}

The Assyrians had referred to India as ''Melluhha''. This comes from the name Mallhu and Malla, which many kings in India, particularly western India and Baluchistan have been called. There was even Mount Malleus mountain that Sind<ref> ''Studia Orientalia, Volume 64'' </ref> was known for having. Even the coast of Kerala is known as Malankara.

===Mitanni===
[[image:Nefertitti image at Amarna.jpg|right|thumb|200px|Mural of Nefertiti found at Amarna in 1912. She was an Indo-Aryan princess from Mitanni, who married an Egyptian Pharaoh Amenhotep IV (Akhnaton), and reigned ca. 1353-1336 BCE.]]

Today this region is known as Kurdistan. In the ancient times, the inhabitants of Mitanni were known as Hurrians. In the Judeo-Christian Bible, they are known as the Horites.<ref> P. 64 ''The Hebrew Pharaohs of Egypt: The Secret Lineage of the Patriarch Joseph'' By Ahmed Osman </ref> Sanskritic interpretations of Mitanni names render the following:
* Artashumara (artaššumara) - It means that it is as [[Arta]]-smara "who thinks of [[Arta]]/Ṛta".<ref>Mayrhofer II 780</ref>
* Biridashva (biridaša, biriiaša) - It means that it is as Prītāśva "whose horse is dear".<ref>Mayrhofer II 182</ref>
* Priyamazda (priiamazda) - It means that it is as Priyamedha "whose wisdom is dear".<ref>Mayrhofer II 189, II378</ref>
* Citrarata as [[citraratha]] - It means that it is "whose chariot is shining".<ref>Mayrhofer I 553</ref>
* Indaruda/Endaruta - It means that it is as Indrota "helped by Indra".<ref>Mayrhofer I 134</ref>
* Shativaza (šattiaza) - It means that it is as Sātivāja "winning the race price".<ref>Mayrhofer II 540, 696</ref>
* Šubandhu as Subandhu - It means that it is like 'having good relatives".<ref>It is a name in Palestine.</ref><ref>Mayrhofer II 209, 735</ref>
* Tushratta (tišeratta, tušratta, etc.) - It means that it is as taišaratha, Vedic Tveṣaratha "whose chariot is vehement".<ref>Mayrhofer I 686, I 736</ref>

Apart from Queen Nefertiti, Ramesid pharaohs were also of Mitanni descent.<Ref> P. 85 ''Arshile Gorky Adoian'' By Karlen Mooradian </ref>

===Hatti===
The Hittites or Nesili, whose empire was known as 'Hatti' and 'Kadesh', had believed in re-incarnation as attested by their writings. They [[worshiped]] the Devas like [[Indra]], [[Nasatyas]] (Ashvins), [[Mitra]] and [[Varuṇa]]. This is confirmed by the Suppiluliuma-Shattiwaza Treaty between the Hittites and Hurrians. The beleaguered Tusratta was then murdered by his son in a palace coup. Tusratta's other son, Prince Shattiwaza, fled Mitanni and was eventually given sanctuary by the Hittite King Suppiluliuma with whom he concluded a treaty 1380 BCE, which we know as the Suppiluliuma-Shattiwaza Treaty discovered in 1907 CE in Hattusa near present-day Bogazkale (Boğazkale, formerly Bogazköy) in north-central Turkey. In the treaty, the Hittite King Suppiluliuma agreed to assist Shattiwaza to gain the Mitanni throne. The Hittites captured the Mitanni capital Wassukanni after a second attempt and installed Shattiwaza as a vassal king.

The Suppiluliuma-Shattiwaza Treaty is a source of considerable information about the Mitanni. In addition, it gives us some astonishing information about the religious practices of the Mitanni for it invokes the Indo-Iranian pantheon of [[Asuras]] and Devas Mitras(il) (Mitra), Uruvanass(il) (Varuṇa), Indara (Indra) and the Nasatianna (Nasatyas.) In the Judeo-Christian Bible, the Hitties are assimilated to have been descended from Heth, the son of Ham.

===Levant===
The Levant region includes countries of the Mediterranean coast which are located at the southwest Asian area. The Hindus here were an Indo-Aryan speaking population called as the Huru.

===Egypt===
:''See also: [[Danava]]''
<blockquote>
"One of the oldest colonies founded by the Hindus was in Egypt" - G. R. Josyer<ref> P. 104 ''Astrological Magazine, Volume 73, Issues 1-6'' 1984 </ref>
</blockquote>
The Hyksos were an Indo-Aryan dynasty, according to the scholars such as Sam Kerr<ref> P. 15 ''Cyrus the Great - Celestial Sovereign'' By Sam Kerr </ref> and M. Chahin<Ref> P. 28 ''The Kingdom of Armenia: A History'' By M. Chahin </ref>. They had come to Egypt and settled within its Delta region in about 1674-1547 BCE<ref> P. 28 ''The Kingdom of Armenia: A History'' By M. Chahin </ref> and within a few centuries dominated the country. Much cultural exchange happened during the period of their rule.
<blockquote>
“Egypt was colonized from India, and the priests of Egypt were of the same order as the Brahmins of India.” - Godfrey Higgins<ref> p. 121 ''Anacalypsis: An Attempt to Draw Aside the Veil of the Saitic Isis'' (Vol. I) By Godfrey Higgins </ref>
</blockquote>
Excavations in El-Amarna in Egypt have yielded the fact that around the 14th-15th centuries BCE, kings and princes with Vedic-like names were ruling in the region of modern day Syria. Some of the names are Artamanya, Aryavirya, Yashodatta, Suttarna and Dushratta. Thutmose IV had married a daughter of Artatma, the King of the Mitanni Kingdom. A letter addressed by Dushratta, Artatama's grandson, written to Akhnaton, says that it was not until Thutmose asked seven times that King Artatma agreed to his marriage proposal. Amenhotep III married Tiy, daughter of Yuaa<ref>He is a foreigner "from North Syria".</ref> and Tuau. During this time in Egyptian history, the ruling aristocracy of Egypt, were of mixed Egyptian and Mitanni ancestry. According to Akhnaton, Aton was both the male and female. He says to Aton, "Father and Mother of all that You have made." This parallels with the Hindu terms for the sun-god, Savita<ref>He is the male form.</ref> and Savitri<ref>She is the female form.</ref> or the sun and the sun's energy ([[Puruṣa]] and [[Prakṛti]].)

The Hyksos were descendants of the Indian Danavas. They're written of in Egyptian, Hittite, and Hellenic accounts under the names Danuna, Danunites, Danaoi, Danaus, Danaids, Dene, Danai, and Danaian.<ref> P. 218 ''Sea Peoples of the Bronze Age Mediterranean c.1400 BCÂ?1000 BC'' By Raffaele DÂ?Amato, Andrea Salimbeti </ref> In mythology it was Ramses III who exiles them from Egypt, whereby they take refuge in Greece and spread further into Europe from there.

Burials have been uncovered of Indian monkeys, leading archaeologists to believe that they were imported from India.<ref> [https://www.heritagedaily.com/2020/08/ancient-animal-burials-in-egypt-were-monkeys-imported-as-pets-from-india/134834 ANCIENT ANIMAL BURIALS IN EGYPT WERE MONKEYS IMPORTED AS PETS FROM INDIA] (August 25, 2020) By HeritageDaily </ref>

===Arabian Peninsula===
This region was historically known to Indians as Arabaka or Arvasthān.<ref>It means the ''Land of Horses''.</ref> Before the Islamization of the region beginning with [[Islam]]'s prophet Mohammed, peoples here more freely practiced their spirituality. Mohammed's own uncle, Umar-bin-e-Hassham had died for his devotion to [[Śiva]]. Among his writings, one poem of him depicting his faith in Śiva, has been found. It has come to be known as the "Śiva Stuti." The poem reads as follows:

{| class="wikitable sortable"
|-
! English
! Arabic
|-
|
:The man who may spend his life in sin
:and irreligion or waste it in lechery and wrath
:If at least he relent and return to
:righteousness can he be saved?
:If but once he [[bhakti|worship]] Mahadeva with a pure
:heart, he will attain the ultimate in spirituality.
:Oh Lord [[Shiva]] exchange my entire life for but
:a day’s sojourn in India where one attains salvation.
:But one pilgrimage there secures for one all
:merit and company of the truly great.
|
:Kafavomal fikra min ulumin Tab asayru
:Kaluwan amataul Hawa was Tajakhru
:We Tajakhayroba udan Kalalwade-E Liboawa
:Walukayanay jatally, hay Yauma Tab asayru
:Wa Abalolha ajabu armeeman '''Mahadeva'''
:Manojail ilamuddin minhum wa sayattaru
:Wa Sahabi Kay-yam feema-Kamil MINDAY Yauman
:Wa Yakulum no latabahan foeennak Tawjjaru
:Massayaray akhalakan hasanan Kullahum
:Najumum aja-at Summa gabul '''Hindu'''
|-
|}

Umar-bin-e-Hassham had the title of 'Abul Kaham', which in Arabic means ''doctor''.<Ref> P. 705 ''World Vedic heritage: a history of histories : presenting a unique unified field theory of history that from the beginning of time the world practiced Vedic culture and spoke [[Sanskrit]], Volume 1'' By Puruṣottam Nagesh Oak </ref> It is a fact that the Kaaba was worshiped in by non-Muslims before Islam. It is believed by some that before the Kaaba was Islamicized and made a pilgrimage for only Muslims, it was a Śiva temple. Umar-bin-e-Hassham is known to have been a priest at Kaaba. His composition was a part of the ''Sair-ul-Okul'' compiled by Labi-bin-e-Akhtab bin-e Turfa, which contained verses composed by multiple authors.

''The Encyclopedia Islamia'' admits: "''Muhammed's grandfather and uncles were hereditary priests of the Kaaba temple which housed 360 [[idols]]!''" Besides the Arabian Umar-bin-e-Hassham having been a priest at the temple, another point that some people make is that the black stone at the Kaaba is actually a Śivalinga.

[[Kṛṣṇa]] was also worshiped in Arabia and his tale is written in an Islamic Hadith. The text titled, ''The History of Hamadan Dailmi'' (Chapter "Al-Kaaf") declares, “''There was a prophet of God in India who is dark in color and his name was Kahān [Kanha, i.e., Kṛṣṇa].''”<ref> P. 181 ''Green Leaves: Harish S. Booch Memorial Volume'' By Harish S. Booch </ref>

==East Asia==
"''Mother of wisdom...India gave her mythology to her neighbors who went to teach it to the whole world. Mother of law and philosophy, she gave to three-quarters of Asia a god, a religion, a doctrine, an art.''" - Sylvain Lévi, French Scholar & Indologist

===Tibet===
[[image:Tonpa Shenrab.jpg|right|thumb|200px|[[Yungdrung Bon|Bonpa Dharma]] founder [[Tonpa Shenrab Miwoche]], also known as Shenrab Miwo, and Buddha Shenrab.]] Hinduism in Tibet began with the Bon religion of Tonpa Shenrab, who is noted in Bon scriptures to have come from a western land called Olmo Lungring and wandered into Zhang Zhung (western Tibet.) In some Tibetan scriptures, Shenrab's country is also called as sTag-gzig, Shangri-La and Shambhalla. Like several other ṛṣis such as [[Riṣabha]], [[Rāvaṇ]] and [[Śukra|Śukracharya]], Tonpa too meditated at [[Mount Kailāśa]]. 

According to most Bon sources on Guru Shenrab's dating, he arrived in Tibet either around 18,000<ref> ''The bsTan rTsis'' </ref> or 16,000 years ago. According to another Bon tradition, he was a contemporary of the pre-8th century Zhang Zhung king Triwer Sergyi Jyaruchan.<ref>P. 339 ''The Golden Letters: The Three Statements of Garab Dorje, First Dzogchen Master'' By John Myrdhin Reynolds </ref> However, the present day Tibetan history scholar and Dzogchen master Chogyal Namkhai Norbu calculates the probable actual date of his birth as 1917 BCE. 

What brought the prince to the region was his quest to retrieve his 7 blue horses that were stolen by his aggressor Khyab-Pa Lag-Ring and taken to Zhang Zhung. Master Shenrab went forth with his four attendants to find them. During his time in Zhang Zhung, he taught the locals the basic tenants of Bon Dharma. He found the horses and Khyab-Pa became his pupil. They left Tibet to return home and at age 32 Prince Shenrab decided to give up the royal life and take solitude ([[Gyāna|sanyāsa]]) to become a monk. Khyab-Pa had become his leading disciple.

At age 82 he departed the world and attained Mokṣa. Both in his country and among the locals in Zhang Zhung, Buddha Shenrab was successful in stopping ritual [[animal sacrifices]]. Bon preachers continued visiting Tibet for further propagating the religion, and many Tibetan Bonpas visited Olmo Lungring for learning the religion and meeting with Bonpa scholars. There are two types of Bonpas classed by Buddhists, White Bon<ref>They are the ones who also follow Buddhism.</ref> and Black Bon.<ref>They are strictly Bonpas.</ref> 

Apart from Tonpa Shenrab (the teacher), there are 3 other Sugatas, who together are known as Bon's 'Four Transcendent Lords'. They are Satrig Ersang (the great mother goddess), Shenlha Okar (god of light or wisdom), and Sangpo Bumtri (the procreator.) Other recognized Sugatas are Kuntu Kazgpo (who is similar to Buddhism's Adi Buddha), Kunzang Gyalwa Gyatso (a person similar to Avalokitesvara), and Welse Ngampa, Sipai Gyalmo (a 9-headed protector of Bon.)<ref> P. 304 ''[[Annapurna]]: A Trekker's Guide'' By Siân Pritchard-Jones, Bob Gibbons </ref>

===Uyghurstan===
{{Cquote|It is said that Bhadrasva-varṣa extends from the city of Yamakoti up to the Malyavat mountain.|4=Srimad Bhagavatam}}

Known anciently as Turkharistan, and now as East Turkistan or Uyghurstan, Buddhism was originally spread here by many missionaries from India. Later, missionaries within the country spread the [[dharma]]. It is noteworthy that the sun-god was known to the Saka Khotan Kingdom of the Tarim Basin as ''Urmaysde'' which scholars link to the term Ahura Mazda<ref> P. 132 ''The Nativist Prophets of Early Islamic Iran: Rural Revolt and Local Zoroastrianism'' By Patricia Crone</ref>. These Indo-Iranian words started coming over with migrants who were missionaries and merchants from India and Iran.

[[Bhadrasva]]-varṣa is the name for the Tarim Basin or southern Uyghurstan, and for northern Uyghurstan (plus Kazakhstan) it is Uttara-[[Kuru]].

===China===
''See also: [[Daoism and Hinduism]]''
"''India conquered and dominated China culturally for 20 centuries without ever having to send a single soldier across her border''." - Hu Shih, Chinese ambassador to the U.S. (1938-42)[http://www.hinduwisdom.info/India_and_China.htm]

Indian missionaries and monks worked with Chinese spiritual leaders and together preached the message of Moksha.

Bodhidharma is the well-known of the persons that increased the cultural relationships between India and China.

Some Tamil Siddhars too had visited China to discuss and spread spiritual knowledge. The Siddhar saint Bogar, disciple of Kalanginaathar, visited China. It is said that he proceeded there to teach the ways of the Siddhars. There is a legend that Lao Tze is Bogar. Daoxuan said passionately that India, and not China, should be considered the center of the world.

Writing of the Chinese language, Christian Reverend Joseph Edkins writes that Hindus prepared the model of the Chinese first letters during 3rd-6th centuries CE, arranged them under heads of 36 consonants like in Sanskrit, and instructed Chinese people in the way of right pronunciation with regard to the scientific basis of the sound.<ref> P. 248 ''Some Missing Chapters of World History'' By Purushottam Nagesh Oak </ref>

===Japan===
[[image:Saraswati, Vaishravana, and Ganesh statue Hatsukaichi.jpg|left|thumb|200px|From left to right, Benzaiten ([[Saraswati]]), Kangiten ([[Ganesh]]) and Bishamonten ([[Vaishravana]]) in the 1,200 year-old Daishō-in Temple Complex, Hatsukaichi, Japan.]]
[[image:Shivlinga Nayoga.jpg|right|thumb|200px|Shivlinga in the Toganji Temple at Nayoga, Japan.]]

"''India is culturally, Mother of Japan. For centuries it has, in her own characteristic way, been exercising her influence on the thought and culture of Japan.''" - Professor Hajime Nakamura

Atsushi Taguchi<ref>"''The transmission of Indian concepts—Hindu deities adapted into Shinto kami and Buddhist mandalas—exerted significant influence on Japan's religious worldview, contributing to its unique civilizational blend.''" - Atsushi Taguchi, Indologist and cultural historian; ''India-Japan Cultural Relations: From Ancient Times to Modern'' (2018)</ref>, Gen'ichi Yamaguchi<ref>"''Indian Buddhist thought, carrying Hindu philosophical undercurrents, profoundly shaped Japanese aesthetics and social harmony, influencing everything from tea ceremonies to imperial rituals—without which modern Japanese civilization would lack its syncretic depth.''" - Gen'ichi Yamaguchi, Buddhist studies scholar; "The Influence of Indian Buddhism on Japanese Culture" (2012) article–excerpts in ''Journal of Indian Philosophy'' (2015)</ref>Dr. Yoshihiro Kaburagi<ref>"''Since ancient times, Japan has assimilated various foreign cultures, particularly through Buddhism from India, which led to the formation of Japanese civilization.''" - Dr. Yoshihiro Kaburagi, historian and comparative civilization scholar</ref> have also written about the historical influence of Hinduism/India on Japan.
Due to the cultural exchange between India and Japan, mainstream Hindu gods were adopted by Japanese. Ganesh is known as Kangi-ten and as Bināyaka-ten which originates from the Sanskrit name [[Vināyaka]].

==South East Asia==
This whole region has been known in Hindu scriptures as Suvarṇabhumi.<ref>It means ''The Golden Land''.</ref> Hinduism has been the dominant religion amongst several nations for a long time here. Indonesia<ref>It was former Javadwipa.</ref> was dominantly Hindu until Islamization by missionaries and Islamists within the islands. At one point, lands even as far as the Philippines were part of the Chola Empire.<ref> [http://www.sanskritimagazine.com/history/the-tamil-chola-empire/ The Tamil Chola Empire] </ref>

===Burma===
"''They did not practice Theravada Buddhism, rather they observed a form of Mahayana Buddhism much influenced by Vaishnavism and native Naga (serpent) worship.''"<ref>''Essays on the History and Buddhism of Burma'' (2005) By Dr. U Than Tun</ref> - Dr. U Than Tun

Dr. Aye Aye Mar (Indologist), Dr. Khin Maung Nyunt (archaeologist & epigraphist), U Min Naing (cultural historian), and U Aung Thwin (historian) have also written about the historical influence of Hinduism/India on Burma.

In most Hindu scriptures, Burma is known as Brahmadesh. Buddhist scriptures sometimes called it Majjhimadesh. Greek philosopher Pliny had said that on the river called Ava or Pumas or Puman, many nations along it are in general called Bracmanae or Brahmane.<ref> P. 443 ''Asiatick Researches, Or, Transactions of the Society Instituted ..., Volume 14'' </ref> Hence, there is also the [[Brahmaputra]] River near Burma which crosses North-East India.

Several Hindu temples here date back to pre-Buddhistic times. In Burma there is a Dagoba dedicated to Dagon ([[Matsya|Matsya avatār]] of [[Viṣṇu]]) which Burmese claim is over 3000 years old.<ref> P. 37 ''Shambhala'' By Nicholas Roerich </ref>

===Cambodia===
[[image:Angkot War.jpg|right|thumb|200px|[[List of UNESCO Hindu World Heritage Sites#Cambodia|Angkot Wat Temple]], Cambodia.]]
"''From the 5th century, Hinduism established cults in Chenla that integrated with indigenous beliefs, creating a syncretic society... The Preah Thong myth shows how Indian origins were localized to legitimize Khmer rule.''"<ref>Quote in ''Inscriptions du Cambodge'' (Volume on Chenla, 2012, EFEO) By George Cœdès</ref> - Sovath Prak, epigraphist & historian

Chea Socheat, Michael Vickery (historian), Ros Chantrabot (historian & former diplomat), and Serey Sok (archaeologist) have also written about the historical influence of Hinduism/India on Cambodia.

The name Cambodia comes from the founder of the first Khmer Dynasty from India, who was Kambhoja. From him Cambodia is usually called by its natives as either 'Kambuja' or 'Kampuchea'. Its national flag displays the world-famous [[List of UNESCO Hindu World Heritage Sites#Cambodia|Angkor Wat Temple]] within the country. Angkor Wat is the largest spiritual monument in the world. It was built by King Suryavarman II.

An inscription from Anghor Vat runs thus: "''The [[Brahman]] Agastya, born in the land of the Aryans, devoted to the [[worship]] of Siva, having come by his psychic powers to the land of the Cambodians for the purpose of worshipping the Siva-linga known as Bhadresvara, and having worshipped the god for a long time, attained to beatitude.''"

===Indonesia===
[[image:Chola Empire and its tributaries.jpg|right|thumb|200px|The Chola Empire and its tributary lands. Indonesia was once a part of the Greater Chola Empire or 'Choladesh'.]]
"''Indonesia's ancient Hindu legacy, through processes of Indianization, laid the groundwork for tolerant pluralism...The Majapahit Empire (14th century) exemplifies how Hindu dharma fostered unity across ethnic groups, influencing modern Pancasila."''<ref>"Hindu Roots of Indonesian Tolerance", ''Journal of Indonesian Islam'' (2009) By Hilman Latief</ref> - Professor Dr. Hilman Latief, Syarif Hidayatullah State Islamic University

Agus Aris Munandar (archaeologist and historian), I Made Titib (theologian and philosopher), Ida Bagus Putu Jandhy (philosopher and cultural scholar), and Ni Wayan Sukerti (linguist and Indologist) have also written about the historical influence of Hinduism/India on Indonesia.

The largest and most prestigious native Indonesian dynasties were Srivijaya, Mataram, Shailendra, and Majapahit. The Chola Dynasty of India was a great link between both India and Indonesia as the exchange of cultures occurred, leading to closer ties between Indonesians and Indians.

Indonesians believe that [[Agastya|Sage Agastya]] and [[Markandeya|Sage Markandeya]] brought Hinduism to Indonesia. Hence, this shows that sages particularly of the [[Gotra#Pravara gotras|pravara gotra]] lineages from [[Agastya]] and Markandeya had been the first preachers of Hinduism in the islands.

Many Indians had migrated to Indonesia, some of them being Gujaratis. It is said that King Aji Saka, who came to Java in Indonesia in year 1 of the Śaka calender, was believed to be a king of Gujarat by some.<ref name="ReferenceA">P. 67 ''An era of peace'' By Krishna Chandra Sagar</ref> It is also believed that the first Indian settlements in Java Island of Indonesia was established with the coming of Prince Dhruvavijaya of Gujarat with 5,000 traders.<ref name="ReferenceA"/> Some stories propose that a sage named Tritresta was the first to bring Gujarati migrants with him to Java, hence some scholars equate him with Aji Saka.<ref> P. 158 ''Foreign Influence on Ancient India'' By Krishna Chandra Sagar </ref>

===Laos===
"Hindu influencers via Dvaravati Mon traders established elite religious practices in central Laos by the 7th century, paving the way for Theravada...This syncretic layer remains in Lao festivals symbolizing our Indosphere heritage.''"<ref>"From Brahmanism to Buddhism in Lao History", ''Lao Heritage Journal'' (2019) By Khammy Phommaseng</ref> - Khammy Phommaseng

Bounleuam Chaleunsinh (ethnologist), Phothong Phoummachanh (historian & cultural scholar), Sisouk Vongvichit (cultural heritage expert), and Vongkot Thammavongsa (archaeologist) have also written about the historical influence of Hinduism/India on Laos.

===Malaysia===
"''Up to the 14th century, Hindu-Buddhist influences had a major impact on Malaysian culture...The massive cultural impact of India on Malay Peninsula prior to the 14th century was virtually overwhelming, shaping early kingdoms like Langkasura and Kadaram through trade and elite adoption.''"<ref>''Early History of Peninsular Malaysia (2002)'' By Dr. Nik Hassan Shuhaimi Nik Abdul Rahman</ref> - Dr. Nik Hassan Shuhaimi Nik Abdul Rahman, archaeologist and historian

Ahmad Murad Merican (literary historian), Mohd. Taib Osman (cultural anthropologist), Raja Zarina Raja Zain (social anthropologist), and Wan Suhana Wan Sulaiman (Indologist) have also written about the historical influence of Hinduism/India on Malaysia.

* [[Bujang Valley Civilization]]

===Thailand===
"''Thailand is the most crucial place for study of Sanskrit. We started to study Sanskrit long back. Hinduism and Buddhism existed in Thailand and have very strong influences''." - Professor Chirapat Prapandvidya, founder and director of Sanskrit Studies Centre at Silpakorn University in Bangkok, Thailand

Charuwan Chareonla (art historian), Kessara Srinaka (art historian), Piriya Krairiksh (art historian) and Prapod Assavavirulhakarn (Buddhist scholar) have also written about the historical influence of Hinduism/India on Thailand.

In Hindu scriptures, Burma is known as Shyamdesh. Hence the other name of the country is 'Siam'.

===Vietnam===
"''Hinduism, introduced via Indian traders to Funan around the 1st century CE, established the socio-political framework for early Khmer-Cham societies in southern Vietnam...Temples like Óc Eo reflect this, blending Indian [[Rulership in Hinduism|devaraja]] cults with local animism to form hybrid polities.''"<ref>Paper in ''Archaeology of Asia'' (2012) By Tran Ky Phuong </ref> - Tran Ky Phuong

Ngô Đức Thịnh (ethnologist & cultural historian), Phan Huy Lê (historian, former national education department president), Lương Ninh (cultural anthropologist), and Vũ Kim Thắng (epigraphist) have also written about the historical influence of Hinduism/India on Vietnam.

==Oceania==
"''Soon after the establishment of a great Hindu civilisation in Java, and in a lessor degree in the Philippines, about the time of the Christian Era, it is certain that many expeditions of adventurous Hindu-Malay sea-captains in large ocean-going Wangkang and Barangai, "junks" and "big galleys" must have launched out into the Pacific, both by the N.W. route by way of the Moluccas, Caroline Islands and Havaii, as well as by the S.W. route, followed in much more recent times by Abel Tasman.''" - F.W. Christian<ref> P, 77-79 ''The Journal of the Polynesian Society: Volumes 1-22'' By Polynesian Society (N.Z.) </ref>

F.W. Christian had written of similarities between Sanskrit and Polynesian languages, such as Maori and Samoan.<ref> P, 77 ''The Journal of the Polynesian Society: Volumes 1-22'' By Polynesian Society (N.Z.) </ref>
;Australia
Their closest blood links are with the groups in New Guinea, South India and Sri Lanka, representing their path of migration into Australia.<ref> P. 186 ''Native Peoples of the World: An Encylopedia of Groups, Cultures and Contemporary Issues'' By Steven L. Danver</ref>

One academic, Professor Alan Cooper, from the University of Adelaide’s Centre for Ancient DNA, says the Indian influence may well have played a role in the development of the Aboriginal culture – outlined in a paper titled ‘Genome-wide data substantiate Holocene gene flow from India to Australia’.

Professor Cooper says it is impossible to ignore the link with the discovery of the dingo…"''The timing of all those things in the archaeological record, about 4,000 to 5,000 years ago, happens to match the timing estimated for this genetic influx from India.''"

Professor Cooper also points to another development that happened around the time of the Australia-Indian connection – an expansion of one of the Aboriginal language groups. "''This other language seems to have taken over Australia relatively recently – perhaps 5,000 years ago,…And how it did it, how it replaced the other ancient languages, we don’t know…So suddenly, 4,000 to 5,000 years ago is starting to become a fairly tumultuous time in Australian history.''"

;New Zealand
[[image:Tamil Bell found near Whangarei, Northland Region.jpg|left|thumb|200px|Tamil bell found near Whangarei, Northland Region.]]
[[image:Sanskrit writing found near Hokianga Harbour.jpg|right|thumb|200px|Sanskrit writing (digitally highlighted) found near Hokianga Harbour, Northland Region.]]
The oldest Indian settlement in New Zealand comes from the [[Dānavas]] that sailed originally from Patala in Sind. These Indians became known locally in New Zealand as the Tuhoe.

About 150 years ago, a bell was discovered in New Zealand near Whangarei in the Northland Region with Tamil writings on it.<ref> [https://www.cmi.ac.in/gift/Epigraphy/epig_tambaramnewly.htm "Newly discovered Tamil inscriptions from the Tambaram area", ''Madras Christian College Magazine'', v. 42, 1973 Gift Siromoney] </ref> It is believed to have come from a Pallava Dynasty ship which was sailing in the area and had possibly landed on New Zealand. The bell had led Indologist, V. R. Ramachandra Dikshitar to investigate and claims in his book ''The Origin and Spread of the Tamils'' that ancient Tamil sea-farers might have had a knowledge of Australia and Polynesia. There has also been Sanskrit writing discovered on a boulder in Hokianga Harbor. This finding has led to the belief that Hindu monks had arrived in New Zealand before Europeans did.

It is even believed by some historians that among the ancestry of indigenous New Zealanders there is some Indian descent. Joan Leaf through oral tradition of genealogy (''whakapapa'') among the Maori and having consulted with the Maori Wharewananga, traced the lineage of her husband, who is Maori on both sides of his ancestry, back to India.<ref>''Hawaiiki to the Hokianga, 2000 BC''</ref> That the Tuhoe of New Zealand were Dānavas is further evidenced by their oral traditions which recants Dānavas having fought other Indians in the typical wars that Indian epics mention about them.

"''Maori tradition tells us that their ancestors in times long past away, 165 generations ago, they migrated from a hot country named India''." - Eldson Best<ref> "The cause of this exodus was a disastrous war with a dark skinned folk in which great numbers were slain."; ''Tuhoe: The Children of the Mist'' By Eldson Best </ref>

;Rest of Polynesia
[[image:From Indus to Easter Island.jpg|right|thumb|200px|The trajectory from Mohenjo-Daro ([[Indus Valley Civilization]]) to Giza (Egypt) then Machu Pichu (Peru), and to Easter Island is a perfect 30° incline.]]
[[image:IVC and rongorongo scripts.jpg|left|thumb|200px|The scripts of [[Indus Valley Civilization]] and Eastern Island. An image from ''The Indians And The Amerindians'' By Dr. S. Chakravarti.]]

Balaram Chakravarti writes, "The Lapita potteries which seem to be of [[Dānava]] origin seems to lend evidence to the stepping stone of Dānava migration from New-Britain to Fiji with an off-shoot in New-Caledonia."<ref> P. ii ''The Children of Abo Tani in India, Fiji, and Polynesia: An Account of the Migration of the Indian Dānavas and the Nāgas, and Their Contribution to the Efflorescence of Culture in Fiji and Polynesia, Volume 1'' By Balaram Chakravarti </ref>

Easter Island has stories among its natives of long-eared (''Hanau epe'') people having come there, led by Hotu Matu'a (''Great Parent'', a title given to their 'ariki' or ''king''.) The Hanau epe were said to have been from Hiva (''Far away land.'') The reason for their migration was a great flood. The Indus Valley Civilization was devastated and abandoned due to severe flooding. Together they had built the Moai monuments.

Elongated earlobes are a common feature in many depictions of devas, gandharvas, ṛṣis and others. Long and hanging earlobes are known as
''larhba-karṇa''. Even the ''Viṣṇu-koṣa''<ref> P. 311 ''Viṣṇu-koṣa'' By Śaligrama K Ramachandra Rao </ref> mentions it as a feature of Viṣṇu. Dr. B. A. Saletore had published in his book, ''The Wild Tribes in Indian History''<ref> P. 375 ''Indian Culture: Journal of the Indian Research Institute, Volume 2, Issues 1-2'' By I.B. Corporation </ref> about a tribe called the Labhakarṇas. It is not an unknown trait in Indian history and so it is likely that the Dānavas who arrived in Easter Island had elongated ears.

"''It has been suggested Easter Island ''rongorongo'' script arrived from Peru, South America and is related to the Indus River Valley dating back to 2000 BC which is likely since there were Indus River Valley migrations to Peru, South America, by 1500 BC or perhaps as early as 2000 BC. Many Harappan glyphs appear in both Peruvian and Easter Island scripts''." - Jeffrey L. Gross <ref> ''Waipio Valley: A Polynesian Journey from Eden to Eden'' By Jeffrey L. Gross </ref>

==Europe==
''See also: [[Hindu Temples in Europe]]''

At the time that the Indo-Iranians came into Europe, the natives of Europe were Palesgians in the Balkan Peninsula, Basques in Iberian Peninsula, Fins and Sami in Northern Europe and the Magyars to later become Hungarians, Estonians and Kami in Eastern Europe and several other non-Indo-European linguistic families within the Caucasus. With the influence on the Indo-Iranian comers, the Indo-European nations of Europe were born. Some identified groups that had come into Europe were [[Druyus]] (becoming the British Druids and German Druvis), Parthians (Thracians from Parthenope and some Irish from Partholonians) and Medians.

The reason why it was easy for the Indo-European languages to gain popularity among Europe's natives is because the native Europeans were nomads that relied on hunting and gathering, the Indo-Iranians were agarians that brought an agricultural revolution. [[Historical racial diversity of Hindus#Vedic period|DNA samples of the Yamnayas]] (mixed of Indo-Iranians and Europeans) show that they were not lactose intolerant whereas the European natives were. Thus, Indo-Iranians showed Europeans to be able to live sedentary lives opposite to foraging and constantly relocating.

The Sanskrit word ''[[Deva]]'' took on vernacular forms amongst European nations wherein it became ''Theo'' in Greek, ''Dio'' in Latin and Italian, ''Dios'' in Spanish, ''Deos'' in Portuguese, ''Déu'' in Catalan, ''Dieu'' in French, ''Dievs'' in Latvian, ''Dievas'' in Lithuanian, ''Duw'' in Welsh, and the words ''Deity'' and ''[[Divinity]]'' in English. Even the word 'devil' means ''slanderer'' ('il') ''of'' ''god'' ('dev') and its Latin version is 'deofel' wherein 'deo' means ''god'' and 'fel' means ''slanderer''. So ''[[Theology]]'' means the study of "''The study of Theo''" and ''Theism'' is "''The belief in Theo''". Further, the Sanskrit word '[[Asura]]' became ''Æsir'' for Scandinavia's worshipers of the Norse gods.

===Thrace===
[[image:Hekate and Gayatri.jpg|right|thumb|200px|Goddess Hekate's depictions look similar to those of a Hindu goddess.]]
The Thracians called their country 'Aria'<ref> P. 277 ''Encyclopedia britannica''; or, ''A dictionary of [[arts]], sciences, and miscellaneous literature'' by Colin Macfarquhar; George Gleig </ref> which means ''Noble''. It is a word which has much significance in Hinduism, including Buddhism and [[Jainism]]. In Hellenist mythology, Thrace was the offspring of Parthenope, the daughter of Olympian god Ares. The 'Parth' in the name Parthenope indicates Parthian and hence an Indo-Iranian origin. Goddess Hecate was portrayed as a multi-headed and multi-handed deity.

There were several tribes among Thracians. Originally there was one but as they expanded control of other territories in the Balkans, other nations became Thracianized. Hesychius notes that the Sindi tribe of Thracians was from India.<ref> P. 107 ''Asiatic Researches; Or, Transactions Of The Society, Instituted ..., Volume 10'' </ref> Sir W. Drummond was also of the same viewpoint. George Faber wrote that Thracians came from a frontier of India.<ref> P. 293 ''The Origin of Pagan Idolatry: Ascertained from Historical ..., Volume 2'' By George Stanley Faber </ref>

The Thracians inhabited this region even before the earliest Greeks<ref>They are Achaeans or Mycenaeans.</ref> made their way south to the present Greece.<ref> P. 37 ''Chronicles, Volume 21'' By Rockford Institute </ref> Thracians even preceded Greeks to important islands in the northern, central, eastern and eastern Aegean. This includes Thasos, Samothrace, Imbros, Lemnos, Euboea, Naxos, Lesbos and Chios.<ref> ''The Rise Of The Greeks'' By Michael Grant </ref>

The Sindi Colchi country, located in the Taman Peninsula, was known as Sindike and Sindikos, and its largest city was named Sinda. Greek writer Strabo referred to these Sindi as 'Sindoi'. Ancient Greek Pliny called it 'Scythia Sindica', Ptolemy as 'Indo-Scythia', and both Socrates and Stephanus as 'India'. Because the Thracians were also in the Aegean Sea, they were in Lemnos island. There was an ethnicity here named 'Sindians', whom Homer in his ''Iliad'' and ''Odyssey'' wrote, "spoke a strange language" and the Scholiast Thucydides wrote the Thracians are derived from India.<ref>''Iliad'' I.594; ''Odyssey'' VIII.294; P. 516 ''The History of India: As Told by Its Own Historians. The Muhammadan Period, Volume 1'' By Sir Henry Miers Elliot </ref>

"''We can firmly say that the Bulgarians had entered their present areas from Hindistan (India) in the most ancient times...and their migration took place much earlier than the division of the Aryan tribe in Hindistan.''" - Paisii Hilendarski<ref> vol. 4.369; P. 299 ''Myths and boundaries in southern-eastern Europe'' By Pal Kolsto</ref>

Francis Wilford claimed “that so early as B.C. 189, or before it, Hindus of both sexes were not uncommon in Greece: that they were settled in Colchis, and that the Sindi of Thrace came originally from India.”

===Greece===
[[image:Krishna_mosaic _Corinth.jpg|right|thumb|200px|Greek mosaic of Kṛṣṇa in his iconic cross-legged pose playing the flute by cows, from 2nd century CE, now found at Corinth, Greece.]]
[[image:Swastika_coin_Corinth.jpg|right|thumb|200px|Coin with Swastika issued at Corinth, Greece.]]
;Early Indo-Europeans in Greece
“''The whole of this state of society, civil and military, must strike anyone as eminently Asiatic; much of it specifically Indian. Such it undoubtedly is. . . these evidences were but the attendant tokens of an Indian colonization with its corresponding religion and language. . . the whole of Greece, from the era of the supposed godships of Poseidon and Zeus, down to the close of the Trojan war was Indian in language, sentiment and religion, as well as the arts of peace and war.''” - Edward G Pococke

The natives of Greece were Palesgians. From the academic influence of the Indo-Iranians in the region, the ancient Greek and Latin languages were established from which all the other Indo-European languages of Europe were created. This can be seen in the wars between the Olympian gods and the Titans. Scholar Ignatius Donnelly believes the conflict between the Olympians and Titans represented a war between the Olympians and Titans.<ref> P. 320 ''Atlantis: The Antediluvian World'' By Ignatius Donnelly </ref> Lewis Spence also mentions that the conflict between the Olympians and the Titans was of Aryans with non-Aryans with the Titans being projected as the latter.<ref> P. 59 ''The Magic [[Arts]] in Celtic Britain'' By Lewis Spence </ref>

;Philosophical contribution to Greece
"''We find that it (India) was visited for the purpose of acquiring knowledge by Pythagoras, Anaxarches, Pyrrho and others who afterwards became eminent philosophers in Greece.''" - Dr. William Enfield<Ref> P. 41 ''Bharātīya [[Vidyā]], Volume 51'' By [[Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan]]</ref>

Overtime, a link was established between Greece and India, wherein Greek scholars would visit India and learn from Hindu clergy. Count Bjornstjerna says that Greek philosophy was indebted almost wholly to the Hindu philosophy for its cardinal doctrines.<ref> P. 974 ''Indian Law Quarterly Review, Volume 5'' By Arora Law [[House]] </ref> From this cultural phenomena, Pythagorus founded Pythagorism, Orpheus founded Orphism and Plato founded Platoism. Orphism from 6th century BCE believed in reincarnation<Ref> P. xviii ''The Orphic Hymns'' By Apostolos N Athanassakis and Benjamin M Wolkow </ref>, a Supreme God.<Ref> P. xiv: 'The Orphic Hymns' By Apostolos N Athanassakis and Benjamin M Wolkow. </ref> Pythagorism from 5th century BCE believed in reincarnation<Ref> P. 2 ''Pythagoras and the Pythagoreans: A Brief History'' By Charles H. Kahn </ref>, a Supreme God<Ref> P. 97 ''Pythagoras and the Pythagoreans: A Brief History'' By Charles H. Kahn </ref>, promoted asceticism<Ref> P. 9 ''Pythagoras and the Pythagoreans: A Brief History'' By Charles H. Kahn </ref> and vegetarianism.<Ref> P. 9 ''Pythagoras and the Pythagoreans: A Brief History'' By Charles H. Kahn </ref> Platonism from 5th century BCE believed in reincarnation<ref> P. 377 ''The Middle Platonists, 80 B.C. to A.D. 220'' By John M. Dillon </ref> and a Supreme God.<ref> P. 199 ''The Middle Platonists, 80 B.C. to A.D. 220'' By John M. Dillon </ref> Although Orphism, Pythagorism, and Platoism spirituality are all Hindu, Western scholars note that non-Hindu spiritualties of Greek thought also demonstrate Hindu influence such as Stoicism<ref> ,'Experiencing World History'' By Paul Vauthier Adams, Erick Detlef Langer, Lily Hwa, Peter N. Stearns, Merry E. Wiesner-Hanks </ref> which advocated asceticism. These schools were in start opposition to the Cyrenaicism (Greek Hedonistic school), and was opposed to Stoicism in its metaphysics.

"''The Hindus were, in this respect, the teachers and not the learners.''" - Henry Colebrooke <ref> P. 974 ''Indian Law Quarterly Review, Volume 5'' By Arora Law [[House]] </ref>

When Greek scholars had spoken of philosophies of wisdom, they regarded amongst the highest as Orphism, Pythagoreanism and Platonism. Early Christian sects not only regarded Pythagorus as a prophet of God, but drew on Orphic, Pythagorean and Platonic, as well as Neo-Platonic Mystery schools.<ref> P. 77 ''Jesus: The Explosive Story of the 30 Lost Years and the Ancient Mystery'' By Tricia McCannon </ref> Plaethon not only stated that he preferred Indian Brahmans and Magi amongst the non-Greeks, but that "inspired men" like Pythagorus, Plato and other philosophers belonging to their school, notably Parmenides, Timaeus, Plutarch, Plotinus, Porphyry and Iamblichus were great people.<ref> P. 39 Hermes in the Academy: Ten Years' Study of Western Esotericism at the ... edited by Wouter J. Hanegraaff, Joyce Pijnenburg </ref>

The Grecianized version of 'Brahman' is ''Brachman'' and ''Bragmanni''. The ancient Greeks mention them in many instances when discussing spirituality, [[Hindu philosophies|philosophy]], [[astrology]], geopolitics and other steams of study. In about 270-303 CE, makes distinguishing statements among the gymnosophists wherein he describes differences amongst them.<ref> P. 133 ''The Bhilsa Topes; Or, Buddhist Monuments of Central India, Etc'' By Sir Alexander Cunningham </ref> Purchas had written that all the things observed by Nsturall Philosophers in Greece had been handled before, partly by the Brachmancs amongst the Indians.<ref> P. 2705 ''The Century Dictionary: An Encyclopedic Lexicon of the English Language, Volume 4'' edited by William Dwight Whitney, Benjamin Eli Smith </ref> A type of non combustible cloth made from stone was also said to have been used by the Brachmancs.<ref> P. 686 ''The Gentleman's Magazine and Historical Review, Volume 202'' By Sylvania Urban </ref> It later became used by some in Europe.

There were also Hindu monks that had visited Greece for the purpose of discussing philosophy. Zarmanochegas is the most known of these. In Greece, he had self-immolated himself to protest Alexander's invasion of India. His tomb in Greece reads, "Here lies Zarmanochegas an Indian, a native of Bargose, having immortalized himself according to the custom of his country."[http://www.ibiblio.org/britishraj/Jackson9/chapter01.html] Other Hindu sages that were in the company of Emperor Elagabalus also were written about.<ref> P. 6 ''Neoplatonic Saints: The Lives of Plotinus and Proclus by Their Students'' By Mark Edwards </ref>

;Worship of similar deities between Hindus and Hellenists
"''While Dionysus (Siva) is worshipped in the mountain, Heracles (Krsna) is worshipped on the plain, especially by the Surasenoi (Surasena), an Indian people who possess two towns, Methora (Mathura) and Kleisobora (Krsnapura)''" - Megastheses<ref> Arrian, Ind., VIII, 4; P. 393 ''History of Indian Buddhism: From the Origins to the Saka Era'' By Etienne Lamotte </ref>, Greek historian and ethnographer, 4th century BCE

The gods worshiped by Hellenists were similar to that of Hindus. Whereas Indra is called Vetethragna in the Avesta, and Vahagn by the Armenians, he's also known as Artagnes-Herakles in Commagene.<ref>P. 132 ''Opuscula Atheniensia, Volumes 2-3; Volumes 7-10; Volume 12; Volumes 14-15; Volume 17; Volume 27; Volume 37'' C.W.K. Gleerup., Nov 1, 1988 </ref> Many of the soldiers in Alexander of Macedonia's army readily became Hindu. "Close to 10,000 Greeks, who came in the wake of Alexander the Great, were Krishna's devotees. There is an inscription by Heliodorus, the Greek ambassador at Takshila , which reads Deva, deva, Vasudeva. Krishna is my god and I have installed this Garuda Pillar at Bes Nagar (now in Bihar)," says researcher T K V Rajan.[http://m.timesofindia.com/city/chennai/New-finds-take-archaeologists-closer-to-Krishna/articleshow/3898205.cms] Further, Hydaspes is written by Nonnus in his Dionysiaca as a son of the sea-god Thaumas and cloud-goddess Elektra. He was the brother of Iris the rainbow-goddess and half-brother of Harpies.[http://news.statetimes.in/the-journey-of-vitasta-river/]

;Other contribution of customs
"''Cremation was brought by barbarians from the East [India] to the Mediterranean basin about 2500–2000 BC, where previously the practice was unknown.''" - William Howels<ref> P. 43 ''Honoring God to the Very, Very, Very End!'' </ref>

[[Jyotiṣa|Astrology]] was also a science that Hindus spread with them in Greece. Philostratus tells how Iarbas the Brachman or Brahman gave Apolloneus of Tyans a set of rings for days of the week to maintain good health.<ref> Page 147 ''The Archaeological Journal - Volume 33'' By The Royal Anthropological Institute of Great Britain and Ireland </ref>

Apart from the Greeks having visited India for learning Hinduism and its ideals and customs, Indians had colonized Greece as the first Indo-Iranians in the country. They were the Danauna (also known as Aavaoi), who descend from King Danaus. This king has founded the city Argos, and from his descend figures like the Danai, who are Argives mentioned by Homer.<ref> P. 306 ''The Century Cyclopedia of Names: A Pronouncing and Etymological Dictionary of Names in Geography, Biography, Mythology, History, Ethnology, Art, Archaeology, Fiction, Etc., Etc., Etc'' By Benjamin Eli Smith </ref> They were also known as Achaians, who are mentioned separately from the people of Greece, the Hellenes, themselves because they were a foreign nationality.

===Austria, Germany & Netherlands===
"''The runes were brought to the Germans by the Brahmins of ancient India...The priestly caste of the Teutons was identical with the Brahmin caste''." - Guido von List<ref>P. 67 ''Das Geheimnis der Runen'' (1908) By Guido von List</ref>
Guido von List the Austrian wrote that the Germanic peoples were taught by Brahmans from India. He said the German priesthood descended from Indian Brahmans.<ref>"''The German priesthood descends from Indian Brahmins''." - ''Die Religion der Ario-Germanen'' (1910) By Guido von List</ref><ref>"''The Aryan Germans received their religion and social order from the Brahmins who migrated from India''."- P. 112 ''Die Religion der Ario'-Germanen'' By Guido von List </ref>

===France===
Fabre d'Olivet the Frenchman wrote that Gauls (Celtic peoples) were originally a colony of Brahmans from India.
"''The Gauls were a colony of Brahmins''." - Fabre d'Olivet<ref>''The Gauls were a colony of Indian Brahmins''''." - P. 45 ''La Langue Hebaique Restituee'' Vol. II (1815) By Fabre d'Olivet </ref>
François-Marie Arouet wrote the the Gauls and their Druids were taught by Indian Brahmans.
"''The Gauls had their Druids, who were Brahmins come from India''." - François-Marie Arouet<ref>Chapter 6 ''Philosophie de I'Histoire'' (1765) By François-Marie Arouet </ref>

===British Isles===
[[image:Brigid.jpg|right|thumb|200px|Goddess Brigid by artist Miranda Gray. The triple goddess’ depictions normally look similar to those of a Hindu goddess.]]
"''I fear we must class the descent of the Afghans from the Jews with that of the Romans, and the British from the Trojans, and that of the Irish from the Milesians or Brahmins.''" - Mountstuart Elphinstone<ref> [P. 278 "Asiatic Journal and Monthly Register for British and Foreign India, China and Australasia
Volume 28''] 1829 </ref>
Many Irish have written of an Indian influence on ancient Ireland including Mrs. Dorothy Chaplin and Madam Wilde.<ref>P. 33 ''Text Book of Indian Culture'' By Chaman Lal </ref> The Druids were the chief priests of the isles and their religion is known as Druidism. Godfrey Higgins wrote a book supporting that the Druids had come from India, titled ''The Celtic Druids, Or, An Attempt to Shew that the Druids Were the Priests of Oriental Colonies who Emigrated from India, and Were the Introducers of the First Or Cadmean System of Letters, and the Builders of Stonehenge, of Carnac, and of Other Cyclopean Works in Asia and Europe.'' They were a priestly hereditary group and are said to have been descended of the Brahman Druyus. The Druids had propitiated Danu because Druyu, their patriarch, was her great-great grandson as the son of [[Gagarin|King Yayati]] and [[Sarmishṭha|Queen Sarmishṭha]], who was a Danava (descendant of Danu.)

Being of Indian descent, Druids would have been Indo-European speakers and they likely would have been the first speakers of the language family in the British Isles. They had also worshiped the Thracian Hecate. One group of Indo-Iranians, according to Irish legends that emigrated were the Partholonians from Parthia.<ref> P. 7 ''The Book of Finglas'' By Seán Ó Broin; Other groups were Nemedians from Black Sea, Milesians are descendants of Milead (from his 3 sons Ir, Heremon, Heber, sent westward in search of Island of Destiny) from Iberia, Gailiuns, Liogarne and later arrivals to Moynalta were described as big, blond, fair-haired men of Teutonic origin, who came to Moynalta about the time of Alexander the Great. </ref> Druids were Partholonians because according to a legend, a person named Parthalon landed in Ireland three-hundred years after a mythic deluge and had brought with him three Druids named Fios, Folus and Fochmare.<ref>P. 229 ''Paradise Rediscovered: The Roots of Civilization, Volume 1'' By Michael A. Cahill </ref> They had come to Ireland from Midgonia.<ref>It is in Middle Greece.</ref>

"''The very name Druid is composed of two Celtic word roots which have parallels in Sanskrit. Indeed, the root vid for knowledge also emerges in the Sanskrit word Veda, demonstrates the similarity. The Celtic root dru which means 'immersion' also appears in the Sanskrit. So a Druid was the one 'immersed in knowledge.'''" - Peter Beresford-Ellis<ref> [http://druidry.org/druid-way/other-paths/druidry-dharma Druidism and the ancient Religions of India] </ref>

In history, the Druids were later pushed into Ireland and Scotland. "In Britain, the Kelts pushed the Albans into northern Ireland and northern Scotland.”<ref> P. 28 ''Footprints of the Welsh Indians and Sailors of the Past'' By William L. Traxel </ref> Druidism still survives today in the isles and revivalist efforts have been put forth by its followers.

"''The island [Britain] has long been pre-disposed of it's [[[Christianity]]] through the doctrines of the Druids and Buddhists who already inculcated the doctrine of the Godhead.''" - Christian cleric Origen, 3rd century CE

It is notable that there is a Druid named Arias, which even further strengthens the relationship between the Druids and Brahmans as Aria/Arya meant ''noble'' and was used in the ethical and spiritual sense even by the [[Buddha]] who referred to his creed as the [[Arya]] Astanga [[Dharma]] (''Noble Eight-fold Religion.'') Peter Berresford Ellis writes, "Moreover, we learn that in these four cities were 'four Druids who taught the Children of [[Danu]] skill and knowledge and perfect wisdom'. Morias dwelt in Falias; Urias 'of the noble nature' lived in Gorias; Arias the poet resided in Finias and Senias had his abode in Murias."<ref> P. 124 ''The Druids'' By Peter Berresford Ellis </ref>

The Druids were especially the priests of the Tuatha De Danann. D'Arbois translates ''Tuatha De Danann'' as "people of the god whose mother is called Danu."
Goddess Danu written of in Celtic spirituality is the same Danu from the [[Ṛgveda]]. The Danavas, upon leaving India, moved westwards to Iran (i.e., Parthia), then more westwards, which led them to arrive in Egypt. In Egypt, these Danavas are recorded in legend to have been banished from the country where in legend, King Ramses exiled his brother Danaus. From the exile, Danaus moved to Middle Greece and eventually to Ireland. George A. Christopoulos had also connected the Danaans and Danawois to the Danawos mentioned in the Avesta.

Englishmen Francis Wilford<ref>"''Britain was colonised by Brahmins from India...the Druids preserved Brahminical learning''." - ''On Egypt and Other Countries Adjacent to the Nile'' By Francis Wilford and Asiatic Researches (1798) </ref>, Thomas Maurice<ref>"'The Druids of Britain were Brahmins...the Celtic religion is nothing but a corrupted form of the Brahminical system brought from India''." - ''Indian Antiquities'' (Vol. VI) By Thomas Maurice (1793-1800)</ref>, and William Stukeley<ref>"''The Druids...were of the same patriarchal religion as Abraham and the Brahmins of India''." - ''Stonehenge'' (1740) and ''Abury'' (1743) By William Stukeley</ref> wrote of Brahmans in the Isles. Wilford said Brahmans colonized the isles and that Druids taught Vedic doctrines, Maurice that the Druids were Brahmans, and Stukeley that the Druids were Brahmans from the East.

Irishmen Charles Vallancey<ref>"''The Irish Druids were Brahmins...the ancient Irish are descendants of Hindoo colonists''." - ''Collectanea de Rebus Hibernicus'' (1770-1804) By Charles Vallancey</ref> and John Toland<ref>"''</ref> wrote of the Hindu connection too. Vallancey that the Irish Druids and their language were of Brahmans and Toland that the Irish Druids were Indian philosophers.

===Scandinavia===
[[image:Buddha, Helgö.jpg|right|thumb|200px|Statue of [[Buddha]] dated from 5th Century CE<Ref> [http://www.lionsroar.com/the-buddha-statue-found-in-an-ancient-viking-hoard/ How did a Buddha statue land in Viking hands? BY SAM LITTLEFAIR| MARCH 24, 2016] </ref> found on a Viking tombstone in Helgö, Sweden.]]

The Norse gods referred to god as 'Æsir'. The name of thunder-god Thor comes from 'Thortian' of the Zoroastrian ''Vendiad'' and the name derives it's form from the Vedic [[Trita]], who was known as Trita in the Avesta and then later as Traitana, then 'Thraetaona' and finally as 'Thortian' to the Zoroastrians. In Sweden's Helgö, a small Buddha statuette from North India dating from 6th century AD; was found in Viking's grave.<Ref> [http://irisharchaeology.ie/2013/12/the-helgo-treasure-a-viking-age-buddha/ "The Helgo Treasure: A Viking Age Buddha" by Colm]</ref>

===Eastern Europe===
The names of [[deities]] of Eastern Europe indicate a strong Hindu influence.
;Azerbaijan
Currently the Fire Temple of Baku is a site revered for its historic uniqueness which was established by Hindu priests from India in the 19th century. It was nominated by the Azerbaijani government for being recognized as a UNESCO Hindu Site. Currently there is an [[ISKCON]] temple in Baku[http://centers.iskcondesiretree.com/baku/], the country's capital city.

;Poland
Śivā is the name of a female deity in Poland, just as Śivā is the name of Kali Mātā of Hinduism, the wife of Śiva. Further, in Poland, "''Vogt in his lectures of Man assumes the Polish to be descended from Hindu sources..."<ref> P. 386 ''The Races of Europe: A Sociological Study (Lowell Institute Lectures)'''' By William Zebina Ripley </ref>

;Lithuania
{| class="wikitable sortable"
Table of gods worshiped in pre-Christian Lithuania:
|-
! Deity
! Vedic equivalent
! About god
|-
!Praamžius Dievas
|Prajapati
|The supreme or leader of the gods.
|-
! Dievas Senelis ("''Good Old Man''")
| Yama
|He is a teacher of people and judge of their morality. He looks like an old traveling beggar. Dievas Senelis is proficient at magic and medicine. Epithet of Dievas.
|-
!Perkūnas
|Prajanya
|Thunder, a son of Dievas ("dievaitis.")
|-
!Saulė
|Surya
|The Sun Goddess.
|-
!Ašvieniai
|Ashvins
|The divine twins who pulled the chariot of the Sun.
|-
|}

There is a Lithuanian folk song reminiscent of a Vedic tale.<Ref> P. 323 ''The Religion of the Ṛgveda'' By Hervey De Witt Griswold </reF>[https://gazetteers.maharashtra.gov.in/cultural.maharashtra.gov.in/english/gazetteer/Thana%20District/appendix.html]

;Russia
"''I also feel the great sympathy with modern Hinduism of [[Rama]] Krishna and Girikananda...''"<ref> P. 40 ''Christianity Today, Volume 11'' By Carl Ferdinand Howard Henry </ref> 
"''The mystico-religious elements in Indian culture didn't interest me much...The moral teachings of early Buddhism, the personality of the Buddha, the great ascetic life of Mahatma Gandhi, who blended ancient philosophies so harmoniously with modern conditions, fascinated me far more.''"<ref> ''Only One Year: A Memoir'' By Svetlana Alliluyeva </ref> - Svetlana Alliluyeva, ex-atheist daughter of Joseph Stalin

In Russia's Volga region during excavation, a 7th century AD Varāha statue was found in Staraya Maina village within the Ulyanovsk region.<Ref> [http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/world/rest-of-world/Ancient-Viṣṇu-idol-found-in-Russian-town/articleshow/1046928.cms "Ancient Viṣṇu idol found in Russian town"] </ref> This ancient area was highly populated city 1,700 years ago. Ulyanovsk State University's archaeology department Dr. Alexander Kozhevin's team had made the discovery after having excavated the area. A famous Russian historian had written that thousands of years before the 'Kiev-Rus' culture, from which Russian nation originated, there was a 'Vedic-Rus' which was characterized by an international Vedic culture.<ref> ''India’s Emerging Partnerships in Eurasia: Strategies of New Regionalism'' By Dr. Nivedita Das Kundu </ref> During the 14th century CE Indian gold coins were found in the Volga region near the village of Tenishevo indicating a flourishing trade between India and Russia.

==Americas==
Before reaching [[Editing The Spread of Hinduism#Oceania|Polynesia]], the Davanas passed through South America. Surprisingly, it seems they may have left a mark on the indigenous there because, like in Easter Island, the native language Aymara resembles an Indian language. In this case it is Sanskrit, which is bares similarities to the Aymara tongue spoken in Bolivian Andes mountain. Writers, such as the 19th century Vicente de Ballivián y Roxas, 20th century F.W. Christian<ref> P, 77 ''The Journal of the Polynesian Society
Volumes 1-22'' By Polynesian Society (N.Z.) </ref>, and 21st century ‎Geoffrey V. Davis, as well as others have written about this.

;USA
“''I didn't have a dorm room, so I slept on the floor in friends' rooms. I returned coke bottles for the 5¢ deposits to buy food with. And I would walk the 7 miles across town every Sunday night to get one good meal a week at the Hare Krishna temple. I loved it.''” - Steve Jobs, Stanford University conference in 2005<ref> [https://iskconnews.org/steve-jobs-and-the-krishna-connection,2907/ ''Steve Jobs and the Krishna Connection'' By Venkata Bhatta dasa (Vineet Chander) for ISKCON News on Oct. 7, 2011] </ref>

The USA has been the base for establishing several [[Hindu-oriented organizations]], such as ISKCON.

American-born converts to Sanatan Dharm promoted it by establishing their own institutions like specific monastic orders or sectarian temples. Ranked in order of most influential are James Donald Walters, Richard Slavin, Richard Alpert, David Frawley, Anthony Paul Moo-Young, Robert Hansen, Lawrence Miles, John Edwin Favors, Stephen Cope, Andrew Cohen, Leopold Fischer, Georg Feuerstein, Merle Roberson, and Christopher Isherwood.

{| class="wikitable sortable"
|-
! Person
! Sect or darshan affiliation
! Organizational affiliation
! Guru
! Disciplic succession
! Establishment
! Other achievement(s)
! Prominent compilation(s)
|-
|Andrew Cohen
|Neo-Advaita Vedanta
|
|H.W.L. Poonja
|No
|EnlightenNext[https://enlightennext.org/] (Moksha Foundation)
|
|''EnlightenNext'' magazine (formerly ''What Is Enlightenment?'')
|-
|Anthony Paul Moo-Young (Mooji)
|
|
|H.W.L. Poonja
|Yes (of H.W.L. Poonja)
|Monte Sahaja[https://mooji.org/monte-sahaja]
|
|
|-
|Chris Butler ('Jagad Guru Siddhaswarupananda Paramahamsa')
|Vaishnavism (Gaudiya)
|ISKCON
|Srila Prabhupada
|Yes (of Srila Prabhupada)
|Science of Identity Foundation[https://www.scienceofidentityfoundation.org/discover?language=en]
|
|
|-
|Christopher Isherwood
|
|
|Swami Prabhavanand
|
|Vedanta Society of Southern California[https://vedanta.org/]
|Translated ''⁠Bhagavad Gita'' and ''Vedanta for the Modern World''
|''My Guru and His Disciple'' (1980)
|-
|David Frawley ('Pandit Vamadeva Shastri')
|
|
|
|No
|American Institute of Vedic Studies[https://www.vedanet.com/]
|
|
|-
|Georg Feuerstein
|
|
|Adi Da Samraj
|No
|
|
|''The Yoga Tradition'' (1998), ''Tantra: The Path of Ecstasy''[https://in.yoga/wp-content/uploads/2021/09/Feuerstein-G.-Tantra.-Path-of-Ecstasy.pdf] (1998, 2001), ''The Philosophy of Classical Yoga'', ''The Deeper Dimension of Yoga'', ''The Shambhala Encyclopedia of Yoga'', ''In Search of the Cradle of Civilization'' 
|-
|James Donald Walters ('Swami Kriyananda')
|Neo-Vedanta
|
|
|
|Ananda Sangha[https://www.ananda.org/][https://anandamonastery.org/ananda-sangha/]
|Spread Kriya Yoga
|
|-
|John Edwin Favors ('Bhakti Tirtha Swami')
|Vaishnavism (Gaudiya)
|ISKCON
|
|
|iFast[https://ifastglobal.com/]
|
|
|-
|Leopold Fischer (Swami Agehanand Bharati)
|
|Dasnami Sampraday
|Swami Visvanand Bharati
|Yes
|
|
|''The Orche Robe'' (1962), ''The Titanic Tradition'' (1965), ''The Light at the Centre'' (1976)
|-
|Lawrence Miles ('Swami Shyam')
|Shaivism (Nath)
|Dasnami Sampraday
|Kriyananda, Ram Dass
|Yes
|International Nath Order[https://www.internationalnathorder.org/], Shyam Mission
|
|
|-
|Merle Antoinette Roberson ('Gangaji')
|
|
|
|
|Gangaji Foundation[https://gangaji.org/]
|
|''The Diamond in Your Pocket'', ''Hidden Treasure'', ''Freedom and Resolve''
|-
|Richard Alpert ('Ram Dass')
|Vedanta
|
|Neem Karoli Baba
|
|Hanuman Foundation[https://hanumanfoundation.org/]
|
|
|-
|Paul Muller-Ortega
|Shaivism (Kashmir)
|
|Swami Lakshman Joo
|
|Blue Throat Yoga[https://www.bluethroatyoga.com/]
|
|
|-
|Richard Slavin ('Radhanath Swami')
|Vaishnavism
|ISKCON
|Srila Prabhupada
|
|Govardhan Eco Village[https://www.ecovillage.org.in/]
|Established multiple educational and bhakti institutions
|
|-
|Robert Hansen ('Satguru Sivaya Subramuniyaswami')
|Shaivism (Siddhanta)
|
|Yogaswami
|Yes
|Saiva Siddhanta Church[https://www.himalayanacademy.com/saiva-siddhanta-church/], Himalayan Academy[https://www.himalayanacademy.com/]
|
|''Hinduism Today''[https://www.hinduismtoday.com/] magazine
|-
|Stephen Cope
|
|
|Amrit Desai
|Kripalu Centre for Yoga and Health[https://kripalu.org/]
|Integrated Vedanta/yoga ethics into Western therapeutic spirituality
|
|
|-
|Stephen Guarino ('Satsvarupa Dasa Goswami')
|Vaishnavism (Gaudiya)
|ISKCON
|Srila Prabhupada
|Yes
|
|
|''Śrīla Prabhupāda-līlāmṛta''[https://vedabase.io/en/library/spl/] (1978-83)
|-
|}

;Guyanas
Guyana, former British Guyana and Suriname, former Dutch Guyana, were the countries of many Hindu immigrants. Both have had Hindu leaders as heads of the government.

==Africa==
Technically [[The spread of Hinduism#Egypt|Egypt]] was the first part of Africa in which the Hinduism spread.

;South Africa
[[image:First Hindus Temple in South Africa.jpg|right|thumb|200px|The first Hindu Temple in South Africa was a very simple design. It was built in 1869 and is now a Protected Site by South African government.]] The first Hindu temple in South Africa was constructed in 1869.

;Ghana
[[image:Hindus in Ghana.jpg|right|thumb|200px|Hindus celebrating [[Ganesha Chaturthi]] in Ghana.<Ref> [http://drishtikone.com/hinduism-growing-in-africa-without-proselytizing/ ''Hinduism growing in Africa without Proselytizing'' by Desh Kapoor] </ref>]]
[[image:Hare Krishnas in Ghana.jpg|right|thumb|200px|Hare Krishnas chanting in Ghana.<Ref> [http://drishtikone.com/hinduism-growing-in-africa-without-proselytizing/ ''Hinduism growing in Africa without Proselytizing'' by Desh Kapoor] </ref>]]

==See also==
*[[List of UNESCO Hindu World Heritage Sites|UNESCO Hindu World Heritage Sites]]
*[[Hindu Temples in Europe]]
*[[Temples]]
*[[Pilgrimages]]
*[[Zoroastrianism and Hinduism]]
*[[Historical racial diversity of Hindus]]
*[[Indus Valley Civilization]]
*[[Hindu response to conversions]]
*[[Hindu-inspired organizations]]
*[[The Hindu Renaissances]]
*[[Buddhist patronage by Hindu kings]]
*[[Sufism with Vaishnavism]]
*[[History of ancient geography]]

==External resources==
*[http://hinduwisdom.info/Pacific.htm Pacific Waves]
*[http://hinduwisdom.info/Seafaring_in_Ancient_India.htm Seafarers]
*[https://www.myindiamyglory.com/2018/06/28/western-alphabet-modelled-after-an-indian-alphabet-3400-plus-years-ago-indologist-wim-borsboom/ “Western Alphabet Modelled after an Indian Alphabet 3400 Plus Years Ago – Indologist Wim Borsboom”]
*[https://www.thesun.co.uk/news/1411522/sorry-nazis-the-swastika-is-11000-years-old-and-indian/ "GET YOUR FACTS REICH Sorry Nazis, the swastika is 11,000 years old and INDIAN" By Jasper Hamill, 8th July 2016, 11:14 am]

==References==
{{reflist}}

[[Category: The spread of Hinduism]]
[[Category: Geography]]
[[Category: Hindu history]]

The Spread of Hinduism

2026-06-09T06:56:39Z

Himanshu Bhatt: /* Americas */ added new field for mentors

{{Author|Himanshu Bhatt}}
[[image:Submerged Indian coast.jpg|right|thumb|200px|Indian shoreline before submersion from sea levels increasing, which began after end of last ice age in 10000 BCE, devastating the [[Indus Valley Civilization]] and leading to an exodus.]]
[[image:Out of Eurasia diffusion.jpg|right|thumb|200px|Out of Eurasia theory of human dispersion contradicts the mainstream viewpoint known as Out of Africa and has gained ground among geneticists, and further supports Out of India theory and [[History of ancient geography|Hindu myths]] of the sons of Emperor Priyavrata inheriting the eastern world island from their father.]]
[[image:Human migration patterns.jpg|right|thumb|200px|M130 is believed to have originated in India, as well as others, such as M20 and M45.]]
[[image:IVC trade.jpg|right|thumb|200px|Trade of the IVC.]]
<blockquote>
“Hinduism the perennial philosophy that is at the core of all religions.” - Aldous Huxley
</blockquote>
[[Hindu]] teachings were spread not just by Indian Hindus migrating and preaching outside of the Indian Subcontinent, but also by visitors to India who came for understanding [[Hinduism|Hindu spirituality]]. This latter section includes Greek philosophers such as Pythagoras, Orpheus and Plato, who had all returned to Greece and preached the concepts of [[karma]], [[bhakti]], [[gyāna]], reincarnation and [[Mokṣa]]. Iranian philosophers such as Mani also visited India and later preached similar messages as the Greeks who had become Hindu.

Hindu scholars noted for their wisdom had further promoted the religion through becoming advisers to monarchs outside of India. [[Kingdoms]] Kucha<ref>It means Kumarayāna.</ref> and Tukhara<ref>It means Dhitika.</ref> in Central Asia, Mongolia<ref>It means Śakya Pandita.</ref>, Naiman<ref>It means Tatatungya.</ref> in Western Mongolia, Tibet<ref>It means Padmasambhava.</ref> and mainland China<ref> It means [[Bodhidharma]]. </ref>, all chose Indian [[Rulers in Hinduism|Hindu advisers]] who promoted [[Hinduism]] throughout their kingdoms. Soon an era came in which Greek philosophers describe that 'Greater India' came into being with cultural similarities between many regions outside India. Central Asia was known as Serindia, while from Burma to the Strait of Malacca became Indochina and the islands of the Strait of Malacca became Indonesia.

Around 4000-3000 BCE, is when exploration in the Indian Ocean had began, and the international regions to communicate with one another were India, Gulf (i.e., Mesopotamia), and Oman.<ref> P. 15 ''Indian Ocean In Antiquity'' By Julian Reade </ref> The curiosity of places outside of India and knowledge of trading routes had led to the Indian diaspora both from sea and land. Following this the [[Historical racial diversity of Hindus#Integration of Indian Hindu migrants with Europeans|Yamnaya culture of Europe]] that prospered from 3500-2500 BCE, which consisted of mixed peoples from both Indo-Iranian and native European ancestry was established around 3500-3200 BCE. Hindu scholars, including scientists and missionaries, remained explorers and documented the [[History of ancient geography|various geographies of global places]] wherein they traveled.

Of the Indian Hindus in the ancient times that established colonies abroad, noteworthy are the [[Danavas]] of Sind province that, with their navigation expertise, had settled in various places where they had come to be been known as Danuna, Danunites, Danaoi, Danaus, Danaids, Dene, Danai, Danaian, and Dananns. Historians have noted tribes with the demonym 'Sindi' among the Thracians, Colchis, and both ancient and modern Kurds.

With the spread of British colonialism in the modern era, many Indians started regularly traveling and emigrating to other British colonies outside of India. Many others also traveled to other colonies, such as of France and Netherlands. Resulting from this diffusion and establishment of communities abroad, Indian Hindus have gone on to democratically achieve becoming leaders of countries such as Guyana, Suriname, Fiji and Mauritius. From colonialism, Europeans also received the opportunities to travel to India and then [[Hindu-inspired organizations|share spiritual ideas]] with Western nations. As such, the establishment of the [[Theosophical Society]] by Helena Blavatsky and [[Agni]] [[Yoga]] by Nicholas Roerich. The modern age has given a boost to Hinduism through [[Hindu-inspired organizations|organizations]] such as the [[Hare Krishna]]s, [[Ananda Margi]]s, [[Brahma Kumari]]s and others. [[Yoga]] has spread now and is practiced by many non-Hindus for improving and maintaining both physical and mental health.

<blockquote>
“South Asia, which is where Bos Indicus (zebu cattle) originated, was not isolated during this period. People seem to have migrated from the Indus Valley civilization into Central Asia around the same time as the climatic effect that happened around 4,200 years ago. This may have introduced zebu cattle ancestry into Near Eastern cattle populations.” - Iosif Lazaridis, Harvard Medical School geneticist<ref> [https://www.natureasia.com/en/nmiddleeast/article/10.1038/nmiddleeast.2019.100 "Ancient cattle DNA reveals a bullish tale"] By Lara Reid, Published online 12 July 2019 </ref>
</blockquote>

The influence of Hindus and Moksh-based religions to the history of the world is definitely undeniable. Mahatma Gandhi changed the world forever and his message of peaceful non-cooperation to obtain freedom and justice was implemented by other freedom fighters in former colonies, and by notable figures towards national reform as in the cases of Martin Luther King Junior and Aung San Suu Kyi. Time Magazine ranked him as number 54 on the list the most significant figures in all of history[https://ideas.time.com/2013/12/10/whos-biggest-the-100-most-significant-figures-in-history/], on the list of the important 20th century persons while WondersList[https://www.wonderslist.com/10-most-influential-people-of-the-20th-century/#:~:text=1%20Albert%20Einstein.%20Most%20Influential%20People%20of%2020th,9%20Princess%20Diana.%20...%2010%20Alexander%20Fleming.%20] as number 5 for that list, Time as number 9 for one of history’s most important leaders[http://content.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,988159,00.html], BBC as one of the most important philosophers, and other sources like Historyplex[https://historyplex.com/influential-people-in-history] as one of the most important persons overall in all of history.

==Middle East==
[[image:Ancient_Ariana_lands.jpg|right|thumb|200px|Ancient Greek historian Aelianus in ''De natura animalium'' (16.16), also mentions that there were "Indian Arianians" and there is some suggestion that control of Ariana fluctuated between Indian and Arian Arianians.]]
"''Slowly and gradually, it dawned upon them that the language of the ''Gatha'' and Zendavesta has very great kinship with the [[Sanskrta]] language; when the grammar of Panini, Katyayana, and Patanjali was applied then the Gatha and Zendavesta came to be understood by the westerners. The lesson from this amazing fact is clear that once the Iranians of the ''Gatha and Zendavesta'' and the Indo-Aryans of the [[Vedas]] formed one single race, speaking language akin to Samskrta. Indeed this is clear from the city tablets found in Tell-El-Amarna in Egypt and Boghaz Keui in Asia Minor. On the tablets are mentioned Indra, Varuna, Mitra and Nasatya as witnesses of the treaty between the King Subiluliuma of the Hittites, and the Mitanni King Mattiwaza. These tablets date to about 1600 B.C. These tablets clearly indicate that these Vedic gods who were quite familiar in the region about 1600 B.C. and that the people living there then had more or less a common religion''." - Yaqub Masih<ref> P. 21-22 ''A Comparative Study of Religions'' By Y. Masih </ref>

The process of Hinduism spreading in the Middle East is whereby Hindus left India and had traveled to regions within the ancient Neat East and had preached the doctrine and customs. Hindus of Mitanni were Hurrians while those of Anatolia were Hittites, those of Levant the Hurus and those of Egypt, the Hyksos.

{{Cquote|Ketumalavarsha indeed extends from Romakapura to [the] Gandhamadana [mountain].|4=Srimad Bhagavatam}}

===Iranian Plateau===
''See also: [[Zoroastrianism and Hinduism]]''
[[image:Vishnu statue Mashad.jpg|right|thumb|200px|Statue of Vishnu sitting cross-legged while holding conch and lotus (underneath peacock) at mosque in Mashad, Khorasan, Iran.]]
[[image:Agathocles Indo-Bactrian coin.jpg|right|thumb|200px|One of Greco-Bactrian Empire's coins from King Agathocles Dikaios issued around 190-180 BCE, featuring Balarama (left) and Krishna (right) holding [[Dharmachakra]].<Ref> P. 330 ''The Serpent The Eagle The Lion & The Disk'' By Brannon Parke </ref>]]
[[image:Kadphises Kushan coin.jpg|right|thumb|200px|Four of Kushan Empire's coins from King Vima Katphisa issued around 166-230 CE, featuring Shiva with his bull attendant. They read, "[Coin] of the great King Vima Kathphisa, the king of kings, lord of all the world, the Mahavesvara."<ref> P. 370'' Studies in Indian Coins'' By D.C. Sircar </ref>]]
[[image:Lakshmi displayed on coin.jpg|right|thumb|200px|Hunnic Empire's coin of Bactria in Brahmi from 400-500 CE displaying Lakshmi holding a lotus in one hand and a cornucopia in the other.]]
[[image:Hindu Temple Bandar Abbas.jpg|right|thumb|200px|Vaiśnava temple in Bandar Abbas, southern Iran. The temple was built in 1892 particularly for the recent Indian immigrants, many of whom were merchants and soldiers. In 1965 the temple was vacant as Indians emigrated. Whereas temples are usually made by stone, dew the climate of Bandar Abbas, rubble stones, mortar, coral rock, soil material and plaster was used in this temple’s construction.]]

;Movement of Indians into Iran
<blockquote>
"Slowly and gradually, it dawned upon them that the language of the ''Gatha'' and Zendavesta has very great kinship with the Sanskrta language; when the grammar of Panini, Katyayana, and Patanjali was applied then the Gatha and Zendavesta came to be understood by the westerners. The lesson from this amazing fact is clear that once the Iranians of the ''Gatha'' and ''Zendavesta'' and the Indo-Aryans of the Vedas formed one single race, speaking language akin to Samskrta." - Yaqub Masih<ref> P. 21-22 ''A Comparative Study of Religions'' By Y. Masih </ref>
</blockquote>

Ancient Iranian lands had a diversity of spiritual beliefs and the religions included Zoroastrianism, Manicheism, Yazdanism, Mandeanism and others. As the original Indo-Iranian homeland was eastwards in the [[Himalayas]], the nations of those areas spread westwards and found existing non-Indo-European peoples there such as Kasodians in Gilan, Taporians in Mazandaran, Urartians in the Caucus Mountain Range, Turukkus, Kassites and Lolobites in the Zagros Mountain Range and Elamites on the southern shoreline. The Turkic groups were known collectively to the natives as the 'Turani'<ref>They were called '[[Turiya]]' in the Avesta.</ref> and they were [[Danava#Turkic affiliation|associated with Dānu]], just as the Tarukṣas coming into India were too. The non-Indo-Iranians (or non-Aryans) were known to the Aryans as 'Anariakoi' (''non-Aryan people''), and this was the term documented by Greek writers for Hyrcanians<ref> P. 25 ''An Inquiry Into the Ethnography of Afghanistan: Prepared and Presented to ...'' By Henry Walter Bellew </ref> and others. Overtime, the Indo-Iranian cultural significance in the societies of the plateau led to the formation of Indo-Iranian nations that were native to the region (i.e., [[The spread of Hinduism#Mitanni|Hurrians]], Baluchis, Armenians.) A Turani monarch had however opposed the Indo-Iranian influence on the plateau and invaded Balkh.<ref>It is in northern Afghanistan.</ref> After its conquest both its king and the king's close friend Zarathustra were executed by invading Turanis.<ref> P. 62 ''Mute [[Dreams]], Blind Owls, and Dispersed Knowledges: Persian Poesis in the Transnational Circuitry'' By Michael M. J. Fischer </ref>

Sir William Jones notes:
<blockquote>Thus it has been proved by clear evidence and plain reasoning that a powerful monarch was established in Iran long before the Assyrian or Pishadi government. That it was in fact, a '''Hindu monarchy''', though any may choose to call it Cusian, Casdean or Scythian..."<ref> P. 133 ''The works of Sir William Jones: with the life of the author by Lord Teignmouth in Thirteen Volumes Volume 3'' By Sir William Jones </ref> </blockquote>

;Closeness between religions of Iran to Hinduism
Zoroastrianism, which is also known as ''Mazdayasna'' (''Sacrifice to [[Asura|Ahura Mazda]]'') and as ''Vehdin'' (''Good Religion''), resembles Hinduism in many ways, such as in its origin, beliefs (i.e., common [[deities]]) and iconography. Dr. Mills says, "The Avesta is nearer the [[Veda]] than the [[Veda]] to its own epic [[Sanskrit]]." Major gods or yazatas<ref>Yazatas means ''venerable ones''.</ref> included Varuṇa and [[Mitra]]. Zarathustra (Greek: Zoroaster) Spitama was an Athravan priest, a descendant of the Vedic Atharvans. The swastika has been a popular symbol throughout the history of Iran and it has been called by Persians, "The four horses of [[Mitra]]."

Among the followers of Zoroastrianism, while the scriptures do not mention the idea of [[re-incarnation]], it is not denied either<ref> ''Textual Sources for the Study of Zoroastrianism'' edited by Mary Boyce </ref> and some Zoroastrians of India<ref>It is particularly members of the Parsi Theosophy.</ref> believe in reincarnation.<ref> P. 264 The Parsis of India: Preservation of Identity in Bombay City By Jesse S. Palsetia </ref> Some esoteric Parsi mystics such as Beaman adhered to the belief in reincarnation.<ref> P. 178 Parsis in India and the Diaspora edited by John Hinnells, Alan Williams </ref> The belief in karma and re-incarnation are perpetuated in the ''Desatir'', wherein it declares that those who are happy now have done good deeds in a previous life while those who suffer now have done bad deeds in former life.<ref>P. 522 ''The British Critic: A New Review, Volume 20'' </ref> It is therefore discredited as a Mazdaean work.

Of Mandeans, Chevalier Emerys writes, "Modern Johannite Mandean Christians of Iraq, also known as Nazoreans, still believe in the doctrine of reincarnation and also teach that Jesus was the reincarnation of the prophet Melchizedek."<ref>P. 49 Revelation of the Holy Grail By Chevalier Emerys </ref> The Mandeans also believe in reincarnation of the human, if a human does not marry within his or her lifetime.<ref>P. 41 ''Gnostic Ethics and Mandaean [[Origins]]'' By Edwin M. Yamauchi </ref> Islamic Druzism believes in reincarnation, and is named after Persian Batinite missionary named Muhammad bin Ismail Nashtakin ad-Darazi. Muslim Shah Ismail the Persian Sultan was one of the founders of Alevism or the "People of Fire" and this Islamic sect believes in reincarnation. The Islamic sects of Shabak, Bajalan, Sarli, and Kakais are also very closely affiliated with Iranians and has a belief in re-incarnation.

After the Islamization of the Iranian Plateau, some intellectuals resisted and established their own new religions, which contained some hindu ideas and some other themes that they were familiar with. This includes, Yarsanism (Ahl-e Haqq) established in the 14th century by Sultan Sahak as a Yazdan sect and Baha'ism by Bahá'u'lláh in the 19th century. Whereas both traditional Hinduism and [[Buddhism]] were popular in the eastern part of the Iranian Plateau, Mithraism became popular within Zoroastrianism particularly in the western part. From here the popularity of the god Mitra spread to Assyria, Anatola and Europe. The Avesta declares, "This Mitra, the lord of the wide pastures, I have created as worthy of sacrifice, as I, Ahura Mazda, am myself."<ref>P. 1xi ''The Zend-Avesta: The Sîrôzahs, Yasts, and Nyâyis'' edited by James Darmesteter, Lawrence Heyworth Mills </ref> Philosopher Mani of Persia had spent time in India, and after having accepted the ideas of re-incarnation and [[Means to Salvation|the three paths to Mokṣa]], he began preaching of them in Iran. His set of beliefs are called Manicheism.

;Association of regions within Iranian Plateau to India
The Zoroastrian Vendidad reads, "The country of Hind extends from east of the Indus to west of it." This, India in the Vendidad's definition includes Baluchistan and Seistan.

Ancient Persians called the regions stretching from Hormuz to Baluchistan as 'Hind'<ref>It is the original name of India.</ref> because those areas had more in common with India than with the other Iranian cultures located west to them. King Dhrishataketu of Kaikeya Kingdom married Śrutakirtti and had by her Santarddana, and four other sons, known together as the five Kaikeyas. The Kaikeyas were a major dynasty in India and it was on both sides of the Indus River. The Anava Kingdom of Uśinara Sibi, extended from Baluchistan to the Punjab. Even modern times Sibi is a district within Baluchistan.

Further, the Helmand region of Afghanistan was called by Persians as 'White India'. Siestan was also referred by Greek philosophers to as White India. Referring to the peoples of this region, Alexander called them, "the Indians on this side of the [[Indus River|river Indus]]."<ref>P. 128 ''Handbuch der Orientalistik. Abt. 1, Der Nahe und der Mittlere Osten, Bd 8, Religion, Abschnitt 1, Religionsgeschichte des Alten Orients, Lief. 2. H. 2, A history of Zoroastrianism, Vol. 3, Zoroastrianism under Macedonian and Roman rule'' By Mary Boyce; Frantz Grenet</ref>

Overtime, the natives of this region stayed and many became Buddhist in modern-day Afghanistan and the Afghans turned Kandahar into a Buddhist pilgrimage center which was visited by devout Buddhists from China and Indonesia. While Takśaśila was a city in east of the Indian river on the Iranian side, there were other important centres. The two great Indian grammarians [[Panini]] and [[Patanjali]] have mentioned a number of north-western cities like Balkh or Vahika, Kapisa, Pushkalavati, Masakavati, Takśaśila and Sakala. Takśaśila was the greatest and most flourishing city.<ref> P. viii ''A History of Indian Civilization: Ancient and classical traditions'' By Radhakamal Mukerjee, Gurmukh Ram Madan, Viśvaprakāśa Gupta</ref>

;Modern Relations between the Plateau and Hinduism
Hare [[Krishna]]'s founder [[A.C. Bhaktivedanta Swami Prabhupada]] traveled to Tehran in 1976. Since 1977, [[ISKCON]] runs a vegetarian restaurant in Tehran.

===Assyria===
Assyria was known as Asuristan.<Ref> P. 10 ''The [[Sound]] System of Modern Assyrian (Neo-Aramaic)'' By Edward Y. Odisho </ref> The name of Assyria comes from Rigvedic 'Asurya', the original name of the sun-god [[Surya]]. Syrians still to this day, pronounce the name of Syria as '[[Surya]]'. Hence, Assyria's name would have been pronounced as 'Asurya'.

In the 6th century CE, the Lower Euphrates was known as 'India within land' or just 'Hind' (India) in general.<ref> P. 421 ''Gazetteer of the Bombay Presidency: Tha'na (2 pts.) Volume XIII, Part II'' By Government Central Press </ref> Oderic in 1320 CE also speaks of the Lower Euphrates as 'India within land'. Much like how the [[Indus Valley Civilization|Indus River Civilization]] had priest-kings as ruler of certain towns and cities, Assyria too had a priest-prince ruler. Hence, from the Indian Hindu influence, [[Parshurama]] is also believed to have been worshiped in the region. In the ancient Sumerian [[Social Structure|social structure]] as well, there was a leader of the Baramas (i.e., [[Brahmana]]s) named Bur-Sin and the belief by some scholars is that he is Parshurama.

The patriarchal god of the Assyrians was Assur, who is always portrayed on a winged chakkra-sun or sundisk, just as the frahavars<ref>Frahavars means angels.</ref> of Iranian spirituality are shown. The Assyrians, referred to a [[dharmachakra|chakkra]] as a wheel. The cultural and political capital of the Assyrians was Assur, named after the god. Assur was also known as ''Asara Mazas''<ref>For them some scholars believe that they origin from the proto-Indo-Iranian form ''[[Asura]] Mazdas''.</ref><ref> ''History of Civilizations of Central Asia: The development of sedentary and nomadic civilizations: 700 B.C. to A.D. 250'' By Ahmad Hasan Dani </ref> Furthermore, god Enki was also known as Masda and Masenda. God Assur had later been identified within Judeo-Christian Biblical mythology as Ashur, the son of Shem.

It is believed that Europe had borrowed the planetary names for the week's days that the Babylonians used. Babylon was a part of the Assyrian Empire. When Hindus had spread to Assyria, they had brought this system of the week with them.

{| cellspacing="1" style="width:100%;" class="wikitable sortable"
|-
| || Sunday || Monday || Tuesday || Wednesday || Thursday || Friday || Saturday
|-
|Planet
| style="width:12%;"| Sun
| style="width:12%;"| Moon
| style="width:12%;"| Mars
| style="width:12%;"| Mercury
| style="width:12%;"| Jupiter
| style="width:12%;"| Venus
| style="width:12%;"| Saturn
|-
| [[Hindu gods|Hindu deity]]
| [[Ravi]]
| [[Soma]]
| [[Mangala]]
| [[Buddha]]
| [[Guru]]
| [[Shukra]]
| [[Shani]]
|-
|Mazdaen deity<ref> P. 253 ''The Wiley-Blackwell Companion to Zoroastrianism'' By Michael Stausberg, Yuhan Sohrab-Dinshaw Vevaina, [[Anna]] Tessmann </ref><REF> P. 37 ''Persian Architectural Heritage: Architecture, Structure and Conservation'' By Mehrdad Hejazi, Fatemeh Mehdizadeh Saradj </REF>
|Mitra
|
|Vrarayna
|Tiriya
|Ahura Mazda
|Ardvi Anahita [[Sura]]
|Kayvanu
|-
|Assyrian deity<ref> P. 253 ''The Wiley-Blackwell Companion to Zoroastrianism'' By Michael Stausberg, Yuhan Sohrab-Dinshaw Vevaina, [[Anna]] Tessmann </ref>
|
|
|Nergal
|Nabu
|Marduk
|Ishtar
|Kajamanu
|-
| Greco-Roman deity
| style="width:12%;"| Helios-Sol
| style="width:12%;"| Selene-Luna
| style="width:12%;"| Ares-Mars
| style="width:12%;"| Hermes-Mercury
| style="width:12%;"| Zeus-Jupiter
| style="width:12%;"| Aphrodite-Venus
| style="width:12%;"| Cronus-Saturn
|-
|}

The Assyrians had referred to India as ''Melluhha''. This comes from the name Mallhu and Malla, which many kings in India, particularly western India and Baluchistan have been called. There was even Mount Malleus mountain that Sind<ref> ''Studia Orientalia, Volume 64'' </ref> was known for having. Even the coast of Kerala is known as Malankara.

===Mitanni===
[[image:Nefertitti image at Amarna.jpg|right|thumb|200px|Mural of Nefertiti found at Amarna in 1912. She was an Indo-Aryan princess from Mitanni, who married an Egyptian Pharaoh Amenhotep IV (Akhnaton), and reigned ca. 1353-1336 BCE.]]

Today this region is known as Kurdistan. In the ancient times, the inhabitants of Mitanni were known as Hurrians. In the Judeo-Christian Bible, they are known as the Horites.<ref> P. 64 ''The Hebrew Pharaohs of Egypt: The Secret Lineage of the Patriarch Joseph'' By Ahmed Osman </ref> Sanskritic interpretations of Mitanni names render the following:
* Artashumara (artaššumara) - It means that it is as [[Arta]]-smara "who thinks of [[Arta]]/Ṛta".<ref>Mayrhofer II 780</ref>
* Biridashva (biridaša, biriiaša) - It means that it is as Prītāśva "whose horse is dear".<ref>Mayrhofer II 182</ref>
* Priyamazda (priiamazda) - It means that it is as Priyamedha "whose wisdom is dear".<ref>Mayrhofer II 189, II378</ref>
* Citrarata as [[citraratha]] - It means that it is "whose chariot is shining".<ref>Mayrhofer I 553</ref>
* Indaruda/Endaruta - It means that it is as Indrota "helped by Indra".<ref>Mayrhofer I 134</ref>
* Shativaza (šattiaza) - It means that it is as Sātivāja "winning the race price".<ref>Mayrhofer II 540, 696</ref>
* Šubandhu as Subandhu - It means that it is like 'having good relatives".<ref>It is a name in Palestine.</ref><ref>Mayrhofer II 209, 735</ref>
* Tushratta (tišeratta, tušratta, etc.) - It means that it is as taišaratha, Vedic Tveṣaratha "whose chariot is vehement".<ref>Mayrhofer I 686, I 736</ref>

Apart from Queen Nefertiti, Ramesid pharaohs were also of Mitanni descent.<Ref> P. 85 ''Arshile Gorky Adoian'' By Karlen Mooradian </ref>

===Hatti===
The Hittites or Nesili, whose empire was known as 'Hatti' and 'Kadesh', had believed in re-incarnation as attested by their writings. They [[worshiped]] the Devas like [[Indra]], [[Nasatyas]] (Ashvins), [[Mitra]] and [[Varuṇa]]. This is confirmed by the Suppiluliuma-Shattiwaza Treaty between the Hittites and Hurrians. The beleaguered Tusratta was then murdered by his son in a palace coup. Tusratta's other son, Prince Shattiwaza, fled Mitanni and was eventually given sanctuary by the Hittite King Suppiluliuma with whom he concluded a treaty 1380 BCE, which we know as the Suppiluliuma-Shattiwaza Treaty discovered in 1907 CE in Hattusa near present-day Bogazkale (Boğazkale, formerly Bogazköy) in north-central Turkey. In the treaty, the Hittite King Suppiluliuma agreed to assist Shattiwaza to gain the Mitanni throne. The Hittites captured the Mitanni capital Wassukanni after a second attempt and installed Shattiwaza as a vassal king.

The Suppiluliuma-Shattiwaza Treaty is a source of considerable information about the Mitanni. In addition, it gives us some astonishing information about the religious practices of the Mitanni for it invokes the Indo-Iranian pantheon of [[Asuras]] and Devas Mitras(il) (Mitra), Uruvanass(il) (Varuṇa), Indara (Indra) and the Nasatianna (Nasatyas.) In the Judeo-Christian Bible, the Hitties are assimilated to have been descended from Heth, the son of Ham.

===Levant===
The Levant region includes countries of the Mediterranean coast which are located at the southwest Asian area. The Hindus here were an Indo-Aryan speaking population called as the Huru.

===Egypt===
:''See also: [[Danava]]''
<blockquote>
"One of the oldest colonies founded by the Hindus was in Egypt" - G. R. Josyer<ref> P. 104 ''Astrological Magazine, Volume 73, Issues 1-6'' 1984 </ref>
</blockquote>
The Hyksos were an Indo-Aryan dynasty, according to the scholars such as Sam Kerr<ref> P. 15 ''Cyrus the Great - Celestial Sovereign'' By Sam Kerr </ref> and M. Chahin<Ref> P. 28 ''The Kingdom of Armenia: A History'' By M. Chahin </ref>. They had come to Egypt and settled within its Delta region in about 1674-1547 BCE<ref> P. 28 ''The Kingdom of Armenia: A History'' By M. Chahin </ref> and within a few centuries dominated the country. Much cultural exchange happened during the period of their rule.
<blockquote>
“Egypt was colonized from India, and the priests of Egypt were of the same order as the Brahmins of India.” - Godfrey Higgins<ref> p. 121 ''Anacalypsis: An Attempt to Draw Aside the Veil of the Saitic Isis'' (Vol. I) By Godfrey Higgins </ref>
</blockquote>
Excavations in El-Amarna in Egypt have yielded the fact that around the 14th-15th centuries BCE, kings and princes with Vedic-like names were ruling in the region of modern day Syria. Some of the names are Artamanya, Aryavirya, Yashodatta, Suttarna and Dushratta. Thutmose IV had married a daughter of Artatma, the King of the Mitanni Kingdom. A letter addressed by Dushratta, Artatama's grandson, written to Akhnaton, says that it was not until Thutmose asked seven times that King Artatma agreed to his marriage proposal. Amenhotep III married Tiy, daughter of Yuaa<ref>He is a foreigner "from North Syria".</ref> and Tuau. During this time in Egyptian history, the ruling aristocracy of Egypt, were of mixed Egyptian and Mitanni ancestry. According to Akhnaton, Aton was both the male and female. He says to Aton, "Father and Mother of all that You have made." This parallels with the Hindu terms for the sun-god, Savita<ref>He is the male form.</ref> and Savitri<ref>She is the female form.</ref> or the sun and the sun's energy ([[Puruṣa]] and [[Prakṛti]].)

The Hyksos were descendants of the Indian Danavas. They're written of in Egyptian, Hittite, and Hellenic accounts under the names Danuna, Danunites, Danaoi, Danaus, Danaids, Dene, Danai, and Danaian.<ref> P. 218 ''Sea Peoples of the Bronze Age Mediterranean c.1400 BCÂ?1000 BC'' By Raffaele DÂ?Amato, Andrea Salimbeti </ref> In mythology it was Ramses III who exiles them from Egypt, whereby they take refuge in Greece and spread further into Europe from there.

Burials have been uncovered of Indian monkeys, leading archaeologists to believe that they were imported from India.<ref> [https://www.heritagedaily.com/2020/08/ancient-animal-burials-in-egypt-were-monkeys-imported-as-pets-from-india/134834 ANCIENT ANIMAL BURIALS IN EGYPT WERE MONKEYS IMPORTED AS PETS FROM INDIA] (August 25, 2020) By HeritageDaily </ref>

===Arabian Peninsula===
This region was historically known to Indians as Arabaka or Arvasthān.<ref>It means the ''Land of Horses''.</ref> Before the Islamization of the region beginning with [[Islam]]'s prophet Mohammed, peoples here more freely practiced their spirituality. Mohammed's own uncle, Umar-bin-e-Hassham had died for his devotion to [[Śiva]]. Among his writings, one poem of him depicting his faith in Śiva, has been found. It has come to be known as the "Śiva Stuti." The poem reads as follows:

{| class="wikitable sortable"
|-
! English
! Arabic
|-
|
:The man who may spend his life in sin
:and irreligion or waste it in lechery and wrath
:If at least he relent and return to
:righteousness can he be saved?
:If but once he [[bhakti|worship]] Mahadeva with a pure
:heart, he will attain the ultimate in spirituality.
:Oh Lord [[Shiva]] exchange my entire life for but
:a day’s sojourn in India where one attains salvation.
:But one pilgrimage there secures for one all
:merit and company of the truly great.
|
:Kafavomal fikra min ulumin Tab asayru
:Kaluwan amataul Hawa was Tajakhru
:We Tajakhayroba udan Kalalwade-E Liboawa
:Walukayanay jatally, hay Yauma Tab asayru
:Wa Abalolha ajabu armeeman '''Mahadeva'''
:Manojail ilamuddin minhum wa sayattaru
:Wa Sahabi Kay-yam feema-Kamil MINDAY Yauman
:Wa Yakulum no latabahan foeennak Tawjjaru
:Massayaray akhalakan hasanan Kullahum
:Najumum aja-at Summa gabul '''Hindu'''
|-
|}

Umar-bin-e-Hassham had the title of 'Abul Kaham', which in Arabic means ''doctor''.<Ref> P. 705 ''World Vedic heritage: a history of histories : presenting a unique unified field theory of history that from the beginning of time the world practiced Vedic culture and spoke [[Sanskrit]], Volume 1'' By Puruṣottam Nagesh Oak </ref> It is a fact that the Kaaba was worshiped in by non-Muslims before Islam. It is believed by some that before the Kaaba was Islamicized and made a pilgrimage for only Muslims, it was a Śiva temple. Umar-bin-e-Hassham is known to have been a priest at Kaaba. His composition was a part of the ''Sair-ul-Okul'' compiled by Labi-bin-e-Akhtab bin-e Turfa, which contained verses composed by multiple authors.

''The Encyclopedia Islamia'' admits: "''Muhammed's grandfather and uncles were hereditary priests of the Kaaba temple which housed 360 [[idols]]!''" Besides the Arabian Umar-bin-e-Hassham having been a priest at the temple, another point that some people make is that the black stone at the Kaaba is actually a Śivalinga.

[[Kṛṣṇa]] was also worshiped in Arabia and his tale is written in an Islamic Hadith. The text titled, ''The History of Hamadan Dailmi'' (Chapter "Al-Kaaf") declares, “''There was a prophet of God in India who is dark in color and his name was Kahān [Kanha, i.e., Kṛṣṇa].''”<ref> P. 181 ''Green Leaves: Harish S. Booch Memorial Volume'' By Harish S. Booch </ref>

==East Asia==
"''Mother of wisdom...India gave her mythology to her neighbors who went to teach it to the whole world. Mother of law and philosophy, she gave to three-quarters of Asia a god, a religion, a doctrine, an art.''" - Sylvain Lévi, French Scholar & Indologist

===Tibet===
[[image:Tonpa Shenrab.jpg|right|thumb|200px|[[Yungdrung Bon|Bonpa Dharma]] founder [[Tonpa Shenrab Miwoche]], also known as Shenrab Miwo, and Buddha Shenrab.]] Hinduism in Tibet began with the Bon religion of Tonpa Shenrab, who is noted in Bon scriptures to have come from a western land called Olmo Lungring and wandered into Zhang Zhung (western Tibet.) In some Tibetan scriptures, Shenrab's country is also called as sTag-gzig, Shangri-La and Shambhalla. Like several other ṛṣis such as [[Riṣabha]], [[Rāvaṇ]] and [[Śukra|Śukracharya]], Tonpa too meditated at [[Mount Kailāśa]]. 

According to most Bon sources on Guru Shenrab's dating, he arrived in Tibet either around 18,000<ref> ''The bsTan rTsis'' </ref> or 16,000 years ago. According to another Bon tradition, he was a contemporary of the pre-8th century Zhang Zhung king Triwer Sergyi Jyaruchan.<ref>P. 339 ''The Golden Letters: The Three Statements of Garab Dorje, First Dzogchen Master'' By John Myrdhin Reynolds </ref> However, the present day Tibetan history scholar and Dzogchen master Chogyal Namkhai Norbu calculates the probable actual date of his birth as 1917 BCE. 

What brought the prince to the region was his quest to retrieve his 7 blue horses that were stolen by his aggressor Khyab-Pa Lag-Ring and taken to Zhang Zhung. Master Shenrab went forth with his four attendants to find them. During his time in Zhang Zhung, he taught the locals the basic tenants of Bon Dharma. He found the horses and Khyab-Pa became his pupil. They left Tibet to return home and at age 32 Prince Shenrab decided to give up the royal life and take solitude ([[Gyāna|sanyāsa]]) to become a monk. Khyab-Pa had become his leading disciple.

At age 82 he departed the world and attained Mokṣa. Both in his country and among the locals in Zhang Zhung, Buddha Shenrab was successful in stopping ritual [[animal sacrifices]]. Bon preachers continued visiting Tibet for further propagating the religion, and many Tibetan Bonpas visited Olmo Lungring for learning the religion and meeting with Bonpa scholars. There are two types of Bonpas classed by Buddhists, White Bon<ref>They are the ones who also follow Buddhism.</ref> and Black Bon.<ref>They are strictly Bonpas.</ref> 

Apart from Tonpa Shenrab (the teacher), there are 3 other Sugatas, who together are known as Bon's 'Four Transcendent Lords'. They are Satrig Ersang (the great mother goddess), Shenlha Okar (god of light or wisdom), and Sangpo Bumtri (the procreator.) Other recognized Sugatas are Kuntu Kazgpo (who is similar to Buddhism's Adi Buddha), Kunzang Gyalwa Gyatso (a person similar to Avalokitesvara), and Welse Ngampa, Sipai Gyalmo (a 9-headed protector of Bon.)<ref> P. 304 ''[[Annapurna]]: A Trekker's Guide'' By Siân Pritchard-Jones, Bob Gibbons </ref>

===Uyghurstan===
{{Cquote|It is said that Bhadrasva-varṣa extends from the city of Yamakoti up to the Malyavat mountain.|4=Srimad Bhagavatam}}

Known anciently as Turkharistan, and now as East Turkistan or Uyghurstan, Buddhism was originally spread here by many missionaries from India. Later, missionaries within the country spread the [[dharma]]. It is noteworthy that the sun-god was known to the Saka Khotan Kingdom of the Tarim Basin as ''Urmaysde'' which scholars link to the term Ahura Mazda<ref> P. 132 ''The Nativist Prophets of Early Islamic Iran: Rural Revolt and Local Zoroastrianism'' By Patricia Crone</ref>. These Indo-Iranian words started coming over with migrants who were missionaries and merchants from India and Iran.

[[Bhadrasva]]-varṣa is the name for the Tarim Basin or southern Uyghurstan, and for northern Uyghurstan (plus Kazakhstan) it is Uttara-[[Kuru]].

===China===
''See also: [[Daoism and Hinduism]]''
"''India conquered and dominated China culturally for 20 centuries without ever having to send a single soldier across her border''." - Hu Shih, Chinese ambassador to the U.S. (1938-42)[http://www.hinduwisdom.info/India_and_China.htm]

Indian missionaries and monks worked with Chinese spiritual leaders and together preached the message of Moksha.

Bodhidharma is the well-known of the persons that increased the cultural relationships between India and China.

Some Tamil Siddhars too had visited China to discuss and spread spiritual knowledge. The Siddhar saint Bogar, disciple of Kalanginaathar, visited China. It is said that he proceeded there to teach the ways of the Siddhars. There is a legend that Lao Tze is Bogar. Daoxuan said passionately that India, and not China, should be considered the center of the world.

Writing of the Chinese language, Christian Reverend Joseph Edkins writes that Hindus prepared the model of the Chinese first letters during 3rd-6th centuries CE, arranged them under heads of 36 consonants like in Sanskrit, and instructed Chinese people in the way of right pronunciation with regard to the scientific basis of the sound.<ref> P. 248 ''Some Missing Chapters of World History'' By Purushottam Nagesh Oak </ref>

===Japan===
[[image:Saraswati, Vaishravana, and Ganesh statue Hatsukaichi.jpg|left|thumb|200px|From left to right, Benzaiten ([[Saraswati]]), Kangiten ([[Ganesh]]) and Bishamonten ([[Vaishravana]]) in the 1,200 year-old Daishō-in Temple Complex, Hatsukaichi, Japan.]]
[[image:Shivlinga Nayoga.jpg|right|thumb|200px|Shivlinga in the Toganji Temple at Nayoga, Japan.]]

"''India is culturally, Mother of Japan. For centuries it has, in her own characteristic way, been exercising her influence on the thought and culture of Japan.''" - Professor Hajime Nakamura

Atsushi Taguchi<ref>"''The transmission of Indian concepts—Hindu deities adapted into Shinto kami and Buddhist mandalas—exerted significant influence on Japan's religious worldview, contributing to its unique civilizational blend.''" - Atsushi Taguchi, Indologist and cultural historian; ''India-Japan Cultural Relations: From Ancient Times to Modern'' (2018)</ref>, Gen'ichi Yamaguchi<ref>"''Indian Buddhist thought, carrying Hindu philosophical undercurrents, profoundly shaped Japanese aesthetics and social harmony, influencing everything from tea ceremonies to imperial rituals—without which modern Japanese civilization would lack its syncretic depth.''" - Gen'ichi Yamaguchi, Buddhist studies scholar; "The Influence of Indian Buddhism on Japanese Culture" (2012) article–excerpts in ''Journal of Indian Philosophy'' (2015)</ref>Dr. Yoshihiro Kaburagi<ref>"''Since ancient times, Japan has assimilated various foreign cultures, particularly through Buddhism from India, which led to the formation of Japanese civilization.''" - Dr. Yoshihiro Kaburagi, historian and comparative civilization scholar</ref> have also written about the historical influence of Hinduism/India on Japan.
Due to the cultural exchange between India and Japan, mainstream Hindu gods were adopted by Japanese. Ganesh is known as Kangi-ten and as Bināyaka-ten which originates from the Sanskrit name [[Vināyaka]].

==South East Asia==
This whole region has been known in Hindu scriptures as Suvarṇabhumi.<ref>It means ''The Golden Land''.</ref> Hinduism has been the dominant religion amongst several nations for a long time here. Indonesia<ref>It was former Javadwipa.</ref> was dominantly Hindu until Islamization by missionaries and Islamists within the islands. At one point, lands even as far as the Philippines were part of the Chola Empire.<ref> [http://www.sanskritimagazine.com/history/the-tamil-chola-empire/ The Tamil Chola Empire] </ref>

===Burma===
"''They did not practice Theravada Buddhism, rather they observed a form of Mahayana Buddhism much influenced by Vaishnavism and native Naga (serpent) worship.''"<ref>''Essays on the History and Buddhism of Burma'' (2005) By Dr. U Than Tun</ref> - Dr. U Than Tun

Dr. Aye Aye Mar (Indologist), Dr. Khin Maung Nyunt (archaeologist & epigraphist), U Min Naing (cultural historian), and U Aung Thwin (historian) have also written about the historical influence of Hinduism/India on Burma.

In most Hindu scriptures, Burma is known as Brahmadesh. Buddhist scriptures sometimes called it Majjhimadesh. Greek philosopher Pliny had said that on the river called Ava or Pumas or Puman, many nations along it are in general called Bracmanae or Brahmane.<ref> P. 443 ''Asiatick Researches, Or, Transactions of the Society Instituted ..., Volume 14'' </ref> Hence, there is also the [[Brahmaputra]] River near Burma which crosses North-East India.

Several Hindu temples here date back to pre-Buddhistic times. In Burma there is a Dagoba dedicated to Dagon ([[Matsya|Matsya avatār]] of [[Viṣṇu]]) which Burmese claim is over 3000 years old.<ref> P. 37 ''Shambhala'' By Nicholas Roerich </ref>

===Cambodia===
[[image:Angkot War.jpg|right|thumb|200px|[[List of UNESCO Hindu World Heritage Sites#Cambodia|Angkot Wat Temple]], Cambodia.]]
"''From the 5th century, Hinduism established cults in Chenla that integrated with indigenous beliefs, creating a syncretic society... The Preah Thong myth shows how Indian origins were localized to legitimize Khmer rule.''"<ref>Quote in ''Inscriptions du Cambodge'' (Volume on Chenla, 2012, EFEO) By George Cœdès</ref> - Sovath Prak, epigraphist & historian

Chea Socheat, Michael Vickery (historian), Ros Chantrabot (historian & former diplomat), and Serey Sok (archaeologist) have also written about the historical influence of Hinduism/India on Cambodia.

The name Cambodia comes from the founder of the first Khmer Dynasty from India, who was Kambhoja. From him Cambodia is usually called by its natives as either 'Kambuja' or 'Kampuchea'. Its national flag displays the world-famous [[List of UNESCO Hindu World Heritage Sites#Cambodia|Angkor Wat Temple]] within the country. Angkor Wat is the largest spiritual monument in the world. It was built by King Suryavarman II.

An inscription from Anghor Vat runs thus: "''The [[Brahman]] Agastya, born in the land of the Aryans, devoted to the [[worship]] of Siva, having come by his psychic powers to the land of the Cambodians for the purpose of worshipping the Siva-linga known as Bhadresvara, and having worshipped the god for a long time, attained to beatitude.''"

===Indonesia===
[[image:Chola Empire and its tributaries.jpg|right|thumb|200px|The Chola Empire and its tributary lands. Indonesia was once a part of the Greater Chola Empire or 'Choladesh'.]]
"''Indonesia's ancient Hindu legacy, through processes of Indianization, laid the groundwork for tolerant pluralism...The Majapahit Empire (14th century) exemplifies how Hindu dharma fostered unity across ethnic groups, influencing modern Pancasila."''<ref>"Hindu Roots of Indonesian Tolerance", ''Journal of Indonesian Islam'' (2009) By Hilman Latief</ref> - Professor Dr. Hilman Latief, Syarif Hidayatullah State Islamic University

Agus Aris Munandar (archaeologist and historian), I Made Titib (theologian and philosopher), Ida Bagus Putu Jandhy (philosopher and cultural scholar), and Ni Wayan Sukerti (linguist and Indologist) have also written about the historical influence of Hinduism/India on Indonesia.

The largest and most prestigious native Indonesian dynasties were Srivijaya, Mataram, Shailendra, and Majapahit. The Chola Dynasty of India was a great link between both India and Indonesia as the exchange of cultures occurred, leading to closer ties between Indonesians and Indians.

Indonesians believe that [[Agastya|Sage Agastya]] and [[Markandeya|Sage Markandeya]] brought Hinduism to Indonesia. Hence, this shows that sages particularly of the [[Gotra#Pravara gotras|pravara gotra]] lineages from [[Agastya]] and Markandeya had been the first preachers of Hinduism in the islands.

Many Indians had migrated to Indonesia, some of them being Gujaratis. It is said that King Aji Saka, who came to Java in Indonesia in year 1 of the Śaka calender, was believed to be a king of Gujarat by some.<ref name="ReferenceA">P. 67 ''An era of peace'' By Krishna Chandra Sagar</ref> It is also believed that the first Indian settlements in Java Island of Indonesia was established with the coming of Prince Dhruvavijaya of Gujarat with 5,000 traders.<ref name="ReferenceA"/> Some stories propose that a sage named Tritresta was the first to bring Gujarati migrants with him to Java, hence some scholars equate him with Aji Saka.<ref> P. 158 ''Foreign Influence on Ancient India'' By Krishna Chandra Sagar </ref>

===Laos===
"Hindu influencers via Dvaravati Mon traders established elite religious practices in central Laos by the 7th century, paving the way for Theravada...This syncretic layer remains in Lao festivals symbolizing our Indosphere heritage.''"<ref>"From Brahmanism to Buddhism in Lao History", ''Lao Heritage Journal'' (2019) By Khammy Phommaseng</ref> - Khammy Phommaseng

Bounleuam Chaleunsinh (ethnologist), Phothong Phoummachanh (historian & cultural scholar), Sisouk Vongvichit (cultural heritage expert), and Vongkot Thammavongsa (archaeologist) have also written about the historical influence of Hinduism/India on Laos.

===Malaysia===
"''Up to the 14th century, Hindu-Buddhist influences had a major impact on Malaysian culture...The massive cultural impact of India on Malay Peninsula prior to the 14th century was virtually overwhelming, shaping early kingdoms like Langkasura and Kadaram through trade and elite adoption.''"<ref>''Early History of Peninsular Malaysia (2002)'' By Dr. Nik Hassan Shuhaimi Nik Abdul Rahman</ref> - Dr. Nik Hassan Shuhaimi Nik Abdul Rahman, archaeologist and historian

Ahmad Murad Merican (literary historian), Mohd. Taib Osman (cultural anthropologist), Raja Zarina Raja Zain (social anthropologist), and Wan Suhana Wan Sulaiman (Indologist) have also written about the historical influence of Hinduism/India on Malaysia.

* [[Bujang Valley Civilization]]

===Thailand===
"''Thailand is the most crucial place for study of Sanskrit. We started to study Sanskrit long back. Hinduism and Buddhism existed in Thailand and have very strong influences''." - Professor Chirapat Prapandvidya, founder and director of Sanskrit Studies Centre at Silpakorn University in Bangkok, Thailand

Charuwan Chareonla (art historian), Kessara Srinaka (art historian), Piriya Krairiksh (art historian) and Prapod Assavavirulhakarn (Buddhist scholar) have also written about the historical influence of Hinduism/India on Thailand.

In Hindu scriptures, Burma is known as Shyamdesh. Hence the other name of the country is 'Siam'.

===Vietnam===
"''Hinduism, introduced via Indian traders to Funan around the 1st century CE, established the socio-political framework for early Khmer-Cham societies in southern Vietnam...Temples like Óc Eo reflect this, blending Indian [[Rulership in Hinduism|devaraja]] cults with local animism to form hybrid polities.''"<ref>Paper in ''Archaeology of Asia'' (2012) By Tran Ky Phuong </ref> - Tran Ky Phuong

Ngô Đức Thịnh (ethnologist & cultural historian), Phan Huy Lê (historian, former national education department president), Lương Ninh (cultural anthropologist), and Vũ Kim Thắng (epigraphist) have also written about the historical influence of Hinduism/India on Vietnam.

==Oceania==
"''Soon after the establishment of a great Hindu civilisation in Java, and in a lessor degree in the Philippines, about the time of the Christian Era, it is certain that many expeditions of adventurous Hindu-Malay sea-captains in large ocean-going Wangkang and Barangai, "junks" and "big galleys" must have launched out into the Pacific, both by the N.W. route by way of the Moluccas, Caroline Islands and Havaii, as well as by the S.W. route, followed in much more recent times by Abel Tasman.''" - F.W. Christian<ref> P, 77-79 ''The Journal of the Polynesian Society: Volumes 1-22'' By Polynesian Society (N.Z.) </ref>

F.W. Christian had written of similarities between Sanskrit and Polynesian languages, such as Maori and Samoan.<ref> P, 77 ''The Journal of the Polynesian Society: Volumes 1-22'' By Polynesian Society (N.Z.) </ref>
;Australia
Their closest blood links are with the groups in New Guinea, South India and Sri Lanka, representing their path of migration into Australia.<ref> P. 186 ''Native Peoples of the World: An Encylopedia of Groups, Cultures and Contemporary Issues'' By Steven L. Danver</ref>

One academic, Professor Alan Cooper, from the University of Adelaide’s Centre for Ancient DNA, says the Indian influence may well have played a role in the development of the Aboriginal culture – outlined in a paper titled ‘Genome-wide data substantiate Holocene gene flow from India to Australia’.

Professor Cooper says it is impossible to ignore the link with the discovery of the dingo…"''The timing of all those things in the archaeological record, about 4,000 to 5,000 years ago, happens to match the timing estimated for this genetic influx from India.''"

Professor Cooper also points to another development that happened around the time of the Australia-Indian connection – an expansion of one of the Aboriginal language groups. "''This other language seems to have taken over Australia relatively recently – perhaps 5,000 years ago,…And how it did it, how it replaced the other ancient languages, we don’t know…So suddenly, 4,000 to 5,000 years ago is starting to become a fairly tumultuous time in Australian history.''"

;New Zealand
[[image:Tamil Bell found near Whangarei, Northland Region.jpg|left|thumb|200px|Tamil bell found near Whangarei, Northland Region.]]
[[image:Sanskrit writing found near Hokianga Harbour.jpg|right|thumb|200px|Sanskrit writing (digitally highlighted) found near Hokianga Harbour, Northland Region.]]
The oldest Indian settlement in New Zealand comes from the [[Dānavas]] that sailed originally from Patala in Sind. These Indians became known locally in New Zealand as the Tuhoe.

About 150 years ago, a bell was discovered in New Zealand near Whangarei in the Northland Region with Tamil writings on it.<ref> [https://www.cmi.ac.in/gift/Epigraphy/epig_tambaramnewly.htm "Newly discovered Tamil inscriptions from the Tambaram area", ''Madras Christian College Magazine'', v. 42, 1973 Gift Siromoney] </ref> It is believed to have come from a Pallava Dynasty ship which was sailing in the area and had possibly landed on New Zealand. The bell had led Indologist, V. R. Ramachandra Dikshitar to investigate and claims in his book ''The Origin and Spread of the Tamils'' that ancient Tamil sea-farers might have had a knowledge of Australia and Polynesia. There has also been Sanskrit writing discovered on a boulder in Hokianga Harbor. This finding has led to the belief that Hindu monks had arrived in New Zealand before Europeans did.

It is even believed by some historians that among the ancestry of indigenous New Zealanders there is some Indian descent. Joan Leaf through oral tradition of genealogy (''whakapapa'') among the Maori and having consulted with the Maori Wharewananga, traced the lineage of her husband, who is Maori on both sides of his ancestry, back to India.<ref>''Hawaiiki to the Hokianga, 2000 BC''</ref> That the Tuhoe of New Zealand were Dānavas is further evidenced by their oral traditions which recants Dānavas having fought other Indians in the typical wars that Indian epics mention about them.

"''Maori tradition tells us that their ancestors in times long past away, 165 generations ago, they migrated from a hot country named India''." - Eldson Best<ref> "The cause of this exodus was a disastrous war with a dark skinned folk in which great numbers were slain."; ''Tuhoe: The Children of the Mist'' By Eldson Best </ref>

;Rest of Polynesia
[[image:From Indus to Easter Island.jpg|right|thumb|200px|The trajectory from Mohenjo-Daro ([[Indus Valley Civilization]]) to Giza (Egypt) then Machu Pichu (Peru), and to Easter Island is a perfect 30° incline.]]
[[image:IVC and rongorongo scripts.jpg|left|thumb|200px|The scripts of [[Indus Valley Civilization]] and Eastern Island. An image from ''The Indians And The Amerindians'' By Dr. S. Chakravarti.]]

Balaram Chakravarti writes, "The Lapita potteries which seem to be of [[Dānava]] origin seems to lend evidence to the stepping stone of Dānava migration from New-Britain to Fiji with an off-shoot in New-Caledonia."<ref> P. ii ''The Children of Abo Tani in India, Fiji, and Polynesia: An Account of the Migration of the Indian Dānavas and the Nāgas, and Their Contribution to the Efflorescence of Culture in Fiji and Polynesia, Volume 1'' By Balaram Chakravarti </ref>

Easter Island has stories among its natives of long-eared (''Hanau epe'') people having come there, led by Hotu Matu'a (''Great Parent'', a title given to their 'ariki' or ''king''.) The Hanau epe were said to have been from Hiva (''Far away land.'') The reason for their migration was a great flood. The Indus Valley Civilization was devastated and abandoned due to severe flooding. Together they had built the Moai monuments.

Elongated earlobes are a common feature in many depictions of devas, gandharvas, ṛṣis and others. Long and hanging earlobes are known as
''larhba-karṇa''. Even the ''Viṣṇu-koṣa''<ref> P. 311 ''Viṣṇu-koṣa'' By Śaligrama K Ramachandra Rao </ref> mentions it as a feature of Viṣṇu. Dr. B. A. Saletore had published in his book, ''The Wild Tribes in Indian History''<ref> P. 375 ''Indian Culture: Journal of the Indian Research Institute, Volume 2, Issues 1-2'' By I.B. Corporation </ref> about a tribe called the Labhakarṇas. It is not an unknown trait in Indian history and so it is likely that the Dānavas who arrived in Easter Island had elongated ears.

"''It has been suggested Easter Island ''rongorongo'' script arrived from Peru, South America and is related to the Indus River Valley dating back to 2000 BC which is likely since there were Indus River Valley migrations to Peru, South America, by 1500 BC or perhaps as early as 2000 BC. Many Harappan glyphs appear in both Peruvian and Easter Island scripts''." - Jeffrey L. Gross <ref> ''Waipio Valley: A Polynesian Journey from Eden to Eden'' By Jeffrey L. Gross </ref>

==Europe==
''See also: [[Hindu Temples in Europe]]''

At the time that the Indo-Iranians came into Europe, the natives of Europe were Palesgians in the Balkan Peninsula, Basques in Iberian Peninsula, Fins and Sami in Northern Europe and the Magyars to later become Hungarians, Estonians and Kami in Eastern Europe and several other non-Indo-European linguistic families within the Caucasus. With the influence on the Indo-Iranian comers, the Indo-European nations of Europe were born. Some identified groups that had come into Europe were [[Druyus]] (becoming the British Druids and German Druvis), Parthians (Thracians from Parthenope and some Irish from Partholonians) and Medians.

The reason why it was easy for the Indo-European languages to gain popularity among Europe's natives is because the native Europeans were nomads that relied on hunting and gathering, the Indo-Iranians were agarians that brought an agricultural revolution. [[Historical racial diversity of Hindus#Vedic period|DNA samples of the Yamnayas]] (mixed of Indo-Iranians and Europeans) show that they were not lactose intolerant whereas the European natives were. Thus, Indo-Iranians showed Europeans to be able to live sedentary lives opposite to foraging and constantly relocating.

The Sanskrit word ''[[Deva]]'' took on vernacular forms amongst European nations wherein it became ''Theo'' in Greek, ''Dio'' in Latin and Italian, ''Dios'' in Spanish, ''Deos'' in Portuguese, ''Déu'' in Catalan, ''Dieu'' in French, ''Dievs'' in Latvian, ''Dievas'' in Lithuanian, ''Duw'' in Welsh, and the words ''Deity'' and ''[[Divinity]]'' in English. Even the word 'devil' means ''slanderer'' ('il') ''of'' ''god'' ('dev') and its Latin version is 'deofel' wherein 'deo' means ''god'' and 'fel' means ''slanderer''. So ''[[Theology]]'' means the study of "''The study of Theo''" and ''Theism'' is "''The belief in Theo''". Further, the Sanskrit word '[[Asura]]' became ''Æsir'' for Scandinavia's worshipers of the Norse gods.

===Thrace===
[[image:Hekate and Gayatri.jpg|right|thumb|200px|Goddess Hekate's depictions look similar to those of a Hindu goddess.]]
The Thracians called their country 'Aria'<ref> P. 277 ''Encyclopedia britannica''; or, ''A dictionary of [[arts]], sciences, and miscellaneous literature'' by Colin Macfarquhar; George Gleig </ref> which means ''Noble''. It is a word which has much significance in Hinduism, including Buddhism and [[Jainism]]. In Hellenist mythology, Thrace was the offspring of Parthenope, the daughter of Olympian god Ares. The 'Parth' in the name Parthenope indicates Parthian and hence an Indo-Iranian origin. Goddess Hecate was portrayed as a multi-headed and multi-handed deity.

There were several tribes among Thracians. Originally there was one but as they expanded control of other territories in the Balkans, other nations became Thracianized. Hesychius notes that the Sindi tribe of Thracians was from India.<ref> P. 107 ''Asiatic Researches; Or, Transactions Of The Society, Instituted ..., Volume 10'' </ref> Sir W. Drummond was also of the same viewpoint. George Faber wrote that Thracians came from a frontier of India.<ref> P. 293 ''The Origin of Pagan Idolatry: Ascertained from Historical ..., Volume 2'' By George Stanley Faber </ref>

The Thracians inhabited this region even before the earliest Greeks<ref>They are Achaeans or Mycenaeans.</ref> made their way south to the present Greece.<ref> P. 37 ''Chronicles, Volume 21'' By Rockford Institute </ref> Thracians even preceded Greeks to important islands in the northern, central, eastern and eastern Aegean. This includes Thasos, Samothrace, Imbros, Lemnos, Euboea, Naxos, Lesbos and Chios.<ref> ''The Rise Of The Greeks'' By Michael Grant </ref>

The Sindi Colchi country, located in the Taman Peninsula, was known as Sindike and Sindikos, and its largest city was named Sinda. Greek writer Strabo referred to these Sindi as 'Sindoi'. Ancient Greek Pliny called it 'Scythia Sindica', Ptolemy as 'Indo-Scythia', and both Socrates and Stephanus as 'India'. Because the Thracians were also in the Aegean Sea, they were in Lemnos island. There was an ethnicity here named 'Sindians', whom Homer in his ''Iliad'' and ''Odyssey'' wrote, "spoke a strange language" and the Scholiast Thucydides wrote the Thracians are derived from India.<ref>''Iliad'' I.594; ''Odyssey'' VIII.294; P. 516 ''The History of India: As Told by Its Own Historians. The Muhammadan Period, Volume 1'' By Sir Henry Miers Elliot </ref>

"''We can firmly say that the Bulgarians had entered their present areas from Hindistan (India) in the most ancient times...and their migration took place much earlier than the division of the Aryan tribe in Hindistan.''" - Paisii Hilendarski<ref> vol. 4.369; P. 299 ''Myths and boundaries in southern-eastern Europe'' By Pal Kolsto</ref>

Francis Wilford claimed “that so early as B.C. 189, or before it, Hindus of both sexes were not uncommon in Greece: that they were settled in Colchis, and that the Sindi of Thrace came originally from India.”

===Greece===
[[image:Krishna_mosaic _Corinth.jpg|right|thumb|200px|Greek mosaic of Kṛṣṇa in his iconic cross-legged pose playing the flute by cows, from 2nd century CE, now found at Corinth, Greece.]]
[[image:Swastika_coin_Corinth.jpg|right|thumb|200px|Coin with Swastika issued at Corinth, Greece.]]
;Early Indo-Europeans in Greece
“''The whole of this state of society, civil and military, must strike anyone as eminently Asiatic; much of it specifically Indian. Such it undoubtedly is. . . these evidences were but the attendant tokens of an Indian colonization with its corresponding religion and language. . . the whole of Greece, from the era of the supposed godships of Poseidon and Zeus, down to the close of the Trojan war was Indian in language, sentiment and religion, as well as the arts of peace and war.''” - Edward G Pococke

The natives of Greece were Palesgians. From the academic influence of the Indo-Iranians in the region, the ancient Greek and Latin languages were established from which all the other Indo-European languages of Europe were created. This can be seen in the wars between the Olympian gods and the Titans. Scholar Ignatius Donnelly believes the conflict between the Olympians and Titans represented a war between the Olympians and Titans.<ref> P. 320 ''Atlantis: The Antediluvian World'' By Ignatius Donnelly </ref> Lewis Spence also mentions that the conflict between the Olympians and the Titans was of Aryans with non-Aryans with the Titans being projected as the latter.<ref> P. 59 ''The Magic [[Arts]] in Celtic Britain'' By Lewis Spence </ref>

;Philosophical contribution to Greece
"''We find that it (India) was visited for the purpose of acquiring knowledge by Pythagoras, Anaxarches, Pyrrho and others who afterwards became eminent philosophers in Greece.''" - Dr. William Enfield<Ref> P. 41 ''Bharātīya [[Vidyā]], Volume 51'' By [[Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan]]</ref>

Overtime, a link was established between Greece and India, wherein Greek scholars would visit India and learn from Hindu clergy. Count Bjornstjerna says that Greek philosophy was indebted almost wholly to the Hindu philosophy for its cardinal doctrines.<ref> P. 974 ''Indian Law Quarterly Review, Volume 5'' By Arora Law [[House]] </ref> From this cultural phenomena, Pythagorus founded Pythagorism, Orpheus founded Orphism and Plato founded Platoism. Orphism from 6th century BCE believed in reincarnation<Ref> P. xviii ''The Orphic Hymns'' By Apostolos N Athanassakis and Benjamin M Wolkow </ref>, a Supreme God.<Ref> P. xiv: 'The Orphic Hymns' By Apostolos N Athanassakis and Benjamin M Wolkow. </ref> Pythagorism from 5th century BCE believed in reincarnation<Ref> P. 2 ''Pythagoras and the Pythagoreans: A Brief History'' By Charles H. Kahn </ref>, a Supreme God<Ref> P. 97 ''Pythagoras and the Pythagoreans: A Brief History'' By Charles H. Kahn </ref>, promoted asceticism<Ref> P. 9 ''Pythagoras and the Pythagoreans: A Brief History'' By Charles H. Kahn </ref> and vegetarianism.<Ref> P. 9 ''Pythagoras and the Pythagoreans: A Brief History'' By Charles H. Kahn </ref> Platonism from 5th century BCE believed in reincarnation<ref> P. 377 ''The Middle Platonists, 80 B.C. to A.D. 220'' By John M. Dillon </ref> and a Supreme God.<ref> P. 199 ''The Middle Platonists, 80 B.C. to A.D. 220'' By John M. Dillon </ref> Although Orphism, Pythagorism, and Platoism spirituality are all Hindu, Western scholars note that non-Hindu spiritualties of Greek thought also demonstrate Hindu influence such as Stoicism<ref> ,'Experiencing World History'' By Paul Vauthier Adams, Erick Detlef Langer, Lily Hwa, Peter N. Stearns, Merry E. Wiesner-Hanks </ref> which advocated asceticism. These schools were in start opposition to the Cyrenaicism (Greek Hedonistic school), and was opposed to Stoicism in its metaphysics.

"''The Hindus were, in this respect, the teachers and not the learners.''" - Henry Colebrooke <ref> P. 974 ''Indian Law Quarterly Review, Volume 5'' By Arora Law [[House]] </ref>

When Greek scholars had spoken of philosophies of wisdom, they regarded amongst the highest as Orphism, Pythagoreanism and Platonism. Early Christian sects not only regarded Pythagorus as a prophet of God, but drew on Orphic, Pythagorean and Platonic, as well as Neo-Platonic Mystery schools.<ref> P. 77 ''Jesus: The Explosive Story of the 30 Lost Years and the Ancient Mystery'' By Tricia McCannon </ref> Plaethon not only stated that he preferred Indian Brahmans and Magi amongst the non-Greeks, but that "inspired men" like Pythagorus, Plato and other philosophers belonging to their school, notably Parmenides, Timaeus, Plutarch, Plotinus, Porphyry and Iamblichus were great people.<ref> P. 39 Hermes in the Academy: Ten Years' Study of Western Esotericism at the ... edited by Wouter J. Hanegraaff, Joyce Pijnenburg </ref>

The Grecianized version of 'Brahman' is ''Brachman'' and ''Bragmanni''. The ancient Greeks mention them in many instances when discussing spirituality, [[Hindu philosophies|philosophy]], [[astrology]], geopolitics and other steams of study. In about 270-303 CE, makes distinguishing statements among the gymnosophists wherein he describes differences amongst them.<ref> P. 133 ''The Bhilsa Topes; Or, Buddhist Monuments of Central India, Etc'' By Sir Alexander Cunningham </ref> Purchas had written that all the things observed by Nsturall Philosophers in Greece had been handled before, partly by the Brachmancs amongst the Indians.<ref> P. 2705 ''The Century Dictionary: An Encyclopedic Lexicon of the English Language, Volume 4'' edited by William Dwight Whitney, Benjamin Eli Smith </ref> A type of non combustible cloth made from stone was also said to have been used by the Brachmancs.<ref> P. 686 ''The Gentleman's Magazine and Historical Review, Volume 202'' By Sylvania Urban </ref> It later became used by some in Europe.

There were also Hindu monks that had visited Greece for the purpose of discussing philosophy. Zarmanochegas is the most known of these. In Greece, he had self-immolated himself to protest Alexander's invasion of India. His tomb in Greece reads, "Here lies Zarmanochegas an Indian, a native of Bargose, having immortalized himself according to the custom of his country."[http://www.ibiblio.org/britishraj/Jackson9/chapter01.html] Other Hindu sages that were in the company of Emperor Elagabalus also were written about.<ref> P. 6 ''Neoplatonic Saints: The Lives of Plotinus and Proclus by Their Students'' By Mark Edwards </ref>

;Worship of similar deities between Hindus and Hellenists
"''While Dionysus (Siva) is worshipped in the mountain, Heracles (Krsna) is worshipped on the plain, especially by the Surasenoi (Surasena), an Indian people who possess two towns, Methora (Mathura) and Kleisobora (Krsnapura)''" - Megastheses<ref> Arrian, Ind., VIII, 4; P. 393 ''History of Indian Buddhism: From the Origins to the Saka Era'' By Etienne Lamotte </ref>, Greek historian and ethnographer, 4th century BCE

The gods worshiped by Hellenists were similar to that of Hindus. Whereas Indra is called Vetethragna in the Avesta, and Vahagn by the Armenians, he's also known as Artagnes-Herakles in Commagene.<ref>P. 132 ''Opuscula Atheniensia, Volumes 2-3; Volumes 7-10; Volume 12; Volumes 14-15; Volume 17; Volume 27; Volume 37'' C.W.K. Gleerup., Nov 1, 1988 </ref> Many of the soldiers in Alexander of Macedonia's army readily became Hindu. "Close to 10,000 Greeks, who came in the wake of Alexander the Great, were Krishna's devotees. There is an inscription by Heliodorus, the Greek ambassador at Takshila , which reads Deva, deva, Vasudeva. Krishna is my god and I have installed this Garuda Pillar at Bes Nagar (now in Bihar)," says researcher T K V Rajan.[http://m.timesofindia.com/city/chennai/New-finds-take-archaeologists-closer-to-Krishna/articleshow/3898205.cms] Further, Hydaspes is written by Nonnus in his Dionysiaca as a son of the sea-god Thaumas and cloud-goddess Elektra. He was the brother of Iris the rainbow-goddess and half-brother of Harpies.[http://news.statetimes.in/the-journey-of-vitasta-river/]

;Other contribution of customs
"''Cremation was brought by barbarians from the East [India] to the Mediterranean basin about 2500–2000 BC, where previously the practice was unknown.''" - William Howels<ref> P. 43 ''Honoring God to the Very, Very, Very End!'' </ref>

[[Jyotiṣa|Astrology]] was also a science that Hindus spread with them in Greece. Philostratus tells how Iarbas the Brachman or Brahman gave Apolloneus of Tyans a set of rings for days of the week to maintain good health.<ref> Page 147 ''The Archaeological Journal - Volume 33'' By The Royal Anthropological Institute of Great Britain and Ireland </ref>

Apart from the Greeks having visited India for learning Hinduism and its ideals and customs, Indians had colonized Greece as the first Indo-Iranians in the country. They were the Danauna (also known as Aavaoi), who descend from King Danaus. This king has founded the city Argos, and from his descend figures like the Danai, who are Argives mentioned by Homer.<ref> P. 306 ''The Century Cyclopedia of Names: A Pronouncing and Etymological Dictionary of Names in Geography, Biography, Mythology, History, Ethnology, Art, Archaeology, Fiction, Etc., Etc., Etc'' By Benjamin Eli Smith </ref> They were also known as Achaians, who are mentioned separately from the people of Greece, the Hellenes, themselves because they were a foreign nationality.

===Austria, Germany & Netherlands===
"''The runes were brought to the Germans by the Brahmins of ancient India...The priestly caste of the Teutons was identical with the Brahmin caste''." - Guido von List<ref>P. 67 ''Das Geheimnis der Runen'' (1908) By Guido von List</ref>
Guido von List the Austrian wrote that the Germanic peoples were taught by Brahmans from India. He said the German priesthood descended from Indian Brahmans.<ref>"''The German priesthood descends from Indian Brahmins''." - ''Die Religion der Ario-Germanen'' (1910) By Guido von List</ref><ref>"''The Aryan Germans received their religion and social order from the Brahmins who migrated from India''."- P. 112 ''Die Religion der Ario'-Germanen'' By Guido von List </ref>

===France===
Fabre d'Olivet the Frenchman wrote that Gauls (Celtic peoples) were originally a colony of Brahmans from India.
"''The Gauls were a colony of Brahmins''." - Fabre d'Olivet<ref>''The Gauls were a colony of Indian Brahmins''''." - P. 45 ''La Langue Hebaique Restituee'' Vol. II (1815) By Fabre d'Olivet </ref>
François-Marie Arouet wrote the the Gauls and their Druids were taught by Indian Brahmans.
"''The Gauls had their Druids, who were Brahmins come from India''." - François-Marie Arouet<ref>Chapter 6 ''Philosophie de I'Histoire'' (1765) By François-Marie Arouet </ref>

===British Isles===
[[image:Brigid.jpg|right|thumb|200px|Goddess Brigid by artist Miranda Gray. The triple goddess’ depictions normally look similar to those of a Hindu goddess.]]
"''I fear we must class the descent of the Afghans from the Jews with that of the Romans, and the British from the Trojans, and that of the Irish from the Milesians or Brahmins.''" - Mountstuart Elphinstone<ref> [P. 278 "Asiatic Journal and Monthly Register for British and Foreign India, China and Australasia
Volume 28''] 1829 </ref>
Many Irish have written of an Indian influence on ancient Ireland including Mrs. Dorothy Chaplin and Madam Wilde.<ref>P. 33 ''Text Book of Indian Culture'' By Chaman Lal </ref> The Druids were the chief priests of the isles and their religion is known as Druidism. Godfrey Higgins wrote a book supporting that the Druids had come from India, titled ''The Celtic Druids, Or, An Attempt to Shew that the Druids Were the Priests of Oriental Colonies who Emigrated from India, and Were the Introducers of the First Or Cadmean System of Letters, and the Builders of Stonehenge, of Carnac, and of Other Cyclopean Works in Asia and Europe.'' They were a priestly hereditary group and are said to have been descended of the Brahman Druyus. The Druids had propitiated Danu because Druyu, their patriarch, was her great-great grandson as the son of [[Gagarin|King Yayati]] and [[Sarmishṭha|Queen Sarmishṭha]], who was a Danava (descendant of Danu.)

Being of Indian descent, Druids would have been Indo-European speakers and they likely would have been the first speakers of the language family in the British Isles. They had also worshiped the Thracian Hecate. One group of Indo-Iranians, according to Irish legends that emigrated were the Partholonians from Parthia.<ref> P. 7 ''The Book of Finglas'' By Seán Ó Broin; Other groups were Nemedians from Black Sea, Milesians are descendants of Milead (from his 3 sons Ir, Heremon, Heber, sent westward in search of Island of Destiny) from Iberia, Gailiuns, Liogarne and later arrivals to Moynalta were described as big, blond, fair-haired men of Teutonic origin, who came to Moynalta about the time of Alexander the Great. </ref> Druids were Partholonians because according to a legend, a person named Parthalon landed in Ireland three-hundred years after a mythic deluge and had brought with him three Druids named Fios, Folus and Fochmare.<ref>P. 229 ''Paradise Rediscovered: The Roots of Civilization, Volume 1'' By Michael A. Cahill </ref> They had come to Ireland from Midgonia.<ref>It is in Middle Greece.</ref>

"''The very name Druid is composed of two Celtic word roots which have parallels in Sanskrit. Indeed, the root vid for knowledge also emerges in the Sanskrit word Veda, demonstrates the similarity. The Celtic root dru which means 'immersion' also appears in the Sanskrit. So a Druid was the one 'immersed in knowledge.'''" - Peter Beresford-Ellis<ref> [http://druidry.org/druid-way/other-paths/druidry-dharma Druidism and the ancient Religions of India] </ref>

In history, the Druids were later pushed into Ireland and Scotland. "In Britain, the Kelts pushed the Albans into northern Ireland and northern Scotland.”<ref> P. 28 ''Footprints of the Welsh Indians and Sailors of the Past'' By William L. Traxel </ref> Druidism still survives today in the isles and revivalist efforts have been put forth by its followers.

"''The island [Britain] has long been pre-disposed of it's [[[Christianity]]] through the doctrines of the Druids and Buddhists who already inculcated the doctrine of the Godhead.''" - Christian cleric Origen, 3rd century CE

It is notable that there is a Druid named Arias, which even further strengthens the relationship between the Druids and Brahmans as Aria/Arya meant ''noble'' and was used in the ethical and spiritual sense even by the [[Buddha]] who referred to his creed as the [[Arya]] Astanga [[Dharma]] (''Noble Eight-fold Religion.'') Peter Berresford Ellis writes, "Moreover, we learn that in these four cities were 'four Druids who taught the Children of [[Danu]] skill and knowledge and perfect wisdom'. Morias dwelt in Falias; Urias 'of the noble nature' lived in Gorias; Arias the poet resided in Finias and Senias had his abode in Murias."<ref> P. 124 ''The Druids'' By Peter Berresford Ellis </ref>

The Druids were especially the priests of the Tuatha De Danann. D'Arbois translates ''Tuatha De Danann'' as "people of the god whose mother is called Danu."
Goddess Danu written of in Celtic spirituality is the same Danu from the [[Ṛgveda]]. The Danavas, upon leaving India, moved westwards to Iran (i.e., Parthia), then more westwards, which led them to arrive in Egypt. In Egypt, these Danavas are recorded in legend to have been banished from the country where in legend, King Ramses exiled his brother Danaus. From the exile, Danaus moved to Middle Greece and eventually to Ireland. George A. Christopoulos had also connected the Danaans and Danawois to the Danawos mentioned in the Avesta.

Englishmen Francis Wilford<ref>"''Britain was colonised by Brahmins from India...the Druids preserved Brahminical learning''." - ''On Egypt and Other Countries Adjacent to the Nile'' By Francis Wilford and Asiatic Researches (1798) </ref>, Thomas Maurice<ref>"'The Druids of Britain were Brahmins...the Celtic religion is nothing but a corrupted form of the Brahminical system brought from India''." - ''Indian Antiquities'' (Vol. VI) By Thomas Maurice (1793-1800)</ref>, and William Stukeley<ref>"''The Druids...were of the same patriarchal religion as Abraham and the Brahmins of India''." - ''Stonehenge'' (1740) and ''Abury'' (1743) By William Stukeley</ref> wrote of Brahmans in the Isles. Wilford said Brahmans colonized the isles and that Druids taught Vedic doctrines, Maurice that the Druids were Brahmans, and Stukeley that the Druids were Brahmans from the East.

Irishmen Charles Vallancey<ref>"''The Irish Druids were Brahmins...the ancient Irish are descendants of Hindoo colonists''." - ''Collectanea de Rebus Hibernicus'' (1770-1804) By Charles Vallancey</ref> and John Toland<ref>"''</ref> wrote of the Hindu connection too. Vallancey that the Irish Druids and their language were of Brahmans and Toland that the Irish Druids were Indian philosophers.

===Scandinavia===
[[image:Buddha, Helgö.jpg|right|thumb|200px|Statue of [[Buddha]] dated from 5th Century CE<Ref> [http://www.lionsroar.com/the-buddha-statue-found-in-an-ancient-viking-hoard/ How did a Buddha statue land in Viking hands? BY SAM LITTLEFAIR| MARCH 24, 2016] </ref> found on a Viking tombstone in Helgö, Sweden.]]

The Norse gods referred to god as 'Æsir'. The name of thunder-god Thor comes from 'Thortian' of the Zoroastrian ''Vendiad'' and the name derives it's form from the Vedic [[Trita]], who was known as Trita in the Avesta and then later as Traitana, then 'Thraetaona' and finally as 'Thortian' to the Zoroastrians. In Sweden's Helgö, a small Buddha statuette from North India dating from 6th century AD; was found in Viking's grave.<Ref> [http://irisharchaeology.ie/2013/12/the-helgo-treasure-a-viking-age-buddha/ "The Helgo Treasure: A Viking Age Buddha" by Colm]</ref>

===Eastern Europe===
The names of [[deities]] of Eastern Europe indicate a strong Hindu influence.
;Azerbaijan
Currently the Fire Temple of Baku is a site revered for its historic uniqueness which was established by Hindu priests from India in the 19th century. It was nominated by the Azerbaijani government for being recognized as a UNESCO Hindu Site. Currently there is an [[ISKCON]] temple in Baku[http://centers.iskcondesiretree.com/baku/], the country's capital city.

;Poland
Śivā is the name of a female deity in Poland, just as Śivā is the name of Kali Mātā of Hinduism, the wife of Śiva. Further, in Poland, "''Vogt in his lectures of Man assumes the Polish to be descended from Hindu sources..."<ref> P. 386 ''The Races of Europe: A Sociological Study (Lowell Institute Lectures)'''' By William Zebina Ripley </ref>

;Lithuania
{| class="wikitable sortable"
Table of gods worshiped in pre-Christian Lithuania:
|-
! Deity
! Vedic equivalent
! About god
|-
!Praamžius Dievas
|Prajapati
|The supreme or leader of the gods.
|-
! Dievas Senelis ("''Good Old Man''")
| Yama
|He is a teacher of people and judge of their morality. He looks like an old traveling beggar. Dievas Senelis is proficient at magic and medicine. Epithet of Dievas.
|-
!Perkūnas
|Prajanya
|Thunder, a son of Dievas ("dievaitis.")
|-
!Saulė
|Surya
|The Sun Goddess.
|-
!Ašvieniai
|Ashvins
|The divine twins who pulled the chariot of the Sun.
|-
|}

There is a Lithuanian folk song reminiscent of a Vedic tale.<Ref> P. 323 ''The Religion of the Ṛgveda'' By Hervey De Witt Griswold </reF>[https://gazetteers.maharashtra.gov.in/cultural.maharashtra.gov.in/english/gazetteer/Thana%20District/appendix.html]

;Russia
"''I also feel the great sympathy with modern Hinduism of [[Rama]] Krishna and Girikananda...''"<ref> P. 40 ''Christianity Today, Volume 11'' By Carl Ferdinand Howard Henry </ref> 
"''The mystico-religious elements in Indian culture didn't interest me much...The moral teachings of early Buddhism, the personality of the Buddha, the great ascetic life of Mahatma Gandhi, who blended ancient philosophies so harmoniously with modern conditions, fascinated me far more.''"<ref> ''Only One Year: A Memoir'' By Svetlana Alliluyeva </ref> - Svetlana Alliluyeva, ex-atheist daughter of Joseph Stalin

In Russia's Volga region during excavation, a 7th century AD Varāha statue was found in Staraya Maina village within the Ulyanovsk region.<Ref> [http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/world/rest-of-world/Ancient-Viṣṇu-idol-found-in-Russian-town/articleshow/1046928.cms "Ancient Viṣṇu idol found in Russian town"] </ref> This ancient area was highly populated city 1,700 years ago. Ulyanovsk State University's archaeology department Dr. Alexander Kozhevin's team had made the discovery after having excavated the area. A famous Russian historian had written that thousands of years before the 'Kiev-Rus' culture, from which Russian nation originated, there was a 'Vedic-Rus' which was characterized by an international Vedic culture.<ref> ''India’s Emerging Partnerships in Eurasia: Strategies of New Regionalism'' By Dr. Nivedita Das Kundu </ref> During the 14th century CE Indian gold coins were found in the Volga region near the village of Tenishevo indicating a flourishing trade between India and Russia.

==Americas==
Before reaching [[Editing The Spread of Hinduism#Oceania|Polynesia]], the Davanas passed through South America. Surprisingly, it seems they may have left a mark on the indigenous there because, like in Easter Island, the native language Aymara resembles an Indian language. In this case it is Sanskrit, which is bares similarities to the Aymara tongue spoken in Bolivian Andes mountain. Writers, such as the 19th century Vicente de Ballivián y Roxas, 20th century F.W. Christian<ref> P, 77 ''The Journal of the Polynesian Society
Volumes 1-22'' By Polynesian Society (N.Z.) </ref>, and 21st century ‎Geoffrey V. Davis, as well as others have written about this.

;USA
“''I didn't have a dorm room, so I slept on the floor in friends' rooms. I returned coke bottles for the 5¢ deposits to buy food with. And I would walk the 7 miles across town every Sunday night to get one good meal a week at the Hare Krishna temple. I loved it.''” - Steve Jobs, Stanford University conference in 2005<ref> [https://iskconnews.org/steve-jobs-and-the-krishna-connection,2907/ ''Steve Jobs and the Krishna Connection'' By Venkata Bhatta dasa (Vineet Chander) for ISKCON News on Oct. 7, 2011] </ref>

The USA has been the base for establishing several [[Hindu-oriented organizations]], such as ISKCON.

American-born converts to Sanatan Dharm promoted it by establishing their own institutions like specific monastic orders or sectarian temples. Ranked in order of most influential are James Donald Walters, Richard Slavin, Richard Alpert, David Frawley, Anthony Paul Moo-Young, Robert Hansen, Lawrence Miles, John Edwin Favors, Stephen Cope, Andrew Cohen, Leopold Fischer, Georg Feuerstein, Merle Roberson, and Christopher Isherwood.

{| class="wikitable sortable"
|-
! Person
! Sect or darshan affiliation
! Organizational affiliation
! Guru
! Disciplic succession
! Establishment
! Other achievement(s)
! Prominent compilation(s)
|-
|Andrew Cohen
|Neo-Advaita Vedanta
|
|
|No
|EnlightenNext[https://enlightennext.org/] (Moksha Foundation)
|
|''EnlightenNext'' magazine (formerly ''What Is Enlightenment?'')
|-
|Anthony Paul Moo-Young (Mooji)
|
|
|
|Yes (of Sri H.W.L. Poonja)
|Monte Sahaja[https://mooji.org/monte-sahaja]
|
|
|-
|Chris Butler ('Jagad Guru Siddhaswarupananda Paramahamsa')
|Vaishnavism (Gaudiya)
|ISKCON
|
|Yes (of Srila Prabhupada)
|Science of Identity Foundation[https://www.scienceofidentityfoundation.org/discover?language=en]
|
|
|-
|Christopher Isherwood
|
|
|
|
|Vedanta Society of Southern California[https://vedanta.org/]
|Translated ''⁠Bhagavad Gita'' and ''Vedanta for the Modern World''
|''My Guru and His Disciple'' (1980)
|-
|David Frawley ('Pandit Vamadeva Shastri')
|
|
|
|No
|American Institute of Vedic Studies[https://www.vedanet.com/]
|
|
|-
|Georg Feuerstein
|
|
|
|No
|
|
|''The Yoga Tradition'' (1998), ''Tantra: The Path of Ecstasy''[https://in.yoga/wp-content/uploads/2021/09/Feuerstein-G.-Tantra.-Path-of-Ecstasy.pdf (1998, 2001), ''The Philosophy of Classical Yoga'', ''The Deeper Dimension of Yoga'', ''The Shambhala Encyclopedia of Yoga'', ''In Search of the Cradle of Civilization'' 
|-
|James Donald Walters ('Swami Kriyananda')
|Neo-Vedanta
|
|
|
|Ananda Sangha[https://www.ananda.org/][https://anandamonastery.org/ananda-sangha/]
|Spread Kriya Yoga
|
|-
|John Edwin Favors ('Bhakti Tirtha Swami')
|Vaishnavism (Gaudiya)
|ISKCON
|
|
|iFast[https://ifastglobal.com/]
|
|
|-
|Leopold Fischer (Swami Agehananda Bharati)
|
|Dasnami Sampraday
|
|Yes
|
|
|''The Orche Robe'' (1962), ''The Titanic Tradition'' (1965), ''The Light at the Centre'' (1976)
|-
|Lawrence Miles ('Swami Shyam')
|Shaivism (Nath)
|Dasnami Sampraday
|Kriyananda, Ram Dass
|Yes
|International Nath Order[https://www.internationalnathorder.org/], Shyam Mission
|
|
|-
|Merle Antoinette Roberson ('Gangaji')
|
|
|
|
|Gangaji Foundation[https://gangaji.org/]
|
|''The Diamond in Your Pocket'', ''Hidden Treasure'', ''Freedom and Resolve''
|-
|Richard Alpert ('Ram Dass')
|Vedanta
|
|
|
|Hanuman Foundation[https://hanumanfoundation.org/]
|
|
|-
|Paul Muller-Ortega
|Shaivism (Kashmir)
|
|Swami Lakshman Joo
|
|Blue Throat Yoga[https://www.bluethroatyoga.com/]
|
|
|-
|Richard Slavin ('Radhanath Swami')
|Vaishnavism
|ISKCON
|Srila Prabhupada
|
|Govardhan Eco Village[https://www.ecovillage.org.in/]
|Established multiple educational and bhakti institutions
|
|-
|Robert Hansen ('Satguru Sivaya Subramuniyaswami')
|Shaivism (Siddhanta)
|
|Yogaswami
|Yes
|Saiva Siddhanta Church[https://www.himalayanacademy.com/saiva-siddhanta-church/], Himalayan Academy[https://www.himalayanacademy.com/]
|
|''Hinduism Today''[https://www.hinduismtoday.com/] magazine
|-
|Stephen Cope
|
|
|Amrit Desai
|Kripalu Centre for Yoga and Health[https://kripalu.org/]
|Integrated Vedanta/yoga ethics into Western therapeutic spirituality
|
|
|-
|Stephen Guarino ('Satsvarupa Dasa Goswami')
|Vaishnavism (Gaudiya)
|ISKCON
|Srila Prabhupada
|Yes
|
|
|''Śrīla Prabhupāda-līlāmṛta''[https://vedabase.io/en/library/spl/] (1978-83)
|-
|}

;Guyanas
Guyana, former British Guyana and Suriname, former Dutch Guyana, were the countries of many Hindu immigrants. Both have had Hindu leaders as heads of the government.

==Africa==
Technically [[The spread of Hinduism#Egypt|Egypt]] was the first part of Africa in which the Hinduism spread.

;South Africa
[[image:First Hindus Temple in South Africa.jpg|right|thumb|200px|The first Hindu Temple in South Africa was a very simple design. It was built in 1869 and is now a Protected Site by South African government.]] The first Hindu temple in South Africa was constructed in 1869.

;Ghana
[[image:Hindus in Ghana.jpg|right|thumb|200px|Hindus celebrating [[Ganesha Chaturthi]] in Ghana.<Ref> [http://drishtikone.com/hinduism-growing-in-africa-without-proselytizing/ ''Hinduism growing in Africa without Proselytizing'' by Desh Kapoor] </ref>]]
[[image:Hare Krishnas in Ghana.jpg|right|thumb|200px|Hare Krishnas chanting in Ghana.<Ref> [http://drishtikone.com/hinduism-growing-in-africa-without-proselytizing/ ''Hinduism growing in Africa without Proselytizing'' by Desh Kapoor] </ref>]]

==See also==
*[[List of UNESCO Hindu World Heritage Sites|UNESCO Hindu World Heritage Sites]]
*[[Hindu Temples in Europe]]
*[[Temples]]
*[[Pilgrimages]]
*[[Zoroastrianism and Hinduism]]
*[[Historical racial diversity of Hindus]]
*[[Indus Valley Civilization]]
*[[Hindu response to conversions]]
*[[Hindu-inspired organizations]]
*[[The Hindu Renaissances]]
*[[Buddhist patronage by Hindu kings]]
*[[Sufism with Vaishnavism]]
*[[History of ancient geography]]

==External resources==
*[http://hinduwisdom.info/Pacific.htm Pacific Waves]
*[http://hinduwisdom.info/Seafaring_in_Ancient_India.htm Seafarers]
*[https://www.myindiamyglory.com/2018/06/28/western-alphabet-modelled-after-an-indian-alphabet-3400-plus-years-ago-indologist-wim-borsboom/ “Western Alphabet Modelled after an Indian Alphabet 3400 Plus Years Ago – Indologist Wim Borsboom”]
*[https://www.thesun.co.uk/news/1411522/sorry-nazis-the-swastika-is-11000-years-old-and-indian/ "GET YOUR FACTS REICH Sorry Nazis, the swastika is 11,000 years old and INDIAN" By Jasper Hamill, 8th July 2016, 11:14 am]

==References==
{{reflist}}

[[Category: The spread of Hinduism]]
[[Category: Geography]]
[[Category: Hindu history]]

The Spread of Hinduism

2026-06-09T06:46:42Z

Himanshu Bhatt: /* Americas */

{{Author|Himanshu Bhatt}}
[[image:Submerged Indian coast.jpg|right|thumb|200px|Indian shoreline before submersion from sea levels increasing, which began after end of last ice age in 10000 BCE, devastating the [[Indus Valley Civilization]] and leading to an exodus.]]
[[image:Out of Eurasia diffusion.jpg|right|thumb|200px|Out of Eurasia theory of human dispersion contradicts the mainstream viewpoint known as Out of Africa and has gained ground among geneticists, and further supports Out of India theory and [[History of ancient geography|Hindu myths]] of the sons of Emperor Priyavrata inheriting the eastern world island from their father.]]
[[image:Human migration patterns.jpg|right|thumb|200px|M130 is believed to have originated in India, as well as others, such as M20 and M45.]]
[[image:IVC trade.jpg|right|thumb|200px|Trade of the IVC.]]
<blockquote>
“Hinduism the perennial philosophy that is at the core of all religions.” - Aldous Huxley
</blockquote>
[[Hindu]] teachings were spread not just by Indian Hindus migrating and preaching outside of the Indian Subcontinent, but also by visitors to India who came for understanding [[Hinduism|Hindu spirituality]]. This latter section includes Greek philosophers such as Pythagoras, Orpheus and Plato, who had all returned to Greece and preached the concepts of [[karma]], [[bhakti]], [[gyāna]], reincarnation and [[Mokṣa]]. Iranian philosophers such as Mani also visited India and later preached similar messages as the Greeks who had become Hindu.

Hindu scholars noted for their wisdom had further promoted the religion through becoming advisers to monarchs outside of India. [[Kingdoms]] Kucha<ref>It means Kumarayāna.</ref> and Tukhara<ref>It means Dhitika.</ref> in Central Asia, Mongolia<ref>It means Śakya Pandita.</ref>, Naiman<ref>It means Tatatungya.</ref> in Western Mongolia, Tibet<ref>It means Padmasambhava.</ref> and mainland China<ref> It means [[Bodhidharma]]. </ref>, all chose Indian [[Rulers in Hinduism|Hindu advisers]] who promoted [[Hinduism]] throughout their kingdoms. Soon an era came in which Greek philosophers describe that 'Greater India' came into being with cultural similarities between many regions outside India. Central Asia was known as Serindia, while from Burma to the Strait of Malacca became Indochina and the islands of the Strait of Malacca became Indonesia.

Around 4000-3000 BCE, is when exploration in the Indian Ocean had began, and the international regions to communicate with one another were India, Gulf (i.e., Mesopotamia), and Oman.<ref> P. 15 ''Indian Ocean In Antiquity'' By Julian Reade </ref> The curiosity of places outside of India and knowledge of trading routes had led to the Indian diaspora both from sea and land. Following this the [[Historical racial diversity of Hindus#Integration of Indian Hindu migrants with Europeans|Yamnaya culture of Europe]] that prospered from 3500-2500 BCE, which consisted of mixed peoples from both Indo-Iranian and native European ancestry was established around 3500-3200 BCE. Hindu scholars, including scientists and missionaries, remained explorers and documented the [[History of ancient geography|various geographies of global places]] wherein they traveled.

Of the Indian Hindus in the ancient times that established colonies abroad, noteworthy are the [[Danavas]] of Sind province that, with their navigation expertise, had settled in various places where they had come to be been known as Danuna, Danunites, Danaoi, Danaus, Danaids, Dene, Danai, Danaian, and Dananns. Historians have noted tribes with the demonym 'Sindi' among the Thracians, Colchis, and both ancient and modern Kurds.

With the spread of British colonialism in the modern era, many Indians started regularly traveling and emigrating to other British colonies outside of India. Many others also traveled to other colonies, such as of France and Netherlands. Resulting from this diffusion and establishment of communities abroad, Indian Hindus have gone on to democratically achieve becoming leaders of countries such as Guyana, Suriname, Fiji and Mauritius. From colonialism, Europeans also received the opportunities to travel to India and then [[Hindu-inspired organizations|share spiritual ideas]] with Western nations. As such, the establishment of the [[Theosophical Society]] by Helena Blavatsky and [[Agni]] [[Yoga]] by Nicholas Roerich. The modern age has given a boost to Hinduism through [[Hindu-inspired organizations|organizations]] such as the [[Hare Krishna]]s, [[Ananda Margi]]s, [[Brahma Kumari]]s and others. [[Yoga]] has spread now and is practiced by many non-Hindus for improving and maintaining both physical and mental health.

<blockquote>
“South Asia, which is where Bos Indicus (zebu cattle) originated, was not isolated during this period. People seem to have migrated from the Indus Valley civilization into Central Asia around the same time as the climatic effect that happened around 4,200 years ago. This may have introduced zebu cattle ancestry into Near Eastern cattle populations.” - Iosif Lazaridis, Harvard Medical School geneticist<ref> [https://www.natureasia.com/en/nmiddleeast/article/10.1038/nmiddleeast.2019.100 "Ancient cattle DNA reveals a bullish tale"] By Lara Reid, Published online 12 July 2019 </ref>
</blockquote>

The influence of Hindus and Moksh-based religions to the history of the world is definitely undeniable. Mahatma Gandhi changed the world forever and his message of peaceful non-cooperation to obtain freedom and justice was implemented by other freedom fighters in former colonies, and by notable figures towards national reform as in the cases of Martin Luther King Junior and Aung San Suu Kyi. Time Magazine ranked him as number 54 on the list the most significant figures in all of history[https://ideas.time.com/2013/12/10/whos-biggest-the-100-most-significant-figures-in-history/], on the list of the important 20th century persons while WondersList[https://www.wonderslist.com/10-most-influential-people-of-the-20th-century/#:~:text=1%20Albert%20Einstein.%20Most%20Influential%20People%20of%2020th,9%20Princess%20Diana.%20...%2010%20Alexander%20Fleming.%20] as number 5 for that list, Time as number 9 for one of history’s most important leaders[http://content.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,988159,00.html], BBC as one of the most important philosophers, and other sources like Historyplex[https://historyplex.com/influential-people-in-history] as one of the most important persons overall in all of history.

==Middle East==
[[image:Ancient_Ariana_lands.jpg|right|thumb|200px|Ancient Greek historian Aelianus in ''De natura animalium'' (16.16), also mentions that there were "Indian Arianians" and there is some suggestion that control of Ariana fluctuated between Indian and Arian Arianians.]]
"''Slowly and gradually, it dawned upon them that the language of the ''Gatha'' and Zendavesta has very great kinship with the [[Sanskrta]] language; when the grammar of Panini, Katyayana, and Patanjali was applied then the Gatha and Zendavesta came to be understood by the westerners. The lesson from this amazing fact is clear that once the Iranians of the ''Gatha and Zendavesta'' and the Indo-Aryans of the [[Vedas]] formed one single race, speaking language akin to Samskrta. Indeed this is clear from the city tablets found in Tell-El-Amarna in Egypt and Boghaz Keui in Asia Minor. On the tablets are mentioned Indra, Varuna, Mitra and Nasatya as witnesses of the treaty between the King Subiluliuma of the Hittites, and the Mitanni King Mattiwaza. These tablets date to about 1600 B.C. These tablets clearly indicate that these Vedic gods who were quite familiar in the region about 1600 B.C. and that the people living there then had more or less a common religion''." - Yaqub Masih<ref> P. 21-22 ''A Comparative Study of Religions'' By Y. Masih </ref>

The process of Hinduism spreading in the Middle East is whereby Hindus left India and had traveled to regions within the ancient Neat East and had preached the doctrine and customs. Hindus of Mitanni were Hurrians while those of Anatolia were Hittites, those of Levant the Hurus and those of Egypt, the Hyksos.

{{Cquote|Ketumalavarsha indeed extends from Romakapura to [the] Gandhamadana [mountain].|4=Srimad Bhagavatam}}

===Iranian Plateau===
''See also: [[Zoroastrianism and Hinduism]]''
[[image:Vishnu statue Mashad.jpg|right|thumb|200px|Statue of Vishnu sitting cross-legged while holding conch and lotus (underneath peacock) at mosque in Mashad, Khorasan, Iran.]]
[[image:Agathocles Indo-Bactrian coin.jpg|right|thumb|200px|One of Greco-Bactrian Empire's coins from King Agathocles Dikaios issued around 190-180 BCE, featuring Balarama (left) and Krishna (right) holding [[Dharmachakra]].<Ref> P. 330 ''The Serpent The Eagle The Lion & The Disk'' By Brannon Parke </ref>]]
[[image:Kadphises Kushan coin.jpg|right|thumb|200px|Four of Kushan Empire's coins from King Vima Katphisa issued around 166-230 CE, featuring Shiva with his bull attendant. They read, "[Coin] of the great King Vima Kathphisa, the king of kings, lord of all the world, the Mahavesvara."<ref> P. 370'' Studies in Indian Coins'' By D.C. Sircar </ref>]]
[[image:Lakshmi displayed on coin.jpg|right|thumb|200px|Hunnic Empire's coin of Bactria in Brahmi from 400-500 CE displaying Lakshmi holding a lotus in one hand and a cornucopia in the other.]]
[[image:Hindu Temple Bandar Abbas.jpg|right|thumb|200px|Vaiśnava temple in Bandar Abbas, southern Iran. The temple was built in 1892 particularly for the recent Indian immigrants, many of whom were merchants and soldiers. In 1965 the temple was vacant as Indians emigrated. Whereas temples are usually made by stone, dew the climate of Bandar Abbas, rubble stones, mortar, coral rock, soil material and plaster was used in this temple’s construction.]]

;Movement of Indians into Iran
<blockquote>
"Slowly and gradually, it dawned upon them that the language of the ''Gatha'' and Zendavesta has very great kinship with the Sanskrta language; when the grammar of Panini, Katyayana, and Patanjali was applied then the Gatha and Zendavesta came to be understood by the westerners. The lesson from this amazing fact is clear that once the Iranians of the ''Gatha'' and ''Zendavesta'' and the Indo-Aryans of the Vedas formed one single race, speaking language akin to Samskrta." - Yaqub Masih<ref> P. 21-22 ''A Comparative Study of Religions'' By Y. Masih </ref>
</blockquote>

Ancient Iranian lands had a diversity of spiritual beliefs and the religions included Zoroastrianism, Manicheism, Yazdanism, Mandeanism and others. As the original Indo-Iranian homeland was eastwards in the [[Himalayas]], the nations of those areas spread westwards and found existing non-Indo-European peoples there such as Kasodians in Gilan, Taporians in Mazandaran, Urartians in the Caucus Mountain Range, Turukkus, Kassites and Lolobites in the Zagros Mountain Range and Elamites on the southern shoreline. The Turkic groups were known collectively to the natives as the 'Turani'<ref>They were called '[[Turiya]]' in the Avesta.</ref> and they were [[Danava#Turkic affiliation|associated with Dānu]], just as the Tarukṣas coming into India were too. The non-Indo-Iranians (or non-Aryans) were known to the Aryans as 'Anariakoi' (''non-Aryan people''), and this was the term documented by Greek writers for Hyrcanians<ref> P. 25 ''An Inquiry Into the Ethnography of Afghanistan: Prepared and Presented to ...'' By Henry Walter Bellew </ref> and others. Overtime, the Indo-Iranian cultural significance in the societies of the plateau led to the formation of Indo-Iranian nations that were native to the region (i.e., [[The spread of Hinduism#Mitanni|Hurrians]], Baluchis, Armenians.) A Turani monarch had however opposed the Indo-Iranian influence on the plateau and invaded Balkh.<ref>It is in northern Afghanistan.</ref> After its conquest both its king and the king's close friend Zarathustra were executed by invading Turanis.<ref> P. 62 ''Mute [[Dreams]], Blind Owls, and Dispersed Knowledges: Persian Poesis in the Transnational Circuitry'' By Michael M. J. Fischer </ref>

Sir William Jones notes:
<blockquote>Thus it has been proved by clear evidence and plain reasoning that a powerful monarch was established in Iran long before the Assyrian or Pishadi government. That it was in fact, a '''Hindu monarchy''', though any may choose to call it Cusian, Casdean or Scythian..."<ref> P. 133 ''The works of Sir William Jones: with the life of the author by Lord Teignmouth in Thirteen Volumes Volume 3'' By Sir William Jones </ref> </blockquote>

;Closeness between religions of Iran to Hinduism
Zoroastrianism, which is also known as ''Mazdayasna'' (''Sacrifice to [[Asura|Ahura Mazda]]'') and as ''Vehdin'' (''Good Religion''), resembles Hinduism in many ways, such as in its origin, beliefs (i.e., common [[deities]]) and iconography. Dr. Mills says, "The Avesta is nearer the [[Veda]] than the [[Veda]] to its own epic [[Sanskrit]]." Major gods or yazatas<ref>Yazatas means ''venerable ones''.</ref> included Varuṇa and [[Mitra]]. Zarathustra (Greek: Zoroaster) Spitama was an Athravan priest, a descendant of the Vedic Atharvans. The swastika has been a popular symbol throughout the history of Iran and it has been called by Persians, "The four horses of [[Mitra]]."

Among the followers of Zoroastrianism, while the scriptures do not mention the idea of [[re-incarnation]], it is not denied either<ref> ''Textual Sources for the Study of Zoroastrianism'' edited by Mary Boyce </ref> and some Zoroastrians of India<ref>It is particularly members of the Parsi Theosophy.</ref> believe in reincarnation.<ref> P. 264 The Parsis of India: Preservation of Identity in Bombay City By Jesse S. Palsetia </ref> Some esoteric Parsi mystics such as Beaman adhered to the belief in reincarnation.<ref> P. 178 Parsis in India and the Diaspora edited by John Hinnells, Alan Williams </ref> The belief in karma and re-incarnation are perpetuated in the ''Desatir'', wherein it declares that those who are happy now have done good deeds in a previous life while those who suffer now have done bad deeds in former life.<ref>P. 522 ''The British Critic: A New Review, Volume 20'' </ref> It is therefore discredited as a Mazdaean work.

Of Mandeans, Chevalier Emerys writes, "Modern Johannite Mandean Christians of Iraq, also known as Nazoreans, still believe in the doctrine of reincarnation and also teach that Jesus was the reincarnation of the prophet Melchizedek."<ref>P. 49 Revelation of the Holy Grail By Chevalier Emerys </ref> The Mandeans also believe in reincarnation of the human, if a human does not marry within his or her lifetime.<ref>P. 41 ''Gnostic Ethics and Mandaean [[Origins]]'' By Edwin M. Yamauchi </ref> Islamic Druzism believes in reincarnation, and is named after Persian Batinite missionary named Muhammad bin Ismail Nashtakin ad-Darazi. Muslim Shah Ismail the Persian Sultan was one of the founders of Alevism or the "People of Fire" and this Islamic sect believes in reincarnation. The Islamic sects of Shabak, Bajalan, Sarli, and Kakais are also very closely affiliated with Iranians and has a belief in re-incarnation.

After the Islamization of the Iranian Plateau, some intellectuals resisted and established their own new religions, which contained some hindu ideas and some other themes that they were familiar with. This includes, Yarsanism (Ahl-e Haqq) established in the 14th century by Sultan Sahak as a Yazdan sect and Baha'ism by Bahá'u'lláh in the 19th century. Whereas both traditional Hinduism and [[Buddhism]] were popular in the eastern part of the Iranian Plateau, Mithraism became popular within Zoroastrianism particularly in the western part. From here the popularity of the god Mitra spread to Assyria, Anatola and Europe. The Avesta declares, "This Mitra, the lord of the wide pastures, I have created as worthy of sacrifice, as I, Ahura Mazda, am myself."<ref>P. 1xi ''The Zend-Avesta: The Sîrôzahs, Yasts, and Nyâyis'' edited by James Darmesteter, Lawrence Heyworth Mills </ref> Philosopher Mani of Persia had spent time in India, and after having accepted the ideas of re-incarnation and [[Means to Salvation|the three paths to Mokṣa]], he began preaching of them in Iran. His set of beliefs are called Manicheism.

;Association of regions within Iranian Plateau to India
The Zoroastrian Vendidad reads, "The country of Hind extends from east of the Indus to west of it." This, India in the Vendidad's definition includes Baluchistan and Seistan.

Ancient Persians called the regions stretching from Hormuz to Baluchistan as 'Hind'<ref>It is the original name of India.</ref> because those areas had more in common with India than with the other Iranian cultures located west to them. King Dhrishataketu of Kaikeya Kingdom married Śrutakirtti and had by her Santarddana, and four other sons, known together as the five Kaikeyas. The Kaikeyas were a major dynasty in India and it was on both sides of the Indus River. The Anava Kingdom of Uśinara Sibi, extended from Baluchistan to the Punjab. Even modern times Sibi is a district within Baluchistan.

Further, the Helmand region of Afghanistan was called by Persians as 'White India'. Siestan was also referred by Greek philosophers to as White India. Referring to the peoples of this region, Alexander called them, "the Indians on this side of the [[Indus River|river Indus]]."<ref>P. 128 ''Handbuch der Orientalistik. Abt. 1, Der Nahe und der Mittlere Osten, Bd 8, Religion, Abschnitt 1, Religionsgeschichte des Alten Orients, Lief. 2. H. 2, A history of Zoroastrianism, Vol. 3, Zoroastrianism under Macedonian and Roman rule'' By Mary Boyce; Frantz Grenet</ref>

Overtime, the natives of this region stayed and many became Buddhist in modern-day Afghanistan and the Afghans turned Kandahar into a Buddhist pilgrimage center which was visited by devout Buddhists from China and Indonesia. While Takśaśila was a city in east of the Indian river on the Iranian side, there were other important centres. The two great Indian grammarians [[Panini]] and [[Patanjali]] have mentioned a number of north-western cities like Balkh or Vahika, Kapisa, Pushkalavati, Masakavati, Takśaśila and Sakala. Takśaśila was the greatest and most flourishing city.<ref> P. viii ''A History of Indian Civilization: Ancient and classical traditions'' By Radhakamal Mukerjee, Gurmukh Ram Madan, Viśvaprakāśa Gupta</ref>

;Modern Relations between the Plateau and Hinduism
Hare [[Krishna]]'s founder [[A.C. Bhaktivedanta Swami Prabhupada]] traveled to Tehran in 1976. Since 1977, [[ISKCON]] runs a vegetarian restaurant in Tehran.

===Assyria===
Assyria was known as Asuristan.<Ref> P. 10 ''The [[Sound]] System of Modern Assyrian (Neo-Aramaic)'' By Edward Y. Odisho </ref> The name of Assyria comes from Rigvedic 'Asurya', the original name of the sun-god [[Surya]]. Syrians still to this day, pronounce the name of Syria as '[[Surya]]'. Hence, Assyria's name would have been pronounced as 'Asurya'.

In the 6th century CE, the Lower Euphrates was known as 'India within land' or just 'Hind' (India) in general.<ref> P. 421 ''Gazetteer of the Bombay Presidency: Tha'na (2 pts.) Volume XIII, Part II'' By Government Central Press </ref> Oderic in 1320 CE also speaks of the Lower Euphrates as 'India within land'. Much like how the [[Indus Valley Civilization|Indus River Civilization]] had priest-kings as ruler of certain towns and cities, Assyria too had a priest-prince ruler. Hence, from the Indian Hindu influence, [[Parshurama]] is also believed to have been worshiped in the region. In the ancient Sumerian [[Social Structure|social structure]] as well, there was a leader of the Baramas (i.e., [[Brahmana]]s) named Bur-Sin and the belief by some scholars is that he is Parshurama.

The patriarchal god of the Assyrians was Assur, who is always portrayed on a winged chakkra-sun or sundisk, just as the frahavars<ref>Frahavars means angels.</ref> of Iranian spirituality are shown. The Assyrians, referred to a [[dharmachakra|chakkra]] as a wheel. The cultural and political capital of the Assyrians was Assur, named after the god. Assur was also known as ''Asara Mazas''<ref>For them some scholars believe that they origin from the proto-Indo-Iranian form ''[[Asura]] Mazdas''.</ref><ref> ''History of Civilizations of Central Asia: The development of sedentary and nomadic civilizations: 700 B.C. to A.D. 250'' By Ahmad Hasan Dani </ref> Furthermore, god Enki was also known as Masda and Masenda. God Assur had later been identified within Judeo-Christian Biblical mythology as Ashur, the son of Shem.

It is believed that Europe had borrowed the planetary names for the week's days that the Babylonians used. Babylon was a part of the Assyrian Empire. When Hindus had spread to Assyria, they had brought this system of the week with them.

{| cellspacing="1" style="width:100%;" class="wikitable sortable"
|-
| || Sunday || Monday || Tuesday || Wednesday || Thursday || Friday || Saturday
|-
|Planet
| style="width:12%;"| Sun
| style="width:12%;"| Moon
| style="width:12%;"| Mars
| style="width:12%;"| Mercury
| style="width:12%;"| Jupiter
| style="width:12%;"| Venus
| style="width:12%;"| Saturn
|-
| [[Hindu gods|Hindu deity]]
| [[Ravi]]
| [[Soma]]
| [[Mangala]]
| [[Buddha]]
| [[Guru]]
| [[Shukra]]
| [[Shani]]
|-
|Mazdaen deity<ref> P. 253 ''The Wiley-Blackwell Companion to Zoroastrianism'' By Michael Stausberg, Yuhan Sohrab-Dinshaw Vevaina, [[Anna]] Tessmann </ref><REF> P. 37 ''Persian Architectural Heritage: Architecture, Structure and Conservation'' By Mehrdad Hejazi, Fatemeh Mehdizadeh Saradj </REF>
|Mitra
|
|Vrarayna
|Tiriya
|Ahura Mazda
|Ardvi Anahita [[Sura]]
|Kayvanu
|-
|Assyrian deity<ref> P. 253 ''The Wiley-Blackwell Companion to Zoroastrianism'' By Michael Stausberg, Yuhan Sohrab-Dinshaw Vevaina, [[Anna]] Tessmann </ref>
|
|
|Nergal
|Nabu
|Marduk
|Ishtar
|Kajamanu
|-
| Greco-Roman deity
| style="width:12%;"| Helios-Sol
| style="width:12%;"| Selene-Luna
| style="width:12%;"| Ares-Mars
| style="width:12%;"| Hermes-Mercury
| style="width:12%;"| Zeus-Jupiter
| style="width:12%;"| Aphrodite-Venus
| style="width:12%;"| Cronus-Saturn
|-
|}

The Assyrians had referred to India as ''Melluhha''. This comes from the name Mallhu and Malla, which many kings in India, particularly western India and Baluchistan have been called. There was even Mount Malleus mountain that Sind<ref> ''Studia Orientalia, Volume 64'' </ref> was known for having. Even the coast of Kerala is known as Malankara.

===Mitanni===
[[image:Nefertitti image at Amarna.jpg|right|thumb|200px|Mural of Nefertiti found at Amarna in 1912. She was an Indo-Aryan princess from Mitanni, who married an Egyptian Pharaoh Amenhotep IV (Akhnaton), and reigned ca. 1353-1336 BCE.]]

Today this region is known as Kurdistan. In the ancient times, the inhabitants of Mitanni were known as Hurrians. In the Judeo-Christian Bible, they are known as the Horites.<ref> P. 64 ''The Hebrew Pharaohs of Egypt: The Secret Lineage of the Patriarch Joseph'' By Ahmed Osman </ref> Sanskritic interpretations of Mitanni names render the following:
* Artashumara (artaššumara) - It means that it is as [[Arta]]-smara "who thinks of [[Arta]]/Ṛta".<ref>Mayrhofer II 780</ref>
* Biridashva (biridaša, biriiaša) - It means that it is as Prītāśva "whose horse is dear".<ref>Mayrhofer II 182</ref>
* Priyamazda (priiamazda) - It means that it is as Priyamedha "whose wisdom is dear".<ref>Mayrhofer II 189, II378</ref>
* Citrarata as [[citraratha]] - It means that it is "whose chariot is shining".<ref>Mayrhofer I 553</ref>
* Indaruda/Endaruta - It means that it is as Indrota "helped by Indra".<ref>Mayrhofer I 134</ref>
* Shativaza (šattiaza) - It means that it is as Sātivāja "winning the race price".<ref>Mayrhofer II 540, 696</ref>
* Šubandhu as Subandhu - It means that it is like 'having good relatives".<ref>It is a name in Palestine.</ref><ref>Mayrhofer II 209, 735</ref>
* Tushratta (tišeratta, tušratta, etc.) - It means that it is as taišaratha, Vedic Tveṣaratha "whose chariot is vehement".<ref>Mayrhofer I 686, I 736</ref>

Apart from Queen Nefertiti, Ramesid pharaohs were also of Mitanni descent.<Ref> P. 85 ''Arshile Gorky Adoian'' By Karlen Mooradian </ref>

===Hatti===
The Hittites or Nesili, whose empire was known as 'Hatti' and 'Kadesh', had believed in re-incarnation as attested by their writings. They [[worshiped]] the Devas like [[Indra]], [[Nasatyas]] (Ashvins), [[Mitra]] and [[Varuṇa]]. This is confirmed by the Suppiluliuma-Shattiwaza Treaty between the Hittites and Hurrians. The beleaguered Tusratta was then murdered by his son in a palace coup. Tusratta's other son, Prince Shattiwaza, fled Mitanni and was eventually given sanctuary by the Hittite King Suppiluliuma with whom he concluded a treaty 1380 BCE, which we know as the Suppiluliuma-Shattiwaza Treaty discovered in 1907 CE in Hattusa near present-day Bogazkale (Boğazkale, formerly Bogazköy) in north-central Turkey. In the treaty, the Hittite King Suppiluliuma agreed to assist Shattiwaza to gain the Mitanni throne. The Hittites captured the Mitanni capital Wassukanni after a second attempt and installed Shattiwaza as a vassal king.

The Suppiluliuma-Shattiwaza Treaty is a source of considerable information about the Mitanni. In addition, it gives us some astonishing information about the religious practices of the Mitanni for it invokes the Indo-Iranian pantheon of [[Asuras]] and Devas Mitras(il) (Mitra), Uruvanass(il) (Varuṇa), Indara (Indra) and the Nasatianna (Nasatyas.) In the Judeo-Christian Bible, the Hitties are assimilated to have been descended from Heth, the son of Ham.

===Levant===
The Levant region includes countries of the Mediterranean coast which are located at the southwest Asian area. The Hindus here were an Indo-Aryan speaking population called as the Huru.

===Egypt===
:''See also: [[Danava]]''
<blockquote>
"One of the oldest colonies founded by the Hindus was in Egypt" - G. R. Josyer<ref> P. 104 ''Astrological Magazine, Volume 73, Issues 1-6'' 1984 </ref>
</blockquote>
The Hyksos were an Indo-Aryan dynasty, according to the scholars such as Sam Kerr<ref> P. 15 ''Cyrus the Great - Celestial Sovereign'' By Sam Kerr </ref> and M. Chahin<Ref> P. 28 ''The Kingdom of Armenia: A History'' By M. Chahin </ref>. They had come to Egypt and settled within its Delta region in about 1674-1547 BCE<ref> P. 28 ''The Kingdom of Armenia: A History'' By M. Chahin </ref> and within a few centuries dominated the country. Much cultural exchange happened during the period of their rule.
<blockquote>
“Egypt was colonized from India, and the priests of Egypt were of the same order as the Brahmins of India.” - Godfrey Higgins<ref> p. 121 ''Anacalypsis: An Attempt to Draw Aside the Veil of the Saitic Isis'' (Vol. I) By Godfrey Higgins </ref>
</blockquote>
Excavations in El-Amarna in Egypt have yielded the fact that around the 14th-15th centuries BCE, kings and princes with Vedic-like names were ruling in the region of modern day Syria. Some of the names are Artamanya, Aryavirya, Yashodatta, Suttarna and Dushratta. Thutmose IV had married a daughter of Artatma, the King of the Mitanni Kingdom. A letter addressed by Dushratta, Artatama's grandson, written to Akhnaton, says that it was not until Thutmose asked seven times that King Artatma agreed to his marriage proposal. Amenhotep III married Tiy, daughter of Yuaa<ref>He is a foreigner "from North Syria".</ref> and Tuau. During this time in Egyptian history, the ruling aristocracy of Egypt, were of mixed Egyptian and Mitanni ancestry. According to Akhnaton, Aton was both the male and female. He says to Aton, "Father and Mother of all that You have made." This parallels with the Hindu terms for the sun-god, Savita<ref>He is the male form.</ref> and Savitri<ref>She is the female form.</ref> or the sun and the sun's energy ([[Puruṣa]] and [[Prakṛti]].)

The Hyksos were descendants of the Indian Danavas. They're written of in Egyptian, Hittite, and Hellenic accounts under the names Danuna, Danunites, Danaoi, Danaus, Danaids, Dene, Danai, and Danaian.<ref> P. 218 ''Sea Peoples of the Bronze Age Mediterranean c.1400 BCÂ?1000 BC'' By Raffaele DÂ?Amato, Andrea Salimbeti </ref> In mythology it was Ramses III who exiles them from Egypt, whereby they take refuge in Greece and spread further into Europe from there.

Burials have been uncovered of Indian monkeys, leading archaeologists to believe that they were imported from India.<ref> [https://www.heritagedaily.com/2020/08/ancient-animal-burials-in-egypt-were-monkeys-imported-as-pets-from-india/134834 ANCIENT ANIMAL BURIALS IN EGYPT WERE MONKEYS IMPORTED AS PETS FROM INDIA] (August 25, 2020) By HeritageDaily </ref>

===Arabian Peninsula===
This region was historically known to Indians as Arabaka or Arvasthān.<ref>It means the ''Land of Horses''.</ref> Before the Islamization of the region beginning with [[Islam]]'s prophet Mohammed, peoples here more freely practiced their spirituality. Mohammed's own uncle, Umar-bin-e-Hassham had died for his devotion to [[Śiva]]. Among his writings, one poem of him depicting his faith in Śiva, has been found. It has come to be known as the "Śiva Stuti." The poem reads as follows:

{| class="wikitable sortable"
|-
! English
! Arabic
|-
|
:The man who may spend his life in sin
:and irreligion or waste it in lechery and wrath
:If at least he relent and return to
:righteousness can he be saved?
:If but once he [[bhakti|worship]] Mahadeva with a pure
:heart, he will attain the ultimate in spirituality.
:Oh Lord [[Shiva]] exchange my entire life for but
:a day’s sojourn in India where one attains salvation.
:But one pilgrimage there secures for one all
:merit and company of the truly great.
|
:Kafavomal fikra min ulumin Tab asayru
:Kaluwan amataul Hawa was Tajakhru
:We Tajakhayroba udan Kalalwade-E Liboawa
:Walukayanay jatally, hay Yauma Tab asayru
:Wa Abalolha ajabu armeeman '''Mahadeva'''
:Manojail ilamuddin minhum wa sayattaru
:Wa Sahabi Kay-yam feema-Kamil MINDAY Yauman
:Wa Yakulum no latabahan foeennak Tawjjaru
:Massayaray akhalakan hasanan Kullahum
:Najumum aja-at Summa gabul '''Hindu'''
|-
|}

Umar-bin-e-Hassham had the title of 'Abul Kaham', which in Arabic means ''doctor''.<Ref> P. 705 ''World Vedic heritage: a history of histories : presenting a unique unified field theory of history that from the beginning of time the world practiced Vedic culture and spoke [[Sanskrit]], Volume 1'' By Puruṣottam Nagesh Oak </ref> It is a fact that the Kaaba was worshiped in by non-Muslims before Islam. It is believed by some that before the Kaaba was Islamicized and made a pilgrimage for only Muslims, it was a Śiva temple. Umar-bin-e-Hassham is known to have been a priest at Kaaba. His composition was a part of the ''Sair-ul-Okul'' compiled by Labi-bin-e-Akhtab bin-e Turfa, which contained verses composed by multiple authors.

''The Encyclopedia Islamia'' admits: "''Muhammed's grandfather and uncles were hereditary priests of the Kaaba temple which housed 360 [[idols]]!''" Besides the Arabian Umar-bin-e-Hassham having been a priest at the temple, another point that some people make is that the black stone at the Kaaba is actually a Śivalinga.

[[Kṛṣṇa]] was also worshiped in Arabia and his tale is written in an Islamic Hadith. The text titled, ''The History of Hamadan Dailmi'' (Chapter "Al-Kaaf") declares, “''There was a prophet of God in India who is dark in color and his name was Kahān [Kanha, i.e., Kṛṣṇa].''”<ref> P. 181 ''Green Leaves: Harish S. Booch Memorial Volume'' By Harish S. Booch </ref>

==East Asia==
"''Mother of wisdom...India gave her mythology to her neighbors who went to teach it to the whole world. Mother of law and philosophy, she gave to three-quarters of Asia a god, a religion, a doctrine, an art.''" - Sylvain Lévi, French Scholar & Indologist

===Tibet===
[[image:Tonpa Shenrab.jpg|right|thumb|200px|[[Yungdrung Bon|Bonpa Dharma]] founder [[Tonpa Shenrab Miwoche]], also known as Shenrab Miwo, and Buddha Shenrab.]] Hinduism in Tibet began with the Bon religion of Tonpa Shenrab, who is noted in Bon scriptures to have come from a western land called Olmo Lungring and wandered into Zhang Zhung (western Tibet.) In some Tibetan scriptures, Shenrab's country is also called as sTag-gzig, Shangri-La and Shambhalla. Like several other ṛṣis such as [[Riṣabha]], [[Rāvaṇ]] and [[Śukra|Śukracharya]], Tonpa too meditated at [[Mount Kailāśa]]. 

According to most Bon sources on Guru Shenrab's dating, he arrived in Tibet either around 18,000<ref> ''The bsTan rTsis'' </ref> or 16,000 years ago. According to another Bon tradition, he was a contemporary of the pre-8th century Zhang Zhung king Triwer Sergyi Jyaruchan.<ref>P. 339 ''The Golden Letters: The Three Statements of Garab Dorje, First Dzogchen Master'' By John Myrdhin Reynolds </ref> However, the present day Tibetan history scholar and Dzogchen master Chogyal Namkhai Norbu calculates the probable actual date of his birth as 1917 BCE. 

What brought the prince to the region was his quest to retrieve his 7 blue horses that were stolen by his aggressor Khyab-Pa Lag-Ring and taken to Zhang Zhung. Master Shenrab went forth with his four attendants to find them. During his time in Zhang Zhung, he taught the locals the basic tenants of Bon Dharma. He found the horses and Khyab-Pa became his pupil. They left Tibet to return home and at age 32 Prince Shenrab decided to give up the royal life and take solitude ([[Gyāna|sanyāsa]]) to become a monk. Khyab-Pa had become his leading disciple.

At age 82 he departed the world and attained Mokṣa. Both in his country and among the locals in Zhang Zhung, Buddha Shenrab was successful in stopping ritual [[animal sacrifices]]. Bon preachers continued visiting Tibet for further propagating the religion, and many Tibetan Bonpas visited Olmo Lungring for learning the religion and meeting with Bonpa scholars. There are two types of Bonpas classed by Buddhists, White Bon<ref>They are the ones who also follow Buddhism.</ref> and Black Bon.<ref>They are strictly Bonpas.</ref> 

Apart from Tonpa Shenrab (the teacher), there are 3 other Sugatas, who together are known as Bon's 'Four Transcendent Lords'. They are Satrig Ersang (the great mother goddess), Shenlha Okar (god of light or wisdom), and Sangpo Bumtri (the procreator.) Other recognized Sugatas are Kuntu Kazgpo (who is similar to Buddhism's Adi Buddha), Kunzang Gyalwa Gyatso (a person similar to Avalokitesvara), and Welse Ngampa, Sipai Gyalmo (a 9-headed protector of Bon.)<ref> P. 304 ''[[Annapurna]]: A Trekker's Guide'' By Siân Pritchard-Jones, Bob Gibbons </ref>

===Uyghurstan===
{{Cquote|It is said that Bhadrasva-varṣa extends from the city of Yamakoti up to the Malyavat mountain.|4=Srimad Bhagavatam}}

Known anciently as Turkharistan, and now as East Turkistan or Uyghurstan, Buddhism was originally spread here by many missionaries from India. Later, missionaries within the country spread the [[dharma]]. It is noteworthy that the sun-god was known to the Saka Khotan Kingdom of the Tarim Basin as ''Urmaysde'' which scholars link to the term Ahura Mazda<ref> P. 132 ''The Nativist Prophets of Early Islamic Iran: Rural Revolt and Local Zoroastrianism'' By Patricia Crone</ref>. These Indo-Iranian words started coming over with migrants who were missionaries and merchants from India and Iran.

[[Bhadrasva]]-varṣa is the name for the Tarim Basin or southern Uyghurstan, and for northern Uyghurstan (plus Kazakhstan) it is Uttara-[[Kuru]].

===China===
''See also: [[Daoism and Hinduism]]''
"''India conquered and dominated China culturally for 20 centuries without ever having to send a single soldier across her border''." - Hu Shih, Chinese ambassador to the U.S. (1938-42)[http://www.hinduwisdom.info/India_and_China.htm]

Indian missionaries and monks worked with Chinese spiritual leaders and together preached the message of Moksha.

Bodhidharma is the well-known of the persons that increased the cultural relationships between India and China.

Some Tamil Siddhars too had visited China to discuss and spread spiritual knowledge. The Siddhar saint Bogar, disciple of Kalanginaathar, visited China. It is said that he proceeded there to teach the ways of the Siddhars. There is a legend that Lao Tze is Bogar. Daoxuan said passionately that India, and not China, should be considered the center of the world.

Writing of the Chinese language, Christian Reverend Joseph Edkins writes that Hindus prepared the model of the Chinese first letters during 3rd-6th centuries CE, arranged them under heads of 36 consonants like in Sanskrit, and instructed Chinese people in the way of right pronunciation with regard to the scientific basis of the sound.<ref> P. 248 ''Some Missing Chapters of World History'' By Purushottam Nagesh Oak </ref>

===Japan===
[[image:Saraswati, Vaishravana, and Ganesh statue Hatsukaichi.jpg|left|thumb|200px|From left to right, Benzaiten ([[Saraswati]]), Kangiten ([[Ganesh]]) and Bishamonten ([[Vaishravana]]) in the 1,200 year-old Daishō-in Temple Complex, Hatsukaichi, Japan.]]
[[image:Shivlinga Nayoga.jpg|right|thumb|200px|Shivlinga in the Toganji Temple at Nayoga, Japan.]]

"''India is culturally, Mother of Japan. For centuries it has, in her own characteristic way, been exercising her influence on the thought and culture of Japan.''" - Professor Hajime Nakamura

Atsushi Taguchi<ref>"''The transmission of Indian concepts—Hindu deities adapted into Shinto kami and Buddhist mandalas—exerted significant influence on Japan's religious worldview, contributing to its unique civilizational blend.''" - Atsushi Taguchi, Indologist and cultural historian; ''India-Japan Cultural Relations: From Ancient Times to Modern'' (2018)</ref>, Gen'ichi Yamaguchi<ref>"''Indian Buddhist thought, carrying Hindu philosophical undercurrents, profoundly shaped Japanese aesthetics and social harmony, influencing everything from tea ceremonies to imperial rituals—without which modern Japanese civilization would lack its syncretic depth.''" - Gen'ichi Yamaguchi, Buddhist studies scholar; "The Influence of Indian Buddhism on Japanese Culture" (2012) article–excerpts in ''Journal of Indian Philosophy'' (2015)</ref>Dr. Yoshihiro Kaburagi<ref>"''Since ancient times, Japan has assimilated various foreign cultures, particularly through Buddhism from India, which led to the formation of Japanese civilization.''" - Dr. Yoshihiro Kaburagi, historian and comparative civilization scholar</ref> have also written about the historical influence of Hinduism/India on Japan.
Due to the cultural exchange between India and Japan, mainstream Hindu gods were adopted by Japanese. Ganesh is known as Kangi-ten and as Bināyaka-ten which originates from the Sanskrit name [[Vināyaka]].

==South East Asia==
This whole region has been known in Hindu scriptures as Suvarṇabhumi.<ref>It means ''The Golden Land''.</ref> Hinduism has been the dominant religion amongst several nations for a long time here. Indonesia<ref>It was former Javadwipa.</ref> was dominantly Hindu until Islamization by missionaries and Islamists within the islands. At one point, lands even as far as the Philippines were part of the Chola Empire.<ref> [http://www.sanskritimagazine.com/history/the-tamil-chola-empire/ The Tamil Chola Empire] </ref>

===Burma===
"''They did not practice Theravada Buddhism, rather they observed a form of Mahayana Buddhism much influenced by Vaishnavism and native Naga (serpent) worship.''"<ref>''Essays on the History and Buddhism of Burma'' (2005) By Dr. U Than Tun</ref> - Dr. U Than Tun

Dr. Aye Aye Mar (Indologist), Dr. Khin Maung Nyunt (archaeologist & epigraphist), U Min Naing (cultural historian), and U Aung Thwin (historian) have also written about the historical influence of Hinduism/India on Burma.

In most Hindu scriptures, Burma is known as Brahmadesh. Buddhist scriptures sometimes called it Majjhimadesh. Greek philosopher Pliny had said that on the river called Ava or Pumas or Puman, many nations along it are in general called Bracmanae or Brahmane.<ref> P. 443 ''Asiatick Researches, Or, Transactions of the Society Instituted ..., Volume 14'' </ref> Hence, there is also the [[Brahmaputra]] River near Burma which crosses North-East India.

Several Hindu temples here date back to pre-Buddhistic times. In Burma there is a Dagoba dedicated to Dagon ([[Matsya|Matsya avatār]] of [[Viṣṇu]]) which Burmese claim is over 3000 years old.<ref> P. 37 ''Shambhala'' By Nicholas Roerich </ref>

===Cambodia===
[[image:Angkot War.jpg|right|thumb|200px|[[List of UNESCO Hindu World Heritage Sites#Cambodia|Angkot Wat Temple]], Cambodia.]]
"''From the 5th century, Hinduism established cults in Chenla that integrated with indigenous beliefs, creating a syncretic society... The Preah Thong myth shows how Indian origins were localized to legitimize Khmer rule.''"<ref>Quote in ''Inscriptions du Cambodge'' (Volume on Chenla, 2012, EFEO) By George Cœdès</ref> - Sovath Prak, epigraphist & historian

Chea Socheat, Michael Vickery (historian), Ros Chantrabot (historian & former diplomat), and Serey Sok (archaeologist) have also written about the historical influence of Hinduism/India on Cambodia.

The name Cambodia comes from the founder of the first Khmer Dynasty from India, who was Kambhoja. From him Cambodia is usually called by its natives as either 'Kambuja' or 'Kampuchea'. Its national flag displays the world-famous [[List of UNESCO Hindu World Heritage Sites#Cambodia|Angkor Wat Temple]] within the country. Angkor Wat is the largest spiritual monument in the world. It was built by King Suryavarman II.

An inscription from Anghor Vat runs thus: "''The [[Brahman]] Agastya, born in the land of the Aryans, devoted to the [[worship]] of Siva, having come by his psychic powers to the land of the Cambodians for the purpose of worshipping the Siva-linga known as Bhadresvara, and having worshipped the god for a long time, attained to beatitude.''"

===Indonesia===
[[image:Chola Empire and its tributaries.jpg|right|thumb|200px|The Chola Empire and its tributary lands. Indonesia was once a part of the Greater Chola Empire or 'Choladesh'.]]
"''Indonesia's ancient Hindu legacy, through processes of Indianization, laid the groundwork for tolerant pluralism...The Majapahit Empire (14th century) exemplifies how Hindu dharma fostered unity across ethnic groups, influencing modern Pancasila."''<ref>"Hindu Roots of Indonesian Tolerance", ''Journal of Indonesian Islam'' (2009) By Hilman Latief</ref> - Professor Dr. Hilman Latief, Syarif Hidayatullah State Islamic University

Agus Aris Munandar (archaeologist and historian), I Made Titib (theologian and philosopher), Ida Bagus Putu Jandhy (philosopher and cultural scholar), and Ni Wayan Sukerti (linguist and Indologist) have also written about the historical influence of Hinduism/India on Indonesia.

The largest and most prestigious native Indonesian dynasties were Srivijaya, Mataram, Shailendra, and Majapahit. The Chola Dynasty of India was a great link between both India and Indonesia as the exchange of cultures occurred, leading to closer ties between Indonesians and Indians.

Indonesians believe that [[Agastya|Sage Agastya]] and [[Markandeya|Sage Markandeya]] brought Hinduism to Indonesia. Hence, this shows that sages particularly of the [[Gotra#Pravara gotras|pravara gotra]] lineages from [[Agastya]] and Markandeya had been the first preachers of Hinduism in the islands.

Many Indians had migrated to Indonesia, some of them being Gujaratis. It is said that King Aji Saka, who came to Java in Indonesia in year 1 of the Śaka calender, was believed to be a king of Gujarat by some.<ref name="ReferenceA">P. 67 ''An era of peace'' By Krishna Chandra Sagar</ref> It is also believed that the first Indian settlements in Java Island of Indonesia was established with the coming of Prince Dhruvavijaya of Gujarat with 5,000 traders.<ref name="ReferenceA"/> Some stories propose that a sage named Tritresta was the first to bring Gujarati migrants with him to Java, hence some scholars equate him with Aji Saka.<ref> P. 158 ''Foreign Influence on Ancient India'' By Krishna Chandra Sagar </ref>

===Laos===
"Hindu influencers via Dvaravati Mon traders established elite religious practices in central Laos by the 7th century, paving the way for Theravada...This syncretic layer remains in Lao festivals symbolizing our Indosphere heritage.''"<ref>"From Brahmanism to Buddhism in Lao History", ''Lao Heritage Journal'' (2019) By Khammy Phommaseng</ref> - Khammy Phommaseng

Bounleuam Chaleunsinh (ethnologist), Phothong Phoummachanh (historian & cultural scholar), Sisouk Vongvichit (cultural heritage expert), and Vongkot Thammavongsa (archaeologist) have also written about the historical influence of Hinduism/India on Laos.

===Malaysia===
"''Up to the 14th century, Hindu-Buddhist influences had a major impact on Malaysian culture...The massive cultural impact of India on Malay Peninsula prior to the 14th century was virtually overwhelming, shaping early kingdoms like Langkasura and Kadaram through trade and elite adoption.''"<ref>''Early History of Peninsular Malaysia (2002)'' By Dr. Nik Hassan Shuhaimi Nik Abdul Rahman</ref> - Dr. Nik Hassan Shuhaimi Nik Abdul Rahman, archaeologist and historian

Ahmad Murad Merican (literary historian), Mohd. Taib Osman (cultural anthropologist), Raja Zarina Raja Zain (social anthropologist), and Wan Suhana Wan Sulaiman (Indologist) have also written about the historical influence of Hinduism/India on Malaysia.

* [[Bujang Valley Civilization]]

===Thailand===
"''Thailand is the most crucial place for study of Sanskrit. We started to study Sanskrit long back. Hinduism and Buddhism existed in Thailand and have very strong influences''." - Professor Chirapat Prapandvidya, founder and director of Sanskrit Studies Centre at Silpakorn University in Bangkok, Thailand

Charuwan Chareonla (art historian), Kessara Srinaka (art historian), Piriya Krairiksh (art historian) and Prapod Assavavirulhakarn (Buddhist scholar) have also written about the historical influence of Hinduism/India on Thailand.

In Hindu scriptures, Burma is known as Shyamdesh. Hence the other name of the country is 'Siam'.

===Vietnam===
"''Hinduism, introduced via Indian traders to Funan around the 1st century CE, established the socio-political framework for early Khmer-Cham societies in southern Vietnam...Temples like Óc Eo reflect this, blending Indian [[Rulership in Hinduism|devaraja]] cults with local animism to form hybrid polities.''"<ref>Paper in ''Archaeology of Asia'' (2012) By Tran Ky Phuong </ref> - Tran Ky Phuong

Ngô Đức Thịnh (ethnologist & cultural historian), Phan Huy Lê (historian, former national education department president), Lương Ninh (cultural anthropologist), and Vũ Kim Thắng (epigraphist) have also written about the historical influence of Hinduism/India on Vietnam.

==Oceania==
"''Soon after the establishment of a great Hindu civilisation in Java, and in a lessor degree in the Philippines, about the time of the Christian Era, it is certain that many expeditions of adventurous Hindu-Malay sea-captains in large ocean-going Wangkang and Barangai, "junks" and "big galleys" must have launched out into the Pacific, both by the N.W. route by way of the Moluccas, Caroline Islands and Havaii, as well as by the S.W. route, followed in much more recent times by Abel Tasman.''" - F.W. Christian<ref> P, 77-79 ''The Journal of the Polynesian Society: Volumes 1-22'' By Polynesian Society (N.Z.) </ref>

F.W. Christian had written of similarities between Sanskrit and Polynesian languages, such as Maori and Samoan.<ref> P, 77 ''The Journal of the Polynesian Society: Volumes 1-22'' By Polynesian Society (N.Z.) </ref>
;Australia
Their closest blood links are with the groups in New Guinea, South India and Sri Lanka, representing their path of migration into Australia.<ref> P. 186 ''Native Peoples of the World: An Encylopedia of Groups, Cultures and Contemporary Issues'' By Steven L. Danver</ref>

One academic, Professor Alan Cooper, from the University of Adelaide’s Centre for Ancient DNA, says the Indian influence may well have played a role in the development of the Aboriginal culture – outlined in a paper titled ‘Genome-wide data substantiate Holocene gene flow from India to Australia’.

Professor Cooper says it is impossible to ignore the link with the discovery of the dingo…"''The timing of all those things in the archaeological record, about 4,000 to 5,000 years ago, happens to match the timing estimated for this genetic influx from India.''"

Professor Cooper also points to another development that happened around the time of the Australia-Indian connection – an expansion of one of the Aboriginal language groups. "''This other language seems to have taken over Australia relatively recently – perhaps 5,000 years ago,…And how it did it, how it replaced the other ancient languages, we don’t know…So suddenly, 4,000 to 5,000 years ago is starting to become a fairly tumultuous time in Australian history.''"

;New Zealand
[[image:Tamil Bell found near Whangarei, Northland Region.jpg|left|thumb|200px|Tamil bell found near Whangarei, Northland Region.]]
[[image:Sanskrit writing found near Hokianga Harbour.jpg|right|thumb|200px|Sanskrit writing (digitally highlighted) found near Hokianga Harbour, Northland Region.]]
The oldest Indian settlement in New Zealand comes from the [[Dānavas]] that sailed originally from Patala in Sind. These Indians became known locally in New Zealand as the Tuhoe.

About 150 years ago, a bell was discovered in New Zealand near Whangarei in the Northland Region with Tamil writings on it.<ref> [https://www.cmi.ac.in/gift/Epigraphy/epig_tambaramnewly.htm "Newly discovered Tamil inscriptions from the Tambaram area", ''Madras Christian College Magazine'', v. 42, 1973 Gift Siromoney] </ref> It is believed to have come from a Pallava Dynasty ship which was sailing in the area and had possibly landed on New Zealand. The bell had led Indologist, V. R. Ramachandra Dikshitar to investigate and claims in his book ''The Origin and Spread of the Tamils'' that ancient Tamil sea-farers might have had a knowledge of Australia and Polynesia. There has also been Sanskrit writing discovered on a boulder in Hokianga Harbor. This finding has led to the belief that Hindu monks had arrived in New Zealand before Europeans did.

It is even believed by some historians that among the ancestry of indigenous New Zealanders there is some Indian descent. Joan Leaf through oral tradition of genealogy (''whakapapa'') among the Maori and having consulted with the Maori Wharewananga, traced the lineage of her husband, who is Maori on both sides of his ancestry, back to India.<ref>''Hawaiiki to the Hokianga, 2000 BC''</ref> That the Tuhoe of New Zealand were Dānavas is further evidenced by their oral traditions which recants Dānavas having fought other Indians in the typical wars that Indian epics mention about them.

"''Maori tradition tells us that their ancestors in times long past away, 165 generations ago, they migrated from a hot country named India''." - Eldson Best<ref> "The cause of this exodus was a disastrous war with a dark skinned folk in which great numbers were slain."; ''Tuhoe: The Children of the Mist'' By Eldson Best </ref>

;Rest of Polynesia
[[image:From Indus to Easter Island.jpg|right|thumb|200px|The trajectory from Mohenjo-Daro ([[Indus Valley Civilization]]) to Giza (Egypt) then Machu Pichu (Peru), and to Easter Island is a perfect 30° incline.]]
[[image:IVC and rongorongo scripts.jpg|left|thumb|200px|The scripts of [[Indus Valley Civilization]] and Eastern Island. An image from ''The Indians And The Amerindians'' By Dr. S. Chakravarti.]]

Balaram Chakravarti writes, "The Lapita potteries which seem to be of [[Dānava]] origin seems to lend evidence to the stepping stone of Dānava migration from New-Britain to Fiji with an off-shoot in New-Caledonia."<ref> P. ii ''The Children of Abo Tani in India, Fiji, and Polynesia: An Account of the Migration of the Indian Dānavas and the Nāgas, and Their Contribution to the Efflorescence of Culture in Fiji and Polynesia, Volume 1'' By Balaram Chakravarti </ref>

Easter Island has stories among its natives of long-eared (''Hanau epe'') people having come there, led by Hotu Matu'a (''Great Parent'', a title given to their 'ariki' or ''king''.) The Hanau epe were said to have been from Hiva (''Far away land.'') The reason for their migration was a great flood. The Indus Valley Civilization was devastated and abandoned due to severe flooding. Together they had built the Moai monuments.

Elongated earlobes are a common feature in many depictions of devas, gandharvas, ṛṣis and others. Long and hanging earlobes are known as
''larhba-karṇa''. Even the ''Viṣṇu-koṣa''<ref> P. 311 ''Viṣṇu-koṣa'' By Śaligrama K Ramachandra Rao </ref> mentions it as a feature of Viṣṇu. Dr. B. A. Saletore had published in his book, ''The Wild Tribes in Indian History''<ref> P. 375 ''Indian Culture: Journal of the Indian Research Institute, Volume 2, Issues 1-2'' By I.B. Corporation </ref> about a tribe called the Labhakarṇas. It is not an unknown trait in Indian history and so it is likely that the Dānavas who arrived in Easter Island had elongated ears.

"''It has been suggested Easter Island ''rongorongo'' script arrived from Peru, South America and is related to the Indus River Valley dating back to 2000 BC which is likely since there were Indus River Valley migrations to Peru, South America, by 1500 BC or perhaps as early as 2000 BC. Many Harappan glyphs appear in both Peruvian and Easter Island scripts''." - Jeffrey L. Gross <ref> ''Waipio Valley: A Polynesian Journey from Eden to Eden'' By Jeffrey L. Gross </ref>

==Europe==
''See also: [[Hindu Temples in Europe]]''

At the time that the Indo-Iranians came into Europe, the natives of Europe were Palesgians in the Balkan Peninsula, Basques in Iberian Peninsula, Fins and Sami in Northern Europe and the Magyars to later become Hungarians, Estonians and Kami in Eastern Europe and several other non-Indo-European linguistic families within the Caucasus. With the influence on the Indo-Iranian comers, the Indo-European nations of Europe were born. Some identified groups that had come into Europe were [[Druyus]] (becoming the British Druids and German Druvis), Parthians (Thracians from Parthenope and some Irish from Partholonians) and Medians.

The reason why it was easy for the Indo-European languages to gain popularity among Europe's natives is because the native Europeans were nomads that relied on hunting and gathering, the Indo-Iranians were agarians that brought an agricultural revolution. [[Historical racial diversity of Hindus#Vedic period|DNA samples of the Yamnayas]] (mixed of Indo-Iranians and Europeans) show that they were not lactose intolerant whereas the European natives were. Thus, Indo-Iranians showed Europeans to be able to live sedentary lives opposite to foraging and constantly relocating.

The Sanskrit word ''[[Deva]]'' took on vernacular forms amongst European nations wherein it became ''Theo'' in Greek, ''Dio'' in Latin and Italian, ''Dios'' in Spanish, ''Deos'' in Portuguese, ''Déu'' in Catalan, ''Dieu'' in French, ''Dievs'' in Latvian, ''Dievas'' in Lithuanian, ''Duw'' in Welsh, and the words ''Deity'' and ''[[Divinity]]'' in English. Even the word 'devil' means ''slanderer'' ('il') ''of'' ''god'' ('dev') and its Latin version is 'deofel' wherein 'deo' means ''god'' and 'fel' means ''slanderer''. So ''[[Theology]]'' means the study of "''The study of Theo''" and ''Theism'' is "''The belief in Theo''". Further, the Sanskrit word '[[Asura]]' became ''Æsir'' for Scandinavia's worshipers of the Norse gods.

===Thrace===
[[image:Hekate and Gayatri.jpg|right|thumb|200px|Goddess Hekate's depictions look similar to those of a Hindu goddess.]]
The Thracians called their country 'Aria'<ref> P. 277 ''Encyclopedia britannica''; or, ''A dictionary of [[arts]], sciences, and miscellaneous literature'' by Colin Macfarquhar; George Gleig </ref> which means ''Noble''. It is a word which has much significance in Hinduism, including Buddhism and [[Jainism]]. In Hellenist mythology, Thrace was the offspring of Parthenope, the daughter of Olympian god Ares. The 'Parth' in the name Parthenope indicates Parthian and hence an Indo-Iranian origin. Goddess Hecate was portrayed as a multi-headed and multi-handed deity.

There were several tribes among Thracians. Originally there was one but as they expanded control of other territories in the Balkans, other nations became Thracianized. Hesychius notes that the Sindi tribe of Thracians was from India.<ref> P. 107 ''Asiatic Researches; Or, Transactions Of The Society, Instituted ..., Volume 10'' </ref> Sir W. Drummond was also of the same viewpoint. George Faber wrote that Thracians came from a frontier of India.<ref> P. 293 ''The Origin of Pagan Idolatry: Ascertained from Historical ..., Volume 2'' By George Stanley Faber </ref>

The Thracians inhabited this region even before the earliest Greeks<ref>They are Achaeans or Mycenaeans.</ref> made their way south to the present Greece.<ref> P. 37 ''Chronicles, Volume 21'' By Rockford Institute </ref> Thracians even preceded Greeks to important islands in the northern, central, eastern and eastern Aegean. This includes Thasos, Samothrace, Imbros, Lemnos, Euboea, Naxos, Lesbos and Chios.<ref> ''The Rise Of The Greeks'' By Michael Grant </ref>

The Sindi Colchi country, located in the Taman Peninsula, was known as Sindike and Sindikos, and its largest city was named Sinda. Greek writer Strabo referred to these Sindi as 'Sindoi'. Ancient Greek Pliny called it 'Scythia Sindica', Ptolemy as 'Indo-Scythia', and both Socrates and Stephanus as 'India'. Because the Thracians were also in the Aegean Sea, they were in Lemnos island. There was an ethnicity here named 'Sindians', whom Homer in his ''Iliad'' and ''Odyssey'' wrote, "spoke a strange language" and the Scholiast Thucydides wrote the Thracians are derived from India.<ref>''Iliad'' I.594; ''Odyssey'' VIII.294; P. 516 ''The History of India: As Told by Its Own Historians. The Muhammadan Period, Volume 1'' By Sir Henry Miers Elliot </ref>

"''We can firmly say that the Bulgarians had entered their present areas from Hindistan (India) in the most ancient times...and their migration took place much earlier than the division of the Aryan tribe in Hindistan.''" - Paisii Hilendarski<ref> vol. 4.369; P. 299 ''Myths and boundaries in southern-eastern Europe'' By Pal Kolsto</ref>

Francis Wilford claimed “that so early as B.C. 189, or before it, Hindus of both sexes were not uncommon in Greece: that they were settled in Colchis, and that the Sindi of Thrace came originally from India.”

===Greece===
[[image:Krishna_mosaic _Corinth.jpg|right|thumb|200px|Greek mosaic of Kṛṣṇa in his iconic cross-legged pose playing the flute by cows, from 2nd century CE, now found at Corinth, Greece.]]
[[image:Swastika_coin_Corinth.jpg|right|thumb|200px|Coin with Swastika issued at Corinth, Greece.]]
;Early Indo-Europeans in Greece
“''The whole of this state of society, civil and military, must strike anyone as eminently Asiatic; much of it specifically Indian. Such it undoubtedly is. . . these evidences were but the attendant tokens of an Indian colonization with its corresponding religion and language. . . the whole of Greece, from the era of the supposed godships of Poseidon and Zeus, down to the close of the Trojan war was Indian in language, sentiment and religion, as well as the arts of peace and war.''” - Edward G Pococke

The natives of Greece were Palesgians. From the academic influence of the Indo-Iranians in the region, the ancient Greek and Latin languages were established from which all the other Indo-European languages of Europe were created. This can be seen in the wars between the Olympian gods and the Titans. Scholar Ignatius Donnelly believes the conflict between the Olympians and Titans represented a war between the Olympians and Titans.<ref> P. 320 ''Atlantis: The Antediluvian World'' By Ignatius Donnelly </ref> Lewis Spence also mentions that the conflict between the Olympians and the Titans was of Aryans with non-Aryans with the Titans being projected as the latter.<ref> P. 59 ''The Magic [[Arts]] in Celtic Britain'' By Lewis Spence </ref>

;Philosophical contribution to Greece
"''We find that it (India) was visited for the purpose of acquiring knowledge by Pythagoras, Anaxarches, Pyrrho and others who afterwards became eminent philosophers in Greece.''" - Dr. William Enfield<Ref> P. 41 ''Bharātīya [[Vidyā]], Volume 51'' By [[Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan]]</ref>

Overtime, a link was established between Greece and India, wherein Greek scholars would visit India and learn from Hindu clergy. Count Bjornstjerna says that Greek philosophy was indebted almost wholly to the Hindu philosophy for its cardinal doctrines.<ref> P. 974 ''Indian Law Quarterly Review, Volume 5'' By Arora Law [[House]] </ref> From this cultural phenomena, Pythagorus founded Pythagorism, Orpheus founded Orphism and Plato founded Platoism. Orphism from 6th century BCE believed in reincarnation<Ref> P. xviii ''The Orphic Hymns'' By Apostolos N Athanassakis and Benjamin M Wolkow </ref>, a Supreme God.<Ref> P. xiv: 'The Orphic Hymns' By Apostolos N Athanassakis and Benjamin M Wolkow. </ref> Pythagorism from 5th century BCE believed in reincarnation<Ref> P. 2 ''Pythagoras and the Pythagoreans: A Brief History'' By Charles H. Kahn </ref>, a Supreme God<Ref> P. 97 ''Pythagoras and the Pythagoreans: A Brief History'' By Charles H. Kahn </ref>, promoted asceticism<Ref> P. 9 ''Pythagoras and the Pythagoreans: A Brief History'' By Charles H. Kahn </ref> and vegetarianism.<Ref> P. 9 ''Pythagoras and the Pythagoreans: A Brief History'' By Charles H. Kahn </ref> Platonism from 5th century BCE believed in reincarnation<ref> P. 377 ''The Middle Platonists, 80 B.C. to A.D. 220'' By John M. Dillon </ref> and a Supreme God.<ref> P. 199 ''The Middle Platonists, 80 B.C. to A.D. 220'' By John M. Dillon </ref> Although Orphism, Pythagorism, and Platoism spirituality are all Hindu, Western scholars note that non-Hindu spiritualties of Greek thought also demonstrate Hindu influence such as Stoicism<ref> ,'Experiencing World History'' By Paul Vauthier Adams, Erick Detlef Langer, Lily Hwa, Peter N. Stearns, Merry E. Wiesner-Hanks </ref> which advocated asceticism. These schools were in start opposition to the Cyrenaicism (Greek Hedonistic school), and was opposed to Stoicism in its metaphysics.

"''The Hindus were, in this respect, the teachers and not the learners.''" - Henry Colebrooke <ref> P. 974 ''Indian Law Quarterly Review, Volume 5'' By Arora Law [[House]] </ref>

When Greek scholars had spoken of philosophies of wisdom, they regarded amongst the highest as Orphism, Pythagoreanism and Platonism. Early Christian sects not only regarded Pythagorus as a prophet of God, but drew on Orphic, Pythagorean and Platonic, as well as Neo-Platonic Mystery schools.<ref> P. 77 ''Jesus: The Explosive Story of the 30 Lost Years and the Ancient Mystery'' By Tricia McCannon </ref> Plaethon not only stated that he preferred Indian Brahmans and Magi amongst the non-Greeks, but that "inspired men" like Pythagorus, Plato and other philosophers belonging to their school, notably Parmenides, Timaeus, Plutarch, Plotinus, Porphyry and Iamblichus were great people.<ref> P. 39 Hermes in the Academy: Ten Years' Study of Western Esotericism at the ... edited by Wouter J. Hanegraaff, Joyce Pijnenburg </ref>

The Grecianized version of 'Brahman' is ''Brachman'' and ''Bragmanni''. The ancient Greeks mention them in many instances when discussing spirituality, [[Hindu philosophies|philosophy]], [[astrology]], geopolitics and other steams of study. In about 270-303 CE, makes distinguishing statements among the gymnosophists wherein he describes differences amongst them.<ref> P. 133 ''The Bhilsa Topes; Or, Buddhist Monuments of Central India, Etc'' By Sir Alexander Cunningham </ref> Purchas had written that all the things observed by Nsturall Philosophers in Greece had been handled before, partly by the Brachmancs amongst the Indians.<ref> P. 2705 ''The Century Dictionary: An Encyclopedic Lexicon of the English Language, Volume 4'' edited by William Dwight Whitney, Benjamin Eli Smith </ref> A type of non combustible cloth made from stone was also said to have been used by the Brachmancs.<ref> P. 686 ''The Gentleman's Magazine and Historical Review, Volume 202'' By Sylvania Urban </ref> It later became used by some in Europe.

There were also Hindu monks that had visited Greece for the purpose of discussing philosophy. Zarmanochegas is the most known of these. In Greece, he had self-immolated himself to protest Alexander's invasion of India. His tomb in Greece reads, "Here lies Zarmanochegas an Indian, a native of Bargose, having immortalized himself according to the custom of his country."[http://www.ibiblio.org/britishraj/Jackson9/chapter01.html] Other Hindu sages that were in the company of Emperor Elagabalus also were written about.<ref> P. 6 ''Neoplatonic Saints: The Lives of Plotinus and Proclus by Their Students'' By Mark Edwards </ref>

;Worship of similar deities between Hindus and Hellenists
"''While Dionysus (Siva) is worshipped in the mountain, Heracles (Krsna) is worshipped on the plain, especially by the Surasenoi (Surasena), an Indian people who possess two towns, Methora (Mathura) and Kleisobora (Krsnapura)''" - Megastheses<ref> Arrian, Ind., VIII, 4; P. 393 ''History of Indian Buddhism: From the Origins to the Saka Era'' By Etienne Lamotte </ref>, Greek historian and ethnographer, 4th century BCE

The gods worshiped by Hellenists were similar to that of Hindus. Whereas Indra is called Vetethragna in the Avesta, and Vahagn by the Armenians, he's also known as Artagnes-Herakles in Commagene.<ref>P. 132 ''Opuscula Atheniensia, Volumes 2-3; Volumes 7-10; Volume 12; Volumes 14-15; Volume 17; Volume 27; Volume 37'' C.W.K. Gleerup., Nov 1, 1988 </ref> Many of the soldiers in Alexander of Macedonia's army readily became Hindu. "Close to 10,000 Greeks, who came in the wake of Alexander the Great, were Krishna's devotees. There is an inscription by Heliodorus, the Greek ambassador at Takshila , which reads Deva, deva, Vasudeva. Krishna is my god and I have installed this Garuda Pillar at Bes Nagar (now in Bihar)," says researcher T K V Rajan.[http://m.timesofindia.com/city/chennai/New-finds-take-archaeologists-closer-to-Krishna/articleshow/3898205.cms] Further, Hydaspes is written by Nonnus in his Dionysiaca as a son of the sea-god Thaumas and cloud-goddess Elektra. He was the brother of Iris the rainbow-goddess and half-brother of Harpies.[http://news.statetimes.in/the-journey-of-vitasta-river/]

;Other contribution of customs
"''Cremation was brought by barbarians from the East [India] to the Mediterranean basin about 2500–2000 BC, where previously the practice was unknown.''" - William Howels<ref> P. 43 ''Honoring God to the Very, Very, Very End!'' </ref>

[[Jyotiṣa|Astrology]] was also a science that Hindus spread with them in Greece. Philostratus tells how Iarbas the Brachman or Brahman gave Apolloneus of Tyans a set of rings for days of the week to maintain good health.<ref> Page 147 ''The Archaeological Journal - Volume 33'' By The Royal Anthropological Institute of Great Britain and Ireland </ref>

Apart from the Greeks having visited India for learning Hinduism and its ideals and customs, Indians had colonized Greece as the first Indo-Iranians in the country. They were the Danauna (also known as Aavaoi), who descend from King Danaus. This king has founded the city Argos, and from his descend figures like the Danai, who are Argives mentioned by Homer.<ref> P. 306 ''The Century Cyclopedia of Names: A Pronouncing and Etymological Dictionary of Names in Geography, Biography, Mythology, History, Ethnology, Art, Archaeology, Fiction, Etc., Etc., Etc'' By Benjamin Eli Smith </ref> They were also known as Achaians, who are mentioned separately from the people of Greece, the Hellenes, themselves because they were a foreign nationality.

===Austria, Germany & Netherlands===
"''The runes were brought to the Germans by the Brahmins of ancient India...The priestly caste of the Teutons was identical with the Brahmin caste''." - Guido von List<ref>P. 67 ''Das Geheimnis der Runen'' (1908) By Guido von List</ref>
Guido von List the Austrian wrote that the Germanic peoples were taught by Brahmans from India. He said the German priesthood descended from Indian Brahmans.<ref>"''The German priesthood descends from Indian Brahmins''." - ''Die Religion der Ario-Germanen'' (1910) By Guido von List</ref><ref>"''The Aryan Germans received their religion and social order from the Brahmins who migrated from India''."- P. 112 ''Die Religion der Ario'-Germanen'' By Guido von List </ref>

===France===
Fabre d'Olivet the Frenchman wrote that Gauls (Celtic peoples) were originally a colony of Brahmans from India.
"''The Gauls were a colony of Brahmins''." - Fabre d'Olivet<ref>''The Gauls were a colony of Indian Brahmins''''." - P. 45 ''La Langue Hebaique Restituee'' Vol. II (1815) By Fabre d'Olivet </ref>
François-Marie Arouet wrote the the Gauls and their Druids were taught by Indian Brahmans.
"''The Gauls had their Druids, who were Brahmins come from India''." - François-Marie Arouet<ref>Chapter 6 ''Philosophie de I'Histoire'' (1765) By François-Marie Arouet </ref>

===British Isles===
[[image:Brigid.jpg|right|thumb|200px|Goddess Brigid by artist Miranda Gray. The triple goddess’ depictions normally look similar to those of a Hindu goddess.]]
"''I fear we must class the descent of the Afghans from the Jews with that of the Romans, and the British from the Trojans, and that of the Irish from the Milesians or Brahmins.''" - Mountstuart Elphinstone<ref> [P. 278 "Asiatic Journal and Monthly Register for British and Foreign India, China and Australasia
Volume 28''] 1829 </ref>
Many Irish have written of an Indian influence on ancient Ireland including Mrs. Dorothy Chaplin and Madam Wilde.<ref>P. 33 ''Text Book of Indian Culture'' By Chaman Lal </ref> The Druids were the chief priests of the isles and their religion is known as Druidism. Godfrey Higgins wrote a book supporting that the Druids had come from India, titled ''The Celtic Druids, Or, An Attempt to Shew that the Druids Were the Priests of Oriental Colonies who Emigrated from India, and Were the Introducers of the First Or Cadmean System of Letters, and the Builders of Stonehenge, of Carnac, and of Other Cyclopean Works in Asia and Europe.'' They were a priestly hereditary group and are said to have been descended of the Brahman Druyus. The Druids had propitiated Danu because Druyu, their patriarch, was her great-great grandson as the son of [[Gagarin|King Yayati]] and [[Sarmishṭha|Queen Sarmishṭha]], who was a Danava (descendant of Danu.)

Being of Indian descent, Druids would have been Indo-European speakers and they likely would have been the first speakers of the language family in the British Isles. They had also worshiped the Thracian Hecate. One group of Indo-Iranians, according to Irish legends that emigrated were the Partholonians from Parthia.<ref> P. 7 ''The Book of Finglas'' By Seán Ó Broin; Other groups were Nemedians from Black Sea, Milesians are descendants of Milead (from his 3 sons Ir, Heremon, Heber, sent westward in search of Island of Destiny) from Iberia, Gailiuns, Liogarne and later arrivals to Moynalta were described as big, blond, fair-haired men of Teutonic origin, who came to Moynalta about the time of Alexander the Great. </ref> Druids were Partholonians because according to a legend, a person named Parthalon landed in Ireland three-hundred years after a mythic deluge and had brought with him three Druids named Fios, Folus and Fochmare.<ref>P. 229 ''Paradise Rediscovered: The Roots of Civilization, Volume 1'' By Michael A. Cahill </ref> They had come to Ireland from Midgonia.<ref>It is in Middle Greece.</ref>

"''The very name Druid is composed of two Celtic word roots which have parallels in Sanskrit. Indeed, the root vid for knowledge also emerges in the Sanskrit word Veda, demonstrates the similarity. The Celtic root dru which means 'immersion' also appears in the Sanskrit. So a Druid was the one 'immersed in knowledge.'''" - Peter Beresford-Ellis<ref> [http://druidry.org/druid-way/other-paths/druidry-dharma Druidism and the ancient Religions of India] </ref>

In history, the Druids were later pushed into Ireland and Scotland. "In Britain, the Kelts pushed the Albans into northern Ireland and northern Scotland.”<ref> P. 28 ''Footprints of the Welsh Indians and Sailors of the Past'' By William L. Traxel </ref> Druidism still survives today in the isles and revivalist efforts have been put forth by its followers.

"''The island [Britain] has long been pre-disposed of it's [[[Christianity]]] through the doctrines of the Druids and Buddhists who already inculcated the doctrine of the Godhead.''" - Christian cleric Origen, 3rd century CE

It is notable that there is a Druid named Arias, which even further strengthens the relationship between the Druids and Brahmans as Aria/Arya meant ''noble'' and was used in the ethical and spiritual sense even by the [[Buddha]] who referred to his creed as the [[Arya]] Astanga [[Dharma]] (''Noble Eight-fold Religion.'') Peter Berresford Ellis writes, "Moreover, we learn that in these four cities were 'four Druids who taught the Children of [[Danu]] skill and knowledge and perfect wisdom'. Morias dwelt in Falias; Urias 'of the noble nature' lived in Gorias; Arias the poet resided in Finias and Senias had his abode in Murias."<ref> P. 124 ''The Druids'' By Peter Berresford Ellis </ref>

The Druids were especially the priests of the Tuatha De Danann. D'Arbois translates ''Tuatha De Danann'' as "people of the god whose mother is called Danu."
Goddess Danu written of in Celtic spirituality is the same Danu from the [[Ṛgveda]]. The Danavas, upon leaving India, moved westwards to Iran (i.e., Parthia), then more westwards, which led them to arrive in Egypt. In Egypt, these Danavas are recorded in legend to have been banished from the country where in legend, King Ramses exiled his brother Danaus. From the exile, Danaus moved to Middle Greece and eventually to Ireland. George A. Christopoulos had also connected the Danaans and Danawois to the Danawos mentioned in the Avesta.

Englishmen Francis Wilford<ref>"''Britain was colonised by Brahmins from India...the Druids preserved Brahminical learning''." - ''On Egypt and Other Countries Adjacent to the Nile'' By Francis Wilford and Asiatic Researches (1798) </ref>, Thomas Maurice<ref>"'The Druids of Britain were Brahmins...the Celtic religion is nothing but a corrupted form of the Brahminical system brought from India''." - ''Indian Antiquities'' (Vol. VI) By Thomas Maurice (1793-1800)</ref>, and William Stukeley<ref>"''The Druids...were of the same patriarchal religion as Abraham and the Brahmins of India''." - ''Stonehenge'' (1740) and ''Abury'' (1743) By William Stukeley</ref> wrote of Brahmans in the Isles. Wilford said Brahmans colonized the isles and that Druids taught Vedic doctrines, Maurice that the Druids were Brahmans, and Stukeley that the Druids were Brahmans from the East.

Irishmen Charles Vallancey<ref>"''The Irish Druids were Brahmins...the ancient Irish are descendants of Hindoo colonists''." - ''Collectanea de Rebus Hibernicus'' (1770-1804) By Charles Vallancey</ref> and John Toland<ref>"''</ref> wrote of the Hindu connection too. Vallancey that the Irish Druids and their language were of Brahmans and Toland that the Irish Druids were Indian philosophers.

===Scandinavia===
[[image:Buddha, Helgö.jpg|right|thumb|200px|Statue of [[Buddha]] dated from 5th Century CE<Ref> [http://www.lionsroar.com/the-buddha-statue-found-in-an-ancient-viking-hoard/ How did a Buddha statue land in Viking hands? BY SAM LITTLEFAIR| MARCH 24, 2016] </ref> found on a Viking tombstone in Helgö, Sweden.]]

The Norse gods referred to god as 'Æsir'. The name of thunder-god Thor comes from 'Thortian' of the Zoroastrian ''Vendiad'' and the name derives it's form from the Vedic [[Trita]], who was known as Trita in the Avesta and then later as Traitana, then 'Thraetaona' and finally as 'Thortian' to the Zoroastrians. In Sweden's Helgö, a small Buddha statuette from North India dating from 6th century AD; was found in Viking's grave.<Ref> [http://irisharchaeology.ie/2013/12/the-helgo-treasure-a-viking-age-buddha/ "The Helgo Treasure: A Viking Age Buddha" by Colm]</ref>

===Eastern Europe===
The names of [[deities]] of Eastern Europe indicate a strong Hindu influence.
;Azerbaijan
Currently the Fire Temple of Baku is a site revered for its historic uniqueness which was established by Hindu priests from India in the 19th century. It was nominated by the Azerbaijani government for being recognized as a UNESCO Hindu Site. Currently there is an [[ISKCON]] temple in Baku[http://centers.iskcondesiretree.com/baku/], the country's capital city.

;Poland
Śivā is the name of a female deity in Poland, just as Śivā is the name of Kali Mātā of Hinduism, the wife of Śiva. Further, in Poland, "''Vogt in his lectures of Man assumes the Polish to be descended from Hindu sources..."<ref> P. 386 ''The Races of Europe: A Sociological Study (Lowell Institute Lectures)'''' By William Zebina Ripley </ref>

;Lithuania
{| class="wikitable sortable"
Table of gods worshiped in pre-Christian Lithuania:
|-
! Deity
! Vedic equivalent
! About god
|-
!Praamžius Dievas
|Prajapati
|The supreme or leader of the gods.
|-
! Dievas Senelis ("''Good Old Man''")
| Yama
|He is a teacher of people and judge of their morality. He looks like an old traveling beggar. Dievas Senelis is proficient at magic and medicine. Epithet of Dievas.
|-
!Perkūnas
|Prajanya
|Thunder, a son of Dievas ("dievaitis.")
|-
!Saulė
|Surya
|The Sun Goddess.
|-
!Ašvieniai
|Ashvins
|The divine twins who pulled the chariot of the Sun.
|-
|}

There is a Lithuanian folk song reminiscent of a Vedic tale.<Ref> P. 323 ''The Religion of the Ṛgveda'' By Hervey De Witt Griswold </reF>[https://gazetteers.maharashtra.gov.in/cultural.maharashtra.gov.in/english/gazetteer/Thana%20District/appendix.html]

;Russia
"''I also feel the great sympathy with modern Hinduism of [[Rama]] Krishna and Girikananda...''"<ref> P. 40 ''Christianity Today, Volume 11'' By Carl Ferdinand Howard Henry </ref> 
"''The mystico-religious elements in Indian culture didn't interest me much...The moral teachings of early Buddhism, the personality of the Buddha, the great ascetic life of Mahatma Gandhi, who blended ancient philosophies so harmoniously with modern conditions, fascinated me far more.''"<ref> ''Only One Year: A Memoir'' By Svetlana Alliluyeva </ref> - Svetlana Alliluyeva, ex-atheist daughter of Joseph Stalin

In Russia's Volga region during excavation, a 7th century AD Varāha statue was found in Staraya Maina village within the Ulyanovsk region.<Ref> [http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/world/rest-of-world/Ancient-Viṣṇu-idol-found-in-Russian-town/articleshow/1046928.cms "Ancient Viṣṇu idol found in Russian town"] </ref> This ancient area was highly populated city 1,700 years ago. Ulyanovsk State University's archaeology department Dr. Alexander Kozhevin's team had made the discovery after having excavated the area. A famous Russian historian had written that thousands of years before the 'Kiev-Rus' culture, from which Russian nation originated, there was a 'Vedic-Rus' which was characterized by an international Vedic culture.<ref> ''India’s Emerging Partnerships in Eurasia: Strategies of New Regionalism'' By Dr. Nivedita Das Kundu </ref> During the 14th century CE Indian gold coins were found in the Volga region near the village of Tenishevo indicating a flourishing trade between India and Russia.

==Americas==
Before reaching [[Editing The Spread of Hinduism#Oceania|Polynesia]], the Davanas passed through South America. Surprisingly, it seems they may have left a mark on the indigenous there because, like in Easter Island, the native language Aymara resembles an Indian language. In this case it is Sanskrit, which is bares similarities to the Aymara tongue spoken in Bolivian Andes mountain. Writers, such as the 19th century Vicente de Ballivián y Roxas, 20th century F.W. Christian<ref> P, 77 ''The Journal of the Polynesian Society
Volumes 1-22'' By Polynesian Society (N.Z.) </ref>, and 21st century ‎Geoffrey V. Davis, as well as others have written about this.

;USA
“''I didn't have a dorm room, so I slept on the floor in friends' rooms. I returned coke bottles for the 5¢ deposits to buy food with. And I would walk the 7 miles across town every Sunday night to get one good meal a week at the Hare Krishna temple. I loved it.''” - Steve Jobs, Stanford University conference in 2005<ref> [https://iskconnews.org/steve-jobs-and-the-krishna-connection,2907/ ''Steve Jobs and the Krishna Connection'' By Venkata Bhatta dasa (Vineet Chander) for ISKCON News on Oct. 7, 2011] </ref>

The USA has been the base for establishing several [[Hindu-oriented organizations]], such as ISKCON.

American-born converts to Sanatan Dharm promoted it by establishing their own institutions like specific monastic orders or sectarian temples. Ranked in order of most influential are James Donald Walters, Richard Slavin, Richard Alpert, David Frawley, Anthony Paul Moo-Young, Robert Hansen, Lawrence Miles, John Edwin Favors, Stephen Cope, Andrew Cohen, Leopold Fischer, Georg Feuerstein, Merle Roberson, and Christopher Isherwood.

{| class="wikitable sortable"
|-
! Person
! Sectarian or darshan affiliation
! Organizational affiliation
! Disciplic succession
! Establishment
! Other achievement(s)
! Prominent compilation(s)
|-
|Andrew Cohen
|Neo-Advaita Vedanta
|
|No
|EnlightenNext[https://enlightennext.org/] (Moksha Foundation)
|
|''EnlightenNext'' magazine (formerly ''What Is Enlightenment?'')
|-
|Anthony Paul Moo-Young (Mooji)
|
|
|Yes (of Sri H.W.L. Poonja)
|Monte Sahaja[https://mooji.org/monte-sahaja]
|
|
|-
|Chris Butler ('Jagad Guru Siddhaswarupananda Paramahamsa')
|Vaishnavism (Gaudiya)
|ISKCON
|Yes (of Srila Prabhupada)
|Science of Identity Foundation[https://www.scienceofidentityfoundation.org/discover?language=en]
|
|
|-
|Christopher Isherwood
|
|
|
|Vedanta Society of Southern California[https://vedanta.org/]
|Translated ''⁠Bhagavad Gita'' and ''Vedanta for the Modern World''
|''My Guru and His Disciple'' (1980)
|-
|David Frawley ('Pandit Vamadeva Shastri')
|
|
|No
|American Institute of Vedic Studies[https://www.vedanet.com/]
|
|
|-
|Georg Feuerstein
|
|
|No
|
|
|''The Yoga Tradition'' (1998), ''Tantra: The Path of Ecstasy''[https://in.yoga/wp-content/uploads/2021/09/Feuerstein-G.-Tantra.-Path-of-Ecstasy.pdf (1998, 2001), ''The Philosophy of Classical Yoga'', ''The Deeper Dimension of Yoga'', ''The Shambhala Encyclopedia of Yoga'', ''In Search of the Cradle of Civilization'' 
|-
|James Donald Walters ('Swami Kriyananda')
|Neo-Vedanta
|
|
|Ananda Sangha[https://www.ananda.org/][https://anandamonastery.org/ananda-sangha/]
|Spread Kriya Yoga
|
|-
|John Edwin Favors ('Bhakti Tirtha Swami')
|Vaishnavism (Gaudiya)
|ISKCON
|
|iFast[https://ifastglobal.com/]
|
|
|-
|Leopold Fischer (Swami Agehananda Bharati)
|
|Dasnami Sampraday
|Yes
|
|
|''The Orche Robe'' (1962), ''The Titanic Tradition'' (1965), ''The Light at the Centre'' (1976)
|-
|Lawrence Miles ('Swami Shyam')
|Shaivism (Nath)
|Dasnami Sampraday
|Yes
|International Nath Order[https://www.internationalnathorder.org/], Shyam Mission
|
|
|-
|Merle Antoinette Roberson ('Gangaji')
|
|
|
|Gangaji Foundation[https://gangaji.org/
|
|''The Diamond in Your Pocket'', ''Hidden Treasure'', ''Freedom and Resolve''
|-
|Richard Alpert ('Ram Dass')
|Vedanta
|
|
|Hanuman Foundation[https://hanumanfoundation.org/
|
|
|-
|Paul Muller-Ortega
|Shaivism (Kashmir)
|
|
|Blue Throat Yoga[https://www.bluethroatyoga.com/]
|
|
|-
|Richard Slavin ('Radhanath Swami')
|Vaishnavism
|ISKCON
|
|Govardhan Eco Village[https://www.ecovillage.org.in/]
|Established multiple educational and bhakti institutions
|
|-
|Robert Hansen ('Satguru Sivaya Subramuniyaswami')
|Shaivism (Siddhanta)
|
|Yes
|Saiva Siddhanta Church[https://www.himalayanacademy.com/saiva-siddhanta-church/], Himalayan Academy[https://www.himalayanacademy.com/]
|
|''Hinduism Today''[https://www.hinduismtoday.com/] magazine
|-
|Stephen Cope
|
|
|Kripalu Centre for Yoga and Health[https://kripalu.org/]
|Integrated Vedanta/yoga ethics into Western therapeutic spirituality
|
|
|-
|Stephen Guarino ('Satsvarupa Dasa Goswami')
|Vaishnavism (Gaudiya)
|ISKCON
|Yes
|
|
|''Śrīla Prabhupāda-līlāmṛta''[https://vedabase.io/en/library/spl/] (1978-83)
|-
|}

;Guyanas
Guyana, former British Guyana and Suriname, former Dutch Guyana, were the countries of many Hindu immigrants. Both have had Hindu leaders as heads of the government.

==Africa==
Technically [[The spread of Hinduism#Egypt|Egypt]] was the first part of Africa in which the Hinduism spread.

;South Africa
[[image:First Hindus Temple in South Africa.jpg|right|thumb|200px|The first Hindu Temple in South Africa was a very simple design. It was built in 1869 and is now a Protected Site by South African government.]] The first Hindu temple in South Africa was constructed in 1869.

;Ghana
[[image:Hindus in Ghana.jpg|right|thumb|200px|Hindus celebrating [[Ganesha Chaturthi]] in Ghana.<Ref> [http://drishtikone.com/hinduism-growing-in-africa-without-proselytizing/ ''Hinduism growing in Africa without Proselytizing'' by Desh Kapoor] </ref>]]
[[image:Hare Krishnas in Ghana.jpg|right|thumb|200px|Hare Krishnas chanting in Ghana.<Ref> [http://drishtikone.com/hinduism-growing-in-africa-without-proselytizing/ ''Hinduism growing in Africa without Proselytizing'' by Desh Kapoor] </ref>]]

==See also==
*[[List of UNESCO Hindu World Heritage Sites|UNESCO Hindu World Heritage Sites]]
*[[Hindu Temples in Europe]]
*[[Temples]]
*[[Pilgrimages]]
*[[Zoroastrianism and Hinduism]]
*[[Historical racial diversity of Hindus]]
*[[Indus Valley Civilization]]
*[[Hindu response to conversions]]
*[[Hindu-inspired organizations]]
*[[The Hindu Renaissances]]
*[[Buddhist patronage by Hindu kings]]
*[[Sufism with Vaishnavism]]
*[[History of ancient geography]]

==External resources==
*[http://hinduwisdom.info/Pacific.htm Pacific Waves]
*[http://hinduwisdom.info/Seafaring_in_Ancient_India.htm Seafarers]
*[https://www.myindiamyglory.com/2018/06/28/western-alphabet-modelled-after-an-indian-alphabet-3400-plus-years-ago-indologist-wim-borsboom/ “Western Alphabet Modelled after an Indian Alphabet 3400 Plus Years Ago – Indologist Wim Borsboom”]
*[https://www.thesun.co.uk/news/1411522/sorry-nazis-the-swastika-is-11000-years-old-and-indian/ "GET YOUR FACTS REICH Sorry Nazis, the swastika is 11,000 years old and INDIAN" By Jasper Hamill, 8th July 2016, 11:14 am]

==References==
{{reflist}}

[[Category: The spread of Hinduism]]
[[Category: Geography]]
[[Category: Hindu history]]

Shatata-Unnati

2026-06-09T05:41:24Z

Himanshu Bhatt: /* Successive associations */ added new association

{{Author|Himanshu Bhatt}}
'Shatata-Unnati' is ''continual change'', 'abhyas' means improvement, 'kram-parivartanam' is ''incremental reformation'', while 'shodhanam' is ''refinement''. All of these terms are descriptive of Hindu society throughout the ages.

Continual social betterment has been one of the defining characteristics of Hindu society. All major cultures have had evils in their histories, including Hindu societies, but the shining examples to enforce positive changes and adaptability to a changing world are the Hinduism, Christianity, and Judaism.

In an era wherein colonial norms meant imprisonment or executions for speaking out against imperial rule, Mahatma Gandhi challenged the ideas of forcing nations to be subservient, fighting oppression by violence, and purging one's own nation of evils (i.e., inequality and superstition.) Today, much of the world still looks to Gandhi's perseverance to bring positive change into society.

Transformation of India's political systems made India into the world's largest democracy, and for accomplishing that, [[Indian Freedom Fighters#INC's Hindu activist roots|Hindu doctrines were rationalize to promote democracy]]. Even in India's political spectrum, Hindu principles were used to make liberalism and communism resonate with people, like Ram Rajya being a communist utopia. Some of the Communist Party of India's [[Indian Freedom Fighters#CPI's Hindu activist roots|founders were idealogues for both communism and Hinduism]], such as Swami Kumaranand, Swami Satyabhakt, and Swami Sahajanand Saraswati, as well as Keezhedathu Damodaran, Radhamohan Gokulji, and Rahul Sankrityayan.

==Comparison in societal reformation (India and Europe)==
:''See also: [[Contribution of Hindu Diaspora]]''
Whereas even in modern times, in most European Christian societies, witch-hunts and slavery were the norm, in Indian Hindu societies, widow-burning was the norm among certain communities (usually northwestern) and caste prejudice was prevalent. Both the Christian and Hindu communities worked to extinguish these and other evils.

Historical societal injustices have been acknowledged and reconciled. Even today, the lasting legacy of important Hindu reformers is visible wherein quotas employment and educational quotas are implemented for social upward mobility to ensure poorer castes and women do not fall behind.

During the colonial era, as human rights improved in Western societies as results from agricultural/economic advancements, Western writers of non-Christian societies took a chauvinistic, parochialist, and Eurocentric approach towards Hindu societies, claiming that they:
#Would never improve in human rights, morality, or rationality
#Are permanently stagnant
#Cannot produce modern or political economic institutions

Critics of the colonial era were proven wrong in these concrete ways:
#Large-scale societal reforms led by Hindu activists themselves improved Hindu societies — i.e., promoting window remarriage and caste integration while also creating quotas for females and historically-disadvantaged castes
#Rapid expansion of education and intellectual mobility — i.e., growth of global Hindu academic presence
#Global economic and corporate leadership — i.e., entrepreneurship and CEOs of major multinational companies like Adobe, Google, and Microsoft
#Democratic political evolution — i.e., maintaining electoral democracies like Hindu-majority nations, providing peaceful transfers of power, and granting significant autonomy to judiciary, press, and civil societies
#Religious and philosophical continuity + adaptation
#Ritual practice has diversified massively by religion and class — i.e., clerics ([[Rta and Spiritual Authority|priests]] and [[ascetics|monks]]) are from many backgrounds
#Reinterpretation of scriptures became internationally influential — i.e., Aldous Huxley loved the perennialism of Upanishads, Erwin Schrödinger the idea of aikatmyam, and Henry David Thoreau that of Ishavasyam
#Non-Hindus from outside of the Indian Subcontinent have converted to Sanatan Dharm and have promoted the religion — James Donald Walters who founded Ananda Sangha, Richard Alpert who founded Hanuman Foundation, John Edwin Favors who founded iFast[https://ifastdc.com/][https://ifastglobal.com/], and Robert Hansen who founded Saiva Siddhanta Church[https://www.himalayanacademy.com/]
#Hindu-based intellectual practices have popularized globally — i.e., [[Ayurveda|Ayurvedic medicine]], divination, political activism, [[Animal rights#Influence upon Westerners|animal rights]], [[Animal_rights#Vegetarianism|vegetarianism]], and [[yoga]]

==Hindu-led social betterment==
What is extraordinary in the case of India is that it was the religious institutions ([[Organizations|Hindu organizations]] and [[Hindu Post-Secondary Institutes|schools]]) that made revolutionary changes, not normally secular or non-Hindu ones. Practicing Hindus saw that superstitious and chauvinistic practices had become institutionalized (caste system and misogyny) within Hindu society, so they formed associations to help, uplift, educate the destitute. They would even go steps further to privilege the marginalized through reservations.

Even women who were more exploratory and not members of specific religions engaged with Hinduism positively. The best example might be Annette Beveridge, an Englishwoman who was the daughter of a Unitarian Christian herself became affiliated with Keshub Chandra Sen in England. She was drawn to his lectures and this fascination with his philosophy inspired her to begin life in India, where she even established<ref>Its expenses were financed by Ananda Mohan Bose and Durga Mohan Das, Dwarkanath Ganguly was its headmaster, and others Brahmos involved with the school were Sibnath Sastri and Monomohun Ghose.</ref> the Hindu Mahila Vidyalaya (''Hindu Women's School''.) Her husband Henry Beveridge was an orientalist (westerners intrigued with Asian cultures) working in India, meaning they were not Westerners critical of Hindu identity. Mrs. Emily Phear was an honorary teacher, and she too was involved in Brahmo Samaji circles for societal development. (Her husband Sir John Budd Phear helped Brahmo Samaj legally.) A non-Hindu that likewise began a girls school (Hindu Female School[https://www.bethunecollegiateschool.com/]) with Brahmos and other Hindus was John Bethune, whose accomplices were Dakshinaranjan Mukherjee, Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar, Ramgopal Ghosh, and Madanmohan Tarkalanka (the last even taught at the school without pay.) Others foreign women in India that engaged positively with Hindu activist organizations were Mary Carpenter[https://southasianbritain.org/people/mary-carpenter/] and Sophia Dobson Collet with Brahmo Samaj, Alma B.R.A. with Arya Samaj, and Mary Hobson with Prarthana Samaj[https://puneprarthanasamaj.org/].

Hindu women that set women's rights activism into motion were Arya Samaj's Lajwanti Sood and Satyavati Devi, and Brahmo Samaj's Kadambini Ganguly and Sarala Devi Chaudhurani. Swarnakumari Devi was both an Arya Samaji and a Brahmo Samaji.

===Female upliftment===
:''See also: [[Indian Freedom Fighters]] 
;Theosophical Society wing
[[image:Paris Women's Congress.jpg|right|thumb|200px|Dr. Reddy and 3 Indian women at the Paris Women's Congress (1926.)]]
The top 3 champions who politically improved Indian women's rights in the modern era were foreigners — Dr. Annie Besant, Dorothy Jinarajadasa, and Margaret Cousins. They did not tell Indian women to leave Hinduism but rather they themselves became Hindu in practice and Indian in habit. They then sought to restore the Vedic-era of womanhood wherein women had authority (i.e., to become clerics, scholars, and leaders.) Emma Mitchell (American) and Francesca Arundale (English) greatly contributed to building of Hindu educational institutions (i.e., Central Hindu College.)

Dr. Muthulakshmi Reddy is a big name in female rights, and she was influenced by Dr. Besant in her college years (1907-1912) and was guided by Dr. Besant in both her social reform and political work. She worked with Dr. Besant and others to establish the Women's Indian Association (1917.) After Dr. Besant's death, she took over the presidency of the WIA. Gandhi was another major mentor but Reddy never formally joined the INC but sometimes protested colonial injustices (i.e., Gandhi's arrest.)

;Ramakrishna Mission wing
[[image:Nivedita & Vivekanand.jpg|right|thumb|200px|Nivedita with Vivekanand.]]
[[Niveditā, Sister|Sister Nivedita (Margaret Noble)]], a convert from Ireland became a disciple of [[Swami Vivekananda|Swami Vivekanand]] and joined Aurobindo's Dawn Society and had also founded and ran girls' schools in Kolkata (i.e., Ramakrishna Sarada Mission Sister Nivedita Girls' School[https://www.sisterniveditagirlsschool.org/home.html] in Baghbazar) to educate girls who had little to no access to education (i.e., poorest of the poor.) She advocated for women's intellectual and moral development, influenced by Vivekanand's vision of strong Indian womanhood. Her work included lectures, fundraising (India, England, and U.S.), and writings that promoted gender equality in access to knowledge and opportunities. She had worked with Dr. Annie Besant at times. Likewise, Sister Christine, disciple of Vivekanand, is another example of a Westerner who utilized the Ramakrishna Mission and Vivekanand's circles as vehicles for improving female rights in India.

;INC wing
:''See also: [[Indian Freedom Fighters#INC's Hindu activist roots|INC's Hindu activist roots]] 
[[image:Nellie Sen Gupta.jpg|right|thumb|100px|N.S. Gupta.]]
Nellie Sen Gupta[https://www.thedailystar.net/in-focus/news/deshpriya-jatindra-mohan-nellie-sengupta-2036981] (nee Edith Ellen Gray) had married freedom fighter Jatindra Mohan Sen Gupta, and both joined the INC — she also founded Deepali Sangha, a women's organization aimed at promoting social and political awareness, leadership, training, and empowerment among women. Her husband passed away but she was advised to stay in the-then East Pakistan to take care of Hindu rights, which she did. Umadevi (born Wanda Dynowska), a Polish convert to Sanatan Dharm too championed women's rights in India and translated ''[[Bhagavad Gita]]'', ''[[Mahabharata]]'', ''[[Ramayana]]'', and other [[Hindu Scriptures|Hindu and Bauddh literature]] into Polish. Mira Behn (born Madeleine Slade), the daughter of a British Royal Navy admiral, gave up her affluent lifestyle to become Gandhi's servant in India.
[[image:Sarla Behn Chipko Movement.jpg|right|thumb|200px|Sarla Behn's Chipko act[https://www.adda247.com/school/chipko-movement/].]]
Sarla Behn[https://growbilliontrees.com/blogs/knowledge/sarla-behn-tree-nurturing-nature-and-empowering-communities-for-a-sustainable-future?srsltid=AfmBOoq4h0d0skQBNr4w4zOvISuhYz02_EXtPvD3pUoQYjTlcvNHEbQ-#fullcontent] (born Catherine Mary Heilman) from England setup the Lakshmi Ashram Kausani in 1946 within Uttarakhand to uplift women, after having lived in the Sevagram Ashram[https://gandhiashramsevagram.org/] in Maharashtra. The organization educated rural hill girls academically, trained women of self-reliance and industrial skills (i.e., khadi weaving), taught personal care (i.e., literacy, hygiene, anti-liquor campaigns), and promoted [[Environmentalism|ecological awareness]] (Chipko Movement.) It also worked with the INC to encourage nationalist fervour. Lakshmi Ashram individual units were known as Mahila Mandals. This ashram attracted foreign residents intrigued with Sanatan Dharm even after independence, like David Hopkins, who relocated to there in the 1990's.
[[image:Durgabai Deshmukh.jpg|right|thumb|100px|Dr. D.D.]]
Dr. Durgabai Deshmukh, pupil of Gandhi and freedom fighter in the colonial era, established the Central Social Welfare Board (1953.) She later became president of the All India Women's Conference (1931.) Taraben Premchand is an important mention, as she was an important member of this organization, as well as the Jain Mahila Parishad[https://www.dbjainsabha.com], Jyoti Sangh[https://jyotisangh.org/about-us/] (local women's advancement group in Gujarat), and Shraddhanand Ashram[https://shraddhanandmahilashram.org/].

Madeleine Rolland was Women's International League for Peace and Freedom's[https://www.wilpf.org/] French section and never settled in India. However, upon engaging with Hindu culture in the 1920's, she translated Ananda Coomaraswamy's ''[[Nataraja Dasakam|The Dance of Shiva]]'' into French, introducing Hinduism to the-then residents of France. She also translated Rabindranath Tagore's writings of Sanatan themes and universal humanism, helping popularize them in Europe. She welcomed Gandhi on his visit to Marseille, France. [[image:Kanuparti Varalakshmamma.jpg|right|thumb|100px|'Sarada'.]]
Kanuparti Varalakshmamma (alias 'Sarada'), a devout Gandhian, used Hindu themes like providing ethical refences (i.e., Savitri, Sita) to depict women's morality, dignity, and conduct. She often engaged with the idea of a grihalakshmi (idea woman of the household.) She also founded the Stree Hitaishini Mandali for uplifting women. She used ''Andhra Patrika'', a newspaper created by a promoter of the ''Bhagavad Gita'', Kasinathuni Nageswara Rao, to preach her ideas.
[[image:Vijaya Lakshmi Pandit.jpg|right|thumb|100px|'Vijaya Lakshmi Pandit'.]]
It is also noteworthy that the 1st female head of government in the world was a [[Bauddh Dharm|Bauddh]] (Sirimavo Bandaranaike of Sri Lanka, non-INC member), and 2nd was a Hindu (Indira Gandhi, INC member.) Also Vijaya Lakshmi Pandit[https://news.un.org/en/story/2024/03/1147327] (born Swaroop Rani Nehru) played a significant role in global representation of women, particularly in the United Nations. She was the first woman to serve as the President of the UN General Assembly (1953-1954), a position she held to advocate for decolonization and the independence of countries in Asia and Africa. Hansa Mehta[https://india.un.org/en/311450-hansa-mehta%E2%80%99s-life-story-continues-inspire] had an impact on the UN's constitution wording wherein "''all human beings''" instead of "all men" in the Universal Declaration of Human Rights. (She was also one of only 2 women delegates working alongside Eleanor Roosevelt in the UN Human Rights Commission 1946-48.)
[[image:Nilla Cram Cook.jpg|right|thumb|100px|'Nilla Nagini Devi'.]]
Nilla Cram Cook, an American who settled at Gandhi's ashrams, had [[Conversion|converted to Hinduism]] in the 1930's but identified with the '[[Samyag Darshan#Samadarshan|sarva dharma sambhava]]' ideal, so considered herself a [[Bhakta|devotee]] of not only [[Krishna]] but of Jesus too, and so she later also translated the Quran and engaged with Islamic practices in a syncretic way with her Hindu and Christian customs. Her final literary work was ''The Way of the Swam: Poems of Kashmir'' (1958), which was mostly focused around the [[Saiva|Shaiv]] mystic poetess Lal Ded[https://hindupost.in/society-culture/lal-ded-her-life-and-works/#][https://homegrown.co.in/homegrown-voices/the-poetry-of-lal-ded-mysticism-resistance-the-female-voice-in-14th-century-kashmir] and others from Kashmir syncretic Sanatan-[[Bauddh Dharm|Bauddh]]-[[Sufism with Vaishnavism|Sufi]] tradition. She dedicated the book to Pandit. She didn't work on women's upliftment directly but did participate with Gandhi's Harijan Sevak Sangh. She had also written about Sarojini Naidu.

;Other associations
[[image:Maharani Chimnabai Gaekwad II.jpg|right|thumb|100px|Maharani Chimnabai.]]
[[image:Sethu Parvathi Bayi.jpg|right|thumb|100px|Junior Queen Bayi.]]
The National Council of Women in India[https://www.ncwi.in/], founded 1925, was also a monumental organization to make progress for women — it mainly focused on female literacy, vocational training, public participation, and legal reform. It was primarily the initiative of Lady Meherbai Tata, a Mazdaean icon, and its first president was Maharani Chimnabai Gaekwad II, born Gajrabai Ghatge, a princess of Dewas (M.P.) She supported societal progress of women that did not compromise on Hindu identity (i.e., traditional customs like wearing sari and sindhoor or like celebrating Raksha Bandhan), which is how she framed her ''The Position of Women in Indian Life'' book. She financed schools for girls, as well as Hindu charities and temples. The Gaekwad family also funded libraries and women's institutions and social reform initiatives. She discussed the eradication or the purdah, child marriage, women's restrictions (i.e., obtaining education and employment), and other obstacles towards advancement. Following her presidentship, Sethu Parvathi Bayi took over. She was from the royal family of Travancore (Kerala), and her family was deeply connected to the Padmanabhaswamy Temple[https://spst.in/][https://www.padmanabhaswamytemple.com/]. She financed Hindu institutions as well. It is notable that Sucharu Deo, daughter of Brahmo leader K.C. Sen was a prominent member and she had also helped build the Maharani Girls' High School[https://school.banglarshiksha.gov.in/ws/website/index/19013701705] in Darjeeling (W.B.) together with her sister (Suniti) and Hemlata Sarkar, daughter of Brahmo leader Sibnath Sastri.

From Hindu-based institutions like sociopolitical organizations and schools came a number of philanthropic associations.
;Most influential persons for women's upliftment
{| class="wikitable sortable"
|-
! Area of Contribution
! Meaning
! Steps Taken
! Activists
! Organizations
! Founder's Affiliation(s)
|-
|Political rights and visibility
|1. Women appearing in public political spaces 2. Women being recognized as leaders (not just participants) 3. Changing social norms about women's public roles 4. Symbolic representation
|Helped institutionalize women's leadership through bodies like Women's Indian Association
|Dr. Annie Besant (women's political rights + organizational leadership), Kamaladevi Chattopadhyay (political participation, economic empowerment, cooperatives), Margaret Cousins[https://www.womensmuseumofireland.ie/exhibits/margaret-elizabeth-cousins] (Suffarage, WIA), Sarojini Naidu (mass mobilization of women in politics)
|
|
|-
|Modern institutional equality
|
|Helped institutionalize institutional equality through contributing policy influence (Hansa Mehta) and constitutional rights (Dr. Durgabai Deshmukh)
|Dr. Durgabai Deshmukh (welfare systems), Hansa Mehta
|
|
|-
|Foundational legal reform
|
|
|Raja Ram Mohan Roy (abolition of sati), Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar (widow remarriage)
|
|
|-
|Education
|
|
|Raja Ram Mohan Roy, Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar
|
|
|-
|}

===Hindu influence internationally===
Even outside of India during the 20th century, women's rights were not perfect, and so many women incorporated Hindu symbolism (i.e., worship) and concepts towards promoting societies where women would have equal rights.
[[image:M.J. Gage.jpg|right|thumb|200px|Matilda Joslyn Gage.]]
[[image: Charlotte Despard.jpg|right|thumb|200px|Charlotte Despard, an Anglo-Irish suffragist who supported Indian independence.]]
As [[Worship of God as Mother|worship of God as a female or mother]] has been common in Sanatan Dharm since its foundation, that made validating female upliftment in India quicker. Even in Western nations, prominent women's rights organizations implemented imagery of goddesses from pertinent ancient cultures, like U.K.'s Women's Freedom League and National Union of Women's Suffrage Societies, and the global International Woman Suffrage Alliance, to legitimize female equality and women being in positions of power. Some Western feminists and women's rights activists, like Matilda Joslyn Gage<ref>"''While the sale of daughters was practiced in England for seven hundred years after the introduction of Christianity, we note that by the ancient law of India, a father was forbidden to sell his daughter in marriage, or receive the smallest present therefor.''" - P. 79-82 ''Woman, Church and State'' (1893) By Matilda Joslyn Gage</ref> (U.S. suffragist) and Helena Petrovna Blavatsky<ref>"''The pre- and post-Vedic woman was as free as man; and no impure terrestrial thought was ever mixed with the religious symbology of the early Aryans.''" 
"''This is proven by the fact that in the Vedic period their women were not placed apart from men in penetralia, or ‘Zenanas.’ Their seclusion began when the Mahomedans … had conquered the land and gradually enforced their ways and customs upon the Hindus.''" 
- P. 379-380 ''The Secret Doctrine: Volume I'' By Helena Blavatsky </ref> (European feminist), even used the examples of [[Worship of God as Mother|Hindu goddess-worship]] and Hindu queens to support their examples. (M.J. Gage[https://www.smithsonianmag.com/history/the-feminist-inspired-witches-of-oz-180985334/] in her ''Woman, Church, and State'' even highlighted Hindu texts to counter the male-centric theology of the West and referenced ''[[Bhagavad Gita]]'' to validate the concept of a female [[divinity]].) Even feminists of the colonial era like Victoria Woodhull that was skeptical of organized religion, respected "''Christna and Buddha''" (Krishna and Gautama.) Mary Lowe Dickinson at the World's Parliament Circles (1893) was so impressed by [[Swami Vivekananda|Swami Vivekanand]]'s speech, that she developed a fascination with female divinity of Hinduism, and in her editorials and public circles, argued that Hinduism's recognition of a feminine aspect within the divine was spiritually superior to the rigidly patriarchal, all-male Trinity of mainstream American Christianity. Emily Pitts Stevens and Charlotte LeMoyne Wills (wrote about the genderless [[Brahm]]) became disciples of Vivekanand. Laura de Force Gordon wrote about the immortal soul and continuous cycle of life. Alice Moore McComas wrote about the interconnectedness (aikatmyam) of all things. In U.K., Charlotte Despard's specific pamphlets linked [[karma]] to political activism. Margaret Louise Sanger was influenced by Vivekanand and Rabindranath Tagore. Sarah Bull<ref> P. 483 ''Western Admirers of Ramakrishna and His Disciples'' By Gopal Stavig, Swami Shuddhidananda </ref>, who particularly focused on women's education and reform was connected to both Vivekanand and Sister Nivedita. Josephine MacLeod was a major promoter of Vivekanand in the West and was involved in transatlantic reform-intellectual networks. Viktoria Ocampo of Argentina was deeply influenced by Tagore, even hosting him in Argentina and promoting his ideas widely. Gabriela Mistral of Chile was too, and she applied Tagore's ideas to women's education, child welfare, and cultural reform. Mabel Dodge Luhan was fascinated with Sanatan philosophy and influenced by Vivekanand. Mentionable is Emma Calve of France, who wasn't a political feminist leader but influential in women's intellectual-cultural circles, and she was deeply influenced by Vivekanand.
[[image:Carol Patrice Christ.jpg|right|thumb|200px|Carol Patrice Christ.]]
After suffragists had attained complete institutional equality, they them progressed to the next stage of female liberation by ensuring that their own spiritual faith wasn't male-chauvinistic or making them subordinates of males. Feminists were inspired by goddess deity of Hinduism to then promote it within generic spirituality. Valerie Saiving, Isaac Bonewits and Naomi Goldenberg founded in the 1970's, Thealogy, a feminine-specific theology. Carol Patrice Christ launched the Goddess Movement, which provided 4 aspects of Goddess symbolism as reasons to needing a goddess in women's lives; 1) the Goddess as affirmation of female power, 2) the female body, 3) the female will, and 4) women's bond and heritage. She specifically used the Shakti concept to prove that a major global religion (Hinduism) explicitly defined the [[Brahmanda|material universe]]/nature/change ([[Darshana#Sankhya|Prakriti]]) as an inherently active, female, and sacred force. She was an ecofeminist, as were Charlene Spretnak and Miriam Simos were ecofeminists too. Merlin Stone wrote ''Ancient Mirrors of Womanhood: Our Goddess and Heroine Heritage'' (1979) and in a chapter analyzes goddesses like [[Durga]], [[Kali]], [[Lakshmi Puja|Lakshmi]], Parvati, and Saraswati. Devout Christian women feminists too drew on Hindu practices and ideas to support women's advocacy, and they include Ivone Gebara, Pearl Sydenstricker Buck, and Sally McFague.

'Matriarchal religion' is a philosophy stating that societies were Goddess worshippers with females having the same status and rights as men before male gods began being worshipped, and the latter led to patriarchy. Goddesses being worshipped contiguously in Hindu societies for thousands of years was the backing this thought utilized, in addition to feminist archaeology (i.e., ancient idols and temples of goddesses uncovered.)

==Start of modern reforms==
In modern India, most positive social changes within Indian Hindu societies came not first as enforcement or pressure from European rulers but from advocacy of forward-thinking Hindus. Raja Ram Mohan Roy had led the campaign to purge Hindu societies of Sati and caste prejudices. Roy worked with British imperial authority, specifically Lord William Bentinck to have sati outlawed. Roy himself was a religious leader that reiterated Upanishads for their principles.

Other institutions of positive social changes were mainly Hindu ones or were governed by Hindu religious leaders, not secular ones.

The Indian National Social Conference of 1887 was organized by Justice Ranade, Rai Raghunath Rao, Narendra Nath Sen Gupta, and Janki Nath Ghoshal. Ranade was founder of the Prarthana Samaj, a religious group.

Arya Samajis, Brahmo Samajis, and Prarthana Samajis were the most vocal and active forces advocating: 
#Widow Remarriage (i.e., Widow Remarriage Act 1856—initiative of Brahmo Samaj)
#Women's right to divorce (i.e., Native Marriage Act 1872—initiative of Brahmo Samaj) 
#Property rights for women 
#Opposition to child marriages (i.e., Age of Consent Act 1891—initiative of Brahmo Samaj and Prarthana Samaj, Child Marriage Restraint Act 1929—initiative of Arya Samaj) 
#Universal accessible education (built schools, including colleges and gurukuls) 
#Caste-based reservations
[[image:Justice Ranade.jpg|right|thumb|200px|Mahadev Govind Ranade (alias 'Justice Ranade'.)]]
[[image:Jagannath Shankarshet.jpg|right|thumb|200px|Jagannath Shankarshet (alias 'Architect of Modern Mumbai'.)]]
The Indian Factories Act 1881's ratification was a landmark in workers' rights and the credit goes mainly to Sorabjee Shapoorjee Bengalee, and then Prarthana Samaj. He did work alongside the Prarthana Samaj to lobby the British authority through the First Factory Commission in 1875 (made to investigate the brutal conditions of Indian labour.) Prarthana Samaj's ''Subodh Patrika'' newspaper specifically critiqued mill owners. Rahnumai Mazdayasnan Sabha, its newspaper ''Rast Goftar'', and Bengalee himself referenced labour reformers Sasipada Banerji and Protap Chunder Mozumdar, and used the former's methods of worker upliftment as a blueprint for their own legislative arguments. Collaboration between the Sabha and Prarthana Samaj began with the latter's creation of the Theistic Association, on which the Parsi Naoroji Furdonji was its 1st Chairman. Ranade and Bhandarkar drove the Association from discussing only theism to improving society through finding solutions of work hardships. The Night School Initiative was launched, helping workers receive adequate training, particularly in labourer-heavy neighborhoods Byculla, Dongri, Khetwadi, and Thakurdwar. (From 1886-1890 alone, over 2,750 industrial workers successfully studied through this initiative.)

Brahmo Samaj's K.C. Sen’s first visit to Mumbai in March-April 1864 engaged him with Bengalee, Furdonji, Ranade, and Bhandarkar (all then members of Young India.) They all discussed ways to develop India. They also shared strategies on how to bypass orthodox religious resistance—Furdonji within Zoroastrianism and Sen within Sanatan Dharm. Bengalee's First Labor Bill (1878) laid the groundwork for the later Indian Factories Act.

Prior to all of this, Jagannath Shankarshet[https://www.vishwakonkani.org/hall-of-fame/hon-jagannath-shankar-sheth/] spent the 1850s petitioning the British Parliament for local governance. As a result, it codified the Indian Councils Act of 1861, thus creating the Bombay Legislative Council as a political body to better govern the-then Bombay Presidency. Shankarshet was the main founder of Bombay Association. In its first leadership were also Dr. Ramachandra Vitthal Lad (alias 'Dr. Bhau Daji'), a Hindu intellectual who used his Sanskrit knowledge to decipher inscriptions, preserve manuscripts, and help reconstruct the forgotten timelines of ancient Guptas and Western Kshatrapa dynasties. Mentionable is the Parsi Sir Jamsetjee Jeejeebhoy of the group. Shankarshet was a wealthy philanthropist that constructed and financed Sanatan and secular infrastructure, most notably the Bhavani Shankar Mandir[https://www.mcgm.gov.in/irj/go/km/docs/documents/D%20Ward/Heritage-Sites/73_Legacy%20of%20D%20Ward_Article_Bhavani%20Shankar%20Temple.pdf] (Mumbai), Sanskrit Seminary and Sanskrit Library (both in Mumbai too.) Elphinstone Educational Institution[https://elphinstone.ac.in/index.php] and Grant Medical College[https://gmcjjh.edu.in/] were his creations too. (Jeejeebhoy contributed to constructing the Grant Medical College.)

===Shahu's royal authority to implement reforms===
[[image:Shahu adoption.jpg|right|thumb|200px|Prince Yeshwantrao Ghatge being adopted by the royal family of Kohlapur.]]
[[image:Rajarshi.jpg|right|thumb|200px|Rajarshi Chhatrapati Shahu Maharaj.]]
[[image:School foundation.jpg|right|thumb|200px|Foundation of Shri Shahu Chhatrapati Shikshan Sanstha.]]
The greatest champion on all of these sections for reforms was Chhatrapati Shahu Maharaj[https://aissms.org/breaking-barriers-chhatrapati-shahu-maharaj-and-his-enduring-impact-on-progress-and-modernity/] (born Yeshwantrao Ghatge), '[[Rta and Spiritual Authority#Rishis|Rajarshi]]', the ruler of Kohlapur Kingdom who affiliated with organizations but probably the Arya Samaj[https://thearyasamaj.org] more than any other. Shahu definitely was not shy to publicly perform prayers, as he famously attended temples of goddesses Ambabai[https://www.mahalaxmikolhapur.com/home] and Bhavani[https://shrituljabhavani.org/] when having returned from his Europe trip in 1902. Also in 1902, Pratap Singh Maharaj of Idhar (Gujarat) introduced and educated him about the Arya Samaj. He provided patronage to the Arya Samaj.[https://navjyot.net/wp-content/uploads/2022/12/10.pdf]

The king passed many policies for for the upliftment of untouchable, nomadic, non-Brahmin communities and for females.<ref>Act of Free and Compulsory Primary Education (1917), Widow remarriage Act (1917), End of Balutedari (1918), Repeal of Kulkarni Watan (1918), Intercaste and Interreligious Marriages and Sanctioning of Registered Marriage Act (1919), Act relating to protection of Harassment of Women (1919), Divorce act (1919), Order on prohibition of Untouchability practice (1919), Illegitimate Children's Rights and Devadasi Prohibition Act (1920); 
[https://www.indiejournal.in/article/rajarshi-shahu-maharaj-and-his-tryst-with-the-arya-samaj "Rajarshi Shahu Maharaj & his tryst with the Arya Samaj Lessons for our times"] By Devkumar Ahire (Jun 26, 2023 6:42 PM)</ref>

;Prejudiced disgruntled castists promoting anti-Brahman hate, not universalism
While Shahu was affiliated with the Satyashodhak Samaj (SS) because it wanted to uplift the non-dwija castes, he did not feel they had any religious foundations, whereas the Arya Samaj was encompassed both a spiritual and social movement.<ref>"Beyond Reformism: Chhatrapati Shahu and Hinduism Reimagined" By Surajkumar Thube P. 124-144 ''Nidān: International Journal for Indian Studies, Volume 8'', Issue 1 (July 2023)</ref> Also, the SS of Pune was antithetical to social cohesion because it targeted the Brahman caste as an enemy, and while its main founder (Jyotirao Phule) made absurd claims like 'Shiv-Dharma'<ref>"''The real Shiv-Dharma that is ours, we are re-establishing it as Sarvajanik Satya Dharma.''" Chapter 4, ''Sarvajanik Satya Pustak''</ref> or 'Mahadev-Dharma' (worship of [[Shiva|Shiv]] as God and some local gods like Khandoba as avatars) being the true religion of Indians whereas every other Hindu belief and practice was an imposition by 'non-Indian Brahman invaders'. Being a chauvinist, he also criticized freedom fighter martyrs Lakshmi Bai, Nana Sahib, Tantia Tope for being Brahmans. He also wrote positively that freedom fighters lost the 1857 War of Independence against the British colonialists. He was also openly criticized by his own relative Baburao Phule, who accused the former of being a Christian convert who destroyed the Hindu religion.<ref>P. 58-59 ''The Caste Question: Dalits and the Politics of Modern India'' (2009) By Anupama Rao </ref>

Phule though anti-Brahman, was influenced by some Brahmans, such as Balshastri Jambhekar (a Hindu activist) who pushed scientific knowledge and history through Marathi, criticized caste segregation, and attacked other or kinds or orthodoxy like widowhood. He was also influenced by some Hindu activists who were not anti-Brahman (i.e., Karsandas Mulji.)

The organization would receive the most aid from Shahu (financial and social work), Karmvir (social work), and Padval (intellectual) but they themselves always kept a distance from the SS because of its explicitly castist vitriol. People would choose to align or become members of other associations for their inclusivity and harmonious vision for the future.

;Satyashodhak Samaj becoming less anti-Brahman
"''All Hindus are equal. No one is superior, no one is inferior. Let all flesh and blood be one. Four varnas are a real deceit. It's a tool to keep the non-Brahmins in slavery. There is no difference among the Hindus. Hindu is the only varna. If a Hindu eats or marries with another Hindu that's not ''[[adharma]].'' In contrast, what divide Hindus in the name of religion is not a dharma, but a trick by Brahmins. One who calls themselves a Hindu, whether they are Europeans or Africans, they are our coreligionists.''" - P. 39 ''Deshache Dushman'' (1925) By Dinkarrao Javalkar
[[image:Sasipada Banerji.jpg|right|thumb|100px|Sasipada Banerji (alias 'Sevabrata'.)]]
Notable is that Phule's friend Narayan Meghaji Lokhande, a labour organization leader, was close friends with Phule and used Khandoba-worship and the reverence of Sundays for Khandoba in his petition to British authority to achieve Sunday as a holiday for factory labourers. Phule and Lokhande emulated Brahmans, like forming the political lobby group Deenbandhu Sarvajanik Sabha after Ranade's Poona Sarvajanik Sabha and forming the Bombay Mill Hands Association based and its mouthpiece ''Deenbandhu'' on the Working Men's Club (India's 1st labour welfare platform) and its mouthpiece ''Bharat Sramajibi'' (India's 1st labour journal) of Sasipada Banerji (Brahmo Samaji.)

Though Dinkarrao Javalkar portrayed himself as pan-Hindu when discussing the specific topic of Hindu unity, he still prejudicially criticized the Brahman caste in general<ref>"''This day will be counted among the most important days in the history of Hindus. There is no reason for you to fear jail. The Brahmans who eat ghee and roti should have that fear. To make the touchable people behave is in your hands. You are the sons of Hindus. You capture the tank saying 'har har Mahadev' and follow the advice of your leader Dr. Ambedkar Saheb. This is my own position.''" -Dinkarrao Javalkar at satyagraha with Keshavrao Jedhe and Dr. Ambedkar among a Mahar crowd</ref> and targeted some prominent Brahmans like Lokmanya Tilak. (Javalkar and Keshavrao Jedhe also portrayed themselves as pro-woman but derogatory remarks about women from the Brahman and certain other castes<ref>P. 44 ''19th Century Maharashtra: A Reassessment'' (2020) By Shraddha Kumbhojkar </ref> and both appealed to Dr. B.R. Ambedkar in 1927 to exclude Brahmans from the Mahad Satyagraha<ref> P. 27 ''Social Reform Movements in India: A Historical Perspective'' (1991) By V.D. Divekar</ref>.) Jedhe did protest with other activists (including Brahmans like Narhar Vishnu Gadgil, Seshdas Ranade, Shreedhar Mahadev Joshi, and members of Arya Samaj) for the right of Dalits to worship at Pune's Devdeveshwar Mandir[https://devdeveshwarsanthan.org/home.html]. Javalkar did write favourably about some like Ranade, Gopal Ganesh Agarkar, and Krishna Gopal Gokhale but even they were rarely mentioned. He rightfully partook in the Kalaram Mandir[https://www.shrikalaramsansthannasik.org/] Satyagraha in Nasik that protested for Dalits to be able to enter the temple. He was a communist and 10 years after his death, the Peasants and Workers Party (PWP) was formed.

SS branches outside of Pune were less hateful of Brahmans. It is also noteworthy, however, is that Nana Patil, a founder of the PWP, was affiliated with both the Satyashodhak and Prarthana associations [meaning that he, like most other Satyashodhaks didn't believe in Phule's religious ideology.] Some other PWP founders like Jedhe and Madhavrao Bagal were Satyashodhaks, they popularized Shiv Jayanti and Ganesh Chathuri. The latter and his son Vasantrao even wrote devotional pieces inspired from Bhakti Era saints (i.e., [[Tukaram]], [[Eknath]]) and valourizing pieces about Shahu. Tulshidas Jadhav, a Gandian within the PWP, championed the Bhakti Era's Warkari Movement, which was still popular in his time, because it was based on social equality and public seva. Also noteworthy is, that even some prominent members supported the Arya Samaj, like Krishnarao Bhalekar (1 of the founders of SS with Phule) defended Dayanand Saraswati (Arya Samaj’s founder), when the latter’s procession was opposed by some orthodox Hindus in Pune, and Bhalekar organized a speech to be delivered by Saraswati at a dharmshal near a Rokdoba Temple in Pune.

Bhalekar himself made the claim that the SS is the true follower of Sant Tukaram's [[Bhāgavata-dharma|Bhagwat Dharma]] ([[Krishna|Krishnaite]] [[Vaishnava|Vaishnavism]].) His son was Mukundrao Patil, who made the claim, "''The Satyasodhak Samaj is the true heir of the Hindu religion. Brahmanism is not Hinduism.''"<ref>''Dinmitra'' newspaper (1920s)</ref> Javalkar claimed SS is the true representative of the Hindu religion and that SS members are liberating Hinduism from the supremacy of the Brahmins. Shivram Janma Kamble stated the SS is a revival movement of the true Hinduism. Kisan Faguji Bansode argued "Shivdharma" was the true Hindu religion and that the SS advocates that version.

There were those in his organization that promoted about how in ancient Sanatan society, there were no caste distinctions and that people were recognized by their merits. Their view was promoted by Tukaram Tatya Padval, who wrote ''Jatibhed Vivekshar'' (1861) after being inspired by Ashwaghosha's ''Vajrasuchi''. Phule republished copies of Padval's books, and the 2 developed a friendship. He did write at that in ancient India, certain sages were had Sudra or Avarna status but rose to the rank of a Brahman through their intellect, and used examples of Valmiki (wrote a ''Ramayan''), Sankhya, and Kabilar rishis. He also published copies of the ''Bhagavad Gita'', ''Yogasutra'', and compilations of the ''Rajayoga'' and ''Sankhya Karika.'' He further compiled the ''Tukarambaba ani Tyanche Shisya Yanchi Abhanga Gatha'' (1889) and ''Eknath Maharajancha Abhangachi Gatha'' (1903.) Padval, however, never became a member of Phule's organization and instead became a member of the Theosophical Society.

;Shahu forming his own Satyashodhak Samaj focused on upliftment (free of anti-Brahman distractions)
As a result of the Satyashodhak Samaj of Pune being too antagonistic of Brahmans, Shahu had instead founded his own branch in 1911 — Shri Shahu Satyashodhak Samaj. By an order, Shahu replaced the Brahman priests in the Patgaon Sansthan (Mauni Maharaj Math[https://durgbharari.in/maunibaba-patgaon/]) and Jyotiba Devasthan[https://shreejyotiba.com/?lang=E][https://maharashtratourism.gov.in/temple/jyotiba/] with Maratha priests. Bhaskarrao Jadhav and Anna Babaji Latthe were leaders of Shahu's Kolhapur Satyashodhak Samaj. Whereas Phule mostly only wrote positively of Shiva and local-born gods, Jadhav in his ''Marathas and their Religion'' wrote positively about Krishna and the ''Bhagavad Gita''. He further worked with Shahu to aid Arya Samaj in its activities and goals (i.e., train non-Brahmans to become priests too.) Noteworthy is that Latthe, who worked personally with Shahu Maharaj, was its first VP and that he worked to dismantle priestly (Jain priests, not usually Brahmans) intermediation within the Jain clergy. (He was a big-time activist for general upliftment and for reform within the Jain community (i.e., wrote ''Jain Dharmacha Parichay''.)

Latthe founded the Dakshin Bharat Jain Sabha[https://dbjainsabha.com/], of which Dr. Bhaurao Patil (from a Jain family) became a member and through he wasn't a member of any SS branch, he did sometimes participate in its activities and himself founded the Rayat Shikshan Sansthan[https://rayatshikshan.edu/], which educated students in a multitude of topics, including Sanskrit. Patil (alias 'Karmvir Anna') was deeply influenced by Mahatma Gandhi and Vitthal Ramji Shinde.

;Shahu distancing himself formally from Satyashodhak Samaj
The SS had earned a bad reputation in Maharashtra with the general public, particularly for the outright anti-Brahman vitriol spewed in the SS's publications and events. Because the goal of Shahu and true reformers was to achieve a harmonious society with all people cooperating, it would not make sense to support an organization that's known for abusing persons (i.e., Brahmans) specifically over their caste identity.

In 1921, Shahu made a public statement in a Baroda newspaper that even though he granted significant support to the non-Brahman movement and introduced measures to eliminate Brahman dominance, he had never been affiliated with Phule's SS, and that he always accepted [[Rta and Spiritual Authority#Rishis|Vedic ritual authority]].

;Granting, accommodating, and expanding Arya Samaj
Shahu attended Arya Samaj sessions like the one at Navsari in 1918 and another at Bhavnagar in 1920<ref>P. 6. ''People's Raj Volume 30'' (1974) By Directorate-General of Information and Public Relations </ref>. He provided funding for Gurukul Boarding House to be built at Kerle, wherein large buildings and well-irrigated lands were granted to the Arya Samaj. Later, the Rajaram Anathalaya orphanage was added to this grant. He also brought educational institutions in his domain under the leadership of Arya Pratinidhi Sabha. Rajaram College's administration was also granted to the Arya Samaj.

;Spiritual Authority as Rajarshi
Shahu Maharaj, being a devout Sanatan wanted to proclaim the rights that warriors of history had and so participated in important ceremonies and worked with priests (i.e., Brahmans) to achieve the rights to learn and perform Vedic ceremonies. He established the Vedokta Committee for Marathas to be able to perform Vedic rites without requiring priests. In 1905, the Karveer Peeth's (or Kolhapur Math's) Shankaracharya declared full rights of Vedokta to Chhatrapati Shahu.

Tatyarao Joshirao was appointed by Shahu Maharaj as new royal purohit, replacing the Rajopadhye (creator of the infamous 'Vedokta Controversy'), who denied the Maharaj to perform Vedic rites. Joshirao was from a family that had traditional ownership of the historic Binkhambi Ganapati Mandir in Kolhapur.

Rajaram Shastri (alias 'Bhagavata'), a Brahman scholar, linguist, and researcher, openly challenged the religious orthodoxy, arguing from scripture that Shahu Maharaj had full rights to the Vedas. Vishnu Topkhane was another Brahman who greatly helped the Chhatrapati with his progressive reforms. Topkhane the educationalist helped the latter establish the Vidyapeeth High School near the Shri Karveer Niwasini Ambabai Mahalakshmi Temple. Freedom fighter Gokhale was someone who worked with Shahu. When the Vedokta Controversy broke out and the conservative press attacked the Maharaja, Gokhale privately and publicly validated Shahu Maharaj's stance, recognizing that social reform was a prerequisite for true political freedom. Ranade, though passed away before much Shahu's reforms began, was admired by the latter for his progressive ideals and actions.

Chhatrapati Shahu founded the Satyashodhak School for spiritual training in 1913, in which seminarians (predominantly from castes such as Marathas, Mahars, and Chambhars) were taught to recite and preach the poems (i.e., abhangs of Tukaram) of sants. He also created the Shivaji Vedic School (aliases 'Shahu Vedic School', 'Shahu Vedic Pathshala', 'Shri Shahu Vaidik Vidyalay') in 1920 and had invited scholars from Varanasi (spiritual capital of Sanatan Dharm) to ensure the highest standard of scriptural and linguistic training. The school trained seminarians (of all castes) to learn Sanskrit and become priests and conduct ceremonies. He further established and financed the office of the Kshatra Jagadguru (''Warrior Universal Teacher''), a pontiff seat open to anyone of any caste. The first Kshatra Jagadguru was Sadashivrao Lakshmanrao Sankpal Patil Benadikar, was an accomplished Sanskrit scholar who received his formal higher education at Rajaram College in Kolhapur. The Kshatra Jagadguru Peeth was the pontiff's seat at Patgaon (in the Bhudargad region of Kolhapur.) Patgaon was chosen because it was the historic site of the Mauni Maharaj Math, a highly respected spiritual center that had historically blessed Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj[https://pilgrimdata.in/temple/mouni-maharaj-math-temple-patgaon-bhudargarh-dist-kolhapur/]. The Kshatra Jagadguru had the Shri Sadashivrao Patil Shikshan Sanstha educationalist association named after him, and it runs schools[https://www.mwssm.org/][https://sspiop.com/] in Maharashtra still. Other organizations too use his name for schools like Sadashivrao Mandlik Mahavidyalaya (Kolhapur) of the ⁠Jay Shivray Education Society.

===Successive associations===
From Hindu-based institutions like sociopolitical organizations and schools came a number of philanthropic associations. Even other humanitarian associations that were not established by Hindu activists, were established by their influence. For example, Krishna Gopal Gokhale had participated in many sessions of the Prarthana Samaj as he was Ranade's pupil, and he later joined the Deccan Education Society, which he left to establish the Servants of India Society. Narayan Malhar Joshi was a member of Gokhale's group and later formed his own Social Service League[https://socialserviceleague.org.in/]. Hriday Nath Kunzru too was part of Gokhale's group and left to establish the Seva Samiti.

{| class="wikitable sortable"
|-
! Organization
! Demographic of Focus
! Region(s)
! Founder
! Founder's Affiliation(s)
! Achievement
|-
|Anath Balikashram Society
|Widows
|Maharashtra
|Dhondo Keshav Karve
|Educated at BHU
|
|-
|Andhra Mahila Sabha
|Females
|Andhra Pradesh
|Durgabai Deshmukh
|
|
|-
|Bharat Stree Mahamandal
|Females
|Bengal, Bihar, Punjab, Sindh, U.P.
|Sarala Devi Chaudhurani
|Arya Samaji, Brahmo Samaji, accepted Bijoy Krishna Chattopadhyaya as her guru
|
|-
|Buddhi Vardhak Sabha
|General public
|Gujarat
|Narmadashankar Labheshankar Dave
|
|Exposed people in positions of power that abused their privileges, build schools for girls
|-
|Central Social Welfare Board
|Females and children
|
|Dr. Durgabai Deshmukh
|
|
|-
|Hindu Widow Marriage Association
|Females
|Maharashtra
|Dhondo Keshav Karve
|Educated at BHU
|
|-
|Hindustani Seva Dal
|Females
|Every province
|Dr. Narayan Subbarao Hardikar
|
|Established the Hindustani Seva Mandal (later became Rashtriya Seva Dal) in 1923, established the Arya Bala Sabha, taught the Gita during his student days in Kolkata, was a fan of Lokmanya Tilak, and had enthusiastically worked with Lala Rai
|-
|Indian Reform Association
|Females
|West Bengal
|Keshub Chandra Sen
|
|Brahmo Samaji, founded ''Sulabh Samachar'' as weekly newspaper of group
|-
|Kasthurbha Gandhi Kanya Gurukulam[http://www.kgkgurukulam.org/]
|Girls
|Tamil Nadu (Vedaranyam)
|Vedaratnam Pillai
|
|Involved in temple-based philanthropy and donated to Sri Ramakrishna Mission too
|-
|Lakshmi Ashram
|Females
|Uttarakhand
|Sarla Behn
|
|Established individual Mahila Mandals throughout Uttarakhand and promoted important skills as well as ecological awareness
|-
|Lokahitawadi Mandal
|General public
|Maharashtra
|Vishnu Vaman Shirwadkar
|
|Wrote about Hindu themes, including persons from scriptures and about Shivaji poetically, philosophically, and nationally
|-
|Maharshi Karve Stree Shikshan Samstha
|Females
|Maharashtra
|Dhondo Keshav Karve
|Educated at BHU
|
|-
|Mahila Vidyalaya (Pune)
|Females
|Maharashtra
|Dhondo Keshav Karve
|Educated at BHU
|
|-
|Nishkam Karma Math
|Females
|Maharashtra
|Dhondo Keshav Karve
|Educated at BHU
|
|-
|Poona Seva Sadan
|Females
|Maharashtra (at its peak, included M.P. and T.N.)
|Ramabai Ranade
|
|
|-
|Samata Sangh
|General public
|Maharashtra
|Dhondo Keshav Karve
|Educated at BHU
|
|-
|Self Employed Women's Association (SEWA)
|Females
|18 states
|Ela Bhatt
|Gandhian Textile Labour Association
|Established: own bank (Shri Mahila Sewa Sahakari Bank, or 'SEWA Cooperative Bank'), SEWA Mahila Housing Trust
|-
|Servants of the People Society
|Females
|Kerala, Maharashtra, M.P., Odisha T.N., Uttarakhand U.P.
|
|
|
|-
|Shraddhanand Ashram[https://shraddhanandmahilashram.org] (alias Hindu Women's Welfare Society)
|Females and boys
|Maharashtra (Mumbai)
|Swami Shraddhanand
|
|Has cared for thousands of destitute women and orphans, and educated them and provided skills development, as well as fostered personal development
|-
|Stree Hitaishini Mandali
|Females
|Andhra Pradesh
|Kanuparti Varalakshmamma
|
|Educated many females
|-
|Widow Marriage Association
|Females
|Maharashtra
|Dhondo Keshav Karve
|Educated at BHU
|
|-
|}

==Inspiration to Madras Presidency==
[[image:M.C. Rajah.jpg|right|thumb|200px|Mylai Chinna Thambi Pillai Rajah (the real 'Periyar'.)]]
While the Arya Samaj, Brahmo Samaj, Prarthana Samaj, and a host of other Hindu-based humanitarian and sociopolitical institutions existed in the-then Madras Presidency of southern India, they inspired local organizations as well. Shahu Maharaj had friends in the-then Justice Party (JP, est. 1916), like Arcot Ramasamy Mudaliar and Panaganti Ramarayaningar. While some ethnic groups, like certain castes even falsely supported the idea of an 'Aryan Invasion Theory' and themselves (Dravidian-languages speakers) as indigenous, they still appreciated Hinduism and did not consider it alien.

The biggest uplifter of the party was M.C. Rajah, who had the highest influence upon the policies that improved the lives of the Dalits in Madras Presidency. The party itself was founded primarily by 3 individuals — Sir Pitti Theagaraya Chetty (political founder who built the political machine), Dr. Taravath Madhavan Nair (ideological co-founder), and Dr. Chintadripet Natesa Mudaliar (cultural/grassroots mobilizer who helped shape cultural legitimacy.) Dr. Nair had said that Hindu society had originally possessed broader equality before caste dominance hardened it. Chetty occasionally used dharm-based ethical framing. He is consistently described as arguing that governance must align with "''dharma and justice''". The Dr. Mudaliar was a devout Shaiva that infused into the party Shaivism as a cultural identity for southerners.
[[image:P.T. Rajan.jpg|right|thumb|200px|P.T. Rajan (centre-right, wearing glasses next to priest), touring with the idol of [[Ayyappan|Ayyappa]] he had made at Swamimalai Temple[https://swamimalaiswaminathar.hrce.tn.gov.in/] and it was placed in the Sabarimala Temple[https://www.sabarimalauptodate.in/].]]
An ideologue of influence to the JP and Self-Respect Movement was Maraimalai Adigal, a Shaiv preacher and writer, who claimed that both the JP and Self-Respect Movement were from his teachings and that militant atheist Erode Venkatappa Ramasami Naicker had hijacked them. JP founder Dr. Nair died in 1919 and Chetty in 1925, so had no interaction Naicker. Ponnambala Thiaga Rajan was an active party member and disagreed with Naicker's ideology, so joined Congress-aligned politics. Mudaliar died in 1935 around the time Naicker entered the JP. Naicker was also a prejudiced castist that criticized but did not contribute to build schools and shelters for women and children, as Rajah[https://www.news18.com/opinion/opinion-m-c-rajah-the-forgotten-hindu-mahasabha-dalit-8937192.html][https://vskbharat.com/m-c-rajah-a-staunch-hindu-leader/?lang=en][https://thecommunemag.com/m-c-rajah-the-hindu-mahasabha-dalit/], a practicing Hindu of the party did. Rajah even once formed a political alliance with the Hindu Mahasabha, was the contributor. Before Rajah, the party's caste disparity was mainly about civil service occupations and education access for underprivileged castes. Rajah was recommended by Ambedkar to convert but Rajah replied there's no religion better than Hinduism.<ref>P. 92 ''The Political Evolution of Muslims in Tamilnadu and Madras, 1930-1947'' By J.B. Prashant More (1997) </ref><ref> In a public meeting of the All India Adi Dravida Mahajana Sabha in Nungambakkam, Chennai he said, "''The president (of this meeting) mentioned that no other community other than us has more right to be called Hindus. Conversion will not bring about any good. By saying so, I am not undermining or wishing away the oppression and ills we have faced. We need to fight for our rights. The speed at which reforms are happening might be slow. But think about our current situation and how much it has improved. I beseech you to please abandon any move that will weaken us. I request the government to bring about the Untouchability Abolition Bill and pass it quickly. The Harijans are proud Hindus. That is the only reason why even after years of oppression by higher castes and a barrage of proselytization efforts by other religions hasn't changed their resolve being Hindus.''" P. 123 ''Evolution of Hindu Nationalism - Icons of HMS, RSS & BJS'' By Sankara Narayanan T (2025)</ref> Adigal's writings had a profound impact on Subramania Ramanathan, the founder of the Self-Respect Movement, and on the Naicker but the latter only wanted pro-Tamil and castist societal changes, not promotion of Shaivism. Naicker would later break away from the party and form his own Dravidar Kazhagam, a title he copied from Adigal's Shaiv association (Podhunilak Kazhagam.) (His own pupil, Conjeevaram Natarajan Annadurai, would eventually disown him after he married his own adopted daughter, and Annadurai would leave his group.)
[[image:Alamelu.jpg|right|thumb|200px|Alamelu Mangai Thayarammal, a Brahmo Samaji, was co-founder of the party among 29 others (all men.)]]
The Hindu sentiment was definitely present in the JP. Many left after Naicker's hijacking. Important members bothered by Naicker's rhetoric apart from Rajan were Ananda Prasad Patro, Arunachalam Thamaraiselvam Panneerselvam, Muthiah Annamalai Chettiar, Ramasamy Kandasamy Shanmukham Chetty, and Subbarayalu Kumaraswami Reddiar. Chettiar even personally regularly donated to temple renovations, endowing temple lands or festivals, supporting pilgrimage facilities, and Hindu-managed schools. Rajan, the last leader of the JP, was the head-of-government of the Presidency, and was a big devotee a [[Ayyappan|Swami Ayyappa]]. Rajan even solemnized a marriage of a German couple converted to Hinduism in Coimbatore (Oct 31, 1962.) He further discouraged conversion of Dalits from Hinduism to another religion<ref>"''If by mass conversion you expect to achieve your object, you will be disappointed, because of a mere change of religion it will not give you all that you want.''" 
P. 147 ''Sir P. T. Rajan's Eighty Second Birthday Souvenir, 1973'' By P.T. Rajan and K. Paramasivam</ref> while encouraging caste-Hindus to better treat Dalits. His family had deep ties to the Meenakshi Amman Temple[https://maduraimeenakshi.hrce.tn.gov.in/] in Madurai, with his son (Palanivel Rajan), serving as a minister, and his daughter-in-law (Rukmani), serving as the first female chairperson of the temple's board of trustees. His predecessor Ramakrishna Ranga Rao denied that the JP was anti-Hindu and declared that it aimed to purify Hindu society from "''absurdities''" and return "''Hinduism greater and more glorious than it was in the past...''"<ref>"''As I understand it, the Self-Respect movement stands for certain great ideals to make Hinduism greater and more glorious than it was in the past, to rid it of all those absurdities which are the accretions of an unfortunate era of the past, and unite us in a solid federation so that all those who profess to follow the Hindu faith may feel that they are brethren following one of the most ancient and glorious religions of the world. No longer should the foreigner point his finger of scorn at this or that particular phase of Hinduism which belies its cosmopolitan tendency by inflicting personal hardship on classes or communities. If a few youths in their exuberant enthusiasm have been carried away beyond the bounds of Hinduism it will not do to fight shy of the new movements, but political wisdom and sagacity lie in taking them into our fold and guiding them aright along the paths of duty and rectitude.''" 
P. 289 ''The Indian Annual Register An Annual Digest of Public Affairs of India Recording the Nation's Activities Each Year in Matters Political, Economic, Industrial, Educational, Social, Etc · Volume 2'' By Nipendra Nath Mitra (1934)</ref> Alamelu Mangai Thayarammal, conferred 'Pandithai' title by Saiva Sabha in Palamcottah, was a JP co-founder [with 29 co-founders being men] who was a Brahmo Samaji, meaning the influence of the Hindu-based organizations wasn't insignificant. Paramasivan Subbarayan Gounder, while not technically a JP member, worked with it closely, and both he and his women's rights activist wife Kailash Radhabai Kulmud were Brahmos. It is also noteworthy that [[Ascetics|ascetic]] Swamiyar Kaivalyar who supported the party without being a member wrote pro-Shaiv material. Cattamanchi Ramalinga Reddy, an ex-member who formed his own party in 1923 was a close friend of Dr. Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan, and he himself engaged with Hindu texts on a literary artistic level. As Hinduism isn't a scripture-dependent religion, some JP members like A.R. Mudaliar heavily criticized certain scriptures but were devout Hindus ([[Vaiśnava|Vaishnav]] in his case.) And while orthodox opposition was present, the majority of Indians, including religious leaders, supported reforms, like when Shankaracharya of Kanchi[https://www.kamakoti.org/] supported the "Hindu Religious Endowments Bill" (1921) even while voicing some concerns in within. Mentionable is that [[Shatata-Unnati#Female upliftment|Dr. Muthulakshmi Reddy]] wasn't part of the JP but it still nominated her in 1926 for the Madras Legislative Council to bring about positive changes.

==Related articles==
*[[Women]]
*[[Women as Rishikas in the Vedas]]
*[[Worship of God as Mother]]

==External resources==
*[https://www.ijhsss.com/files/08.-ABHISEK-KARMAKAR_6813z4a4.pdf "Changing status of women in Indian politics (1917-1947): the role of civil society"], P. 42-45 ''International Journal of Humanities & Social Science Studies'' Volume-I, Issue-II (September 2014) By Abhisek Karmakar
*[https://www.besanthill.org/about/history-heritage/annie-besant/ Besant Hill School of Happy Valley in Ojai, California]
*[https://www.anniebesant.org Annie Besant Women's College in Hyderabad, Telangana]
*[https://www.aryasabha.mu/cultural-programme-arya-mahila-mandal-in-the-context-of-the-200th-birth-anniversary-of-swami-dayananda-saraswati/ Arya Mahila Mandal (Mauritius)]
*[https://www.thearyasamaj.org/ammkarolbagh Arya Mahila Mandal Karol Bagh]
*[https://vatikashaktipeeth.com/seven-agitations/women-awakening.html Vatika Shakti Peeth]

==References==
{{reflist}}

[[Category: History]]
[[Category: Economics]]
[[Category: Societal altruism]]

Shatata-Unnati

2026-06-09T05:33:30Z

Himanshu Bhatt: /* Shahu's royal authority to implement reforms */

{{Author|Himanshu Bhatt}}
'Shatata-Unnati' is ''continual change'', 'abhyas' means improvement, 'kram-parivartanam' is ''incremental reformation'', while 'shodhanam' is ''refinement''. All of these terms are descriptive of Hindu society throughout the ages.

Continual social betterment has been one of the defining characteristics of Hindu society. All major cultures have had evils in their histories, including Hindu societies, but the shining examples to enforce positive changes and adaptability to a changing world are the Hinduism, Christianity, and Judaism.

In an era wherein colonial norms meant imprisonment or executions for speaking out against imperial rule, Mahatma Gandhi challenged the ideas of forcing nations to be subservient, fighting oppression by violence, and purging one's own nation of evils (i.e., inequality and superstition.) Today, much of the world still looks to Gandhi's perseverance to bring positive change into society.

Transformation of India's political systems made India into the world's largest democracy, and for accomplishing that, [[Indian Freedom Fighters#INC's Hindu activist roots|Hindu doctrines were rationalize to promote democracy]]. Even in India's political spectrum, Hindu principles were used to make liberalism and communism resonate with people, like Ram Rajya being a communist utopia. Some of the Communist Party of India's [[Indian Freedom Fighters#CPI's Hindu activist roots|founders were idealogues for both communism and Hinduism]], such as Swami Kumaranand, Swami Satyabhakt, and Swami Sahajanand Saraswati, as well as Keezhedathu Damodaran, Radhamohan Gokulji, and Rahul Sankrityayan.

==Comparison in societal reformation (India and Europe)==
:''See also: [[Contribution of Hindu Diaspora]]''
Whereas even in modern times, in most European Christian societies, witch-hunts and slavery were the norm, in Indian Hindu societies, widow-burning was the norm among certain communities (usually northwestern) and caste prejudice was prevalent. Both the Christian and Hindu communities worked to extinguish these and other evils.

Historical societal injustices have been acknowledged and reconciled. Even today, the lasting legacy of important Hindu reformers is visible wherein quotas employment and educational quotas are implemented for social upward mobility to ensure poorer castes and women do not fall behind.

During the colonial era, as human rights improved in Western societies as results from agricultural/economic advancements, Western writers of non-Christian societies took a chauvinistic, parochialist, and Eurocentric approach towards Hindu societies, claiming that they:
#Would never improve in human rights, morality, or rationality
#Are permanently stagnant
#Cannot produce modern or political economic institutions

Critics of the colonial era were proven wrong in these concrete ways:
#Large-scale societal reforms led by Hindu activists themselves improved Hindu societies — i.e., promoting window remarriage and caste integration while also creating quotas for females and historically-disadvantaged castes
#Rapid expansion of education and intellectual mobility — i.e., growth of global Hindu academic presence
#Global economic and corporate leadership — i.e., entrepreneurship and CEOs of major multinational companies like Adobe, Google, and Microsoft
#Democratic political evolution — i.e., maintaining electoral democracies like Hindu-majority nations, providing peaceful transfers of power, and granting significant autonomy to judiciary, press, and civil societies
#Religious and philosophical continuity + adaptation
#Ritual practice has diversified massively by religion and class — i.e., clerics ([[Rta and Spiritual Authority|priests]] and [[ascetics|monks]]) are from many backgrounds
#Reinterpretation of scriptures became internationally influential — i.e., Aldous Huxley loved the perennialism of Upanishads, Erwin Schrödinger the idea of aikatmyam, and Henry David Thoreau that of Ishavasyam
#Non-Hindus from outside of the Indian Subcontinent have converted to Sanatan Dharm and have promoted the religion — James Donald Walters who founded Ananda Sangha, Richard Alpert who founded Hanuman Foundation, John Edwin Favors who founded iFast[https://ifastdc.com/][https://ifastglobal.com/], and Robert Hansen who founded Saiva Siddhanta Church[https://www.himalayanacademy.com/]
#Hindu-based intellectual practices have popularized globally — i.e., [[Ayurveda|Ayurvedic medicine]], divination, political activism, [[Animal rights#Influence upon Westerners|animal rights]], [[Animal_rights#Vegetarianism|vegetarianism]], and [[yoga]]

==Hindu-led social betterment==
What is extraordinary in the case of India is that it was the religious institutions ([[Organizations|Hindu organizations]] and [[Hindu Post-Secondary Institutes|schools]]) that made revolutionary changes, not normally secular or non-Hindu ones. Practicing Hindus saw that superstitious and chauvinistic practices had become institutionalized (caste system and misogyny) within Hindu society, so they formed associations to help, uplift, educate the destitute. They would even go steps further to privilege the marginalized through reservations.

Even women who were more exploratory and not members of specific religions engaged with Hinduism positively. The best example might be Annette Beveridge, an Englishwoman who was the daughter of a Unitarian Christian herself became affiliated with Keshub Chandra Sen in England. She was drawn to his lectures and this fascination with his philosophy inspired her to begin life in India, where she even established<ref>Its expenses were financed by Ananda Mohan Bose and Durga Mohan Das, Dwarkanath Ganguly was its headmaster, and others Brahmos involved with the school were Sibnath Sastri and Monomohun Ghose.</ref> the Hindu Mahila Vidyalaya (''Hindu Women's School''.) Her husband Henry Beveridge was an orientalist (westerners intrigued with Asian cultures) working in India, meaning they were not Westerners critical of Hindu identity. Mrs. Emily Phear was an honorary teacher, and she too was involved in Brahmo Samaji circles for societal development. (Her husband Sir John Budd Phear helped Brahmo Samaj legally.) A non-Hindu that likewise began a girls school (Hindu Female School[https://www.bethunecollegiateschool.com/]) with Brahmos and other Hindus was John Bethune, whose accomplices were Dakshinaranjan Mukherjee, Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar, Ramgopal Ghosh, and Madanmohan Tarkalanka (the last even taught at the school without pay.) Others foreign women in India that engaged positively with Hindu activist organizations were Mary Carpenter[https://southasianbritain.org/people/mary-carpenter/] and Sophia Dobson Collet with Brahmo Samaj, Alma B.R.A. with Arya Samaj, and Mary Hobson with Prarthana Samaj[https://puneprarthanasamaj.org/].

Hindu women that set women's rights activism into motion were Arya Samaj's Lajwanti Sood and Satyavati Devi, and Brahmo Samaj's Kadambini Ganguly and Sarala Devi Chaudhurani. Swarnakumari Devi was both an Arya Samaji and a Brahmo Samaji.

===Female upliftment===
:''See also: [[Indian Freedom Fighters]] 
;Theosophical Society wing
[[image:Paris Women's Congress.jpg|right|thumb|200px|Dr. Reddy and 3 Indian women at the Paris Women's Congress (1926.)]]
The top 3 champions who politically improved Indian women's rights in the modern era were foreigners — Dr. Annie Besant, Dorothy Jinarajadasa, and Margaret Cousins. They did not tell Indian women to leave Hinduism but rather they themselves became Hindu in practice and Indian in habit. They then sought to restore the Vedic-era of womanhood wherein women had authority (i.e., to become clerics, scholars, and leaders.) Emma Mitchell (American) and Francesca Arundale (English) greatly contributed to building of Hindu educational institutions (i.e., Central Hindu College.)

Dr. Muthulakshmi Reddy is a big name in female rights, and she was influenced by Dr. Besant in her college years (1907-1912) and was guided by Dr. Besant in both her social reform and political work. She worked with Dr. Besant and others to establish the Women's Indian Association (1917.) After Dr. Besant's death, she took over the presidency of the WIA. Gandhi was another major mentor but Reddy never formally joined the INC but sometimes protested colonial injustices (i.e., Gandhi's arrest.)

;Ramakrishna Mission wing
[[image:Nivedita & Vivekanand.jpg|right|thumb|200px|Nivedita with Vivekanand.]]
[[Niveditā, Sister|Sister Nivedita (Margaret Noble)]], a convert from Ireland became a disciple of [[Swami Vivekananda|Swami Vivekanand]] and joined Aurobindo's Dawn Society and had also founded and ran girls' schools in Kolkata (i.e., Ramakrishna Sarada Mission Sister Nivedita Girls' School[https://www.sisterniveditagirlsschool.org/home.html] in Baghbazar) to educate girls who had little to no access to education (i.e., poorest of the poor.) She advocated for women's intellectual and moral development, influenced by Vivekanand's vision of strong Indian womanhood. Her work included lectures, fundraising (India, England, and U.S.), and writings that promoted gender equality in access to knowledge and opportunities. She had worked with Dr. Annie Besant at times. Likewise, Sister Christine, disciple of Vivekanand, is another example of a Westerner who utilized the Ramakrishna Mission and Vivekanand's circles as vehicles for improving female rights in India.

;INC wing
:''See also: [[Indian Freedom Fighters#INC's Hindu activist roots|INC's Hindu activist roots]] 
[[image:Nellie Sen Gupta.jpg|right|thumb|100px|N.S. Gupta.]]
Nellie Sen Gupta[https://www.thedailystar.net/in-focus/news/deshpriya-jatindra-mohan-nellie-sengupta-2036981] (nee Edith Ellen Gray) had married freedom fighter Jatindra Mohan Sen Gupta, and both joined the INC — she also founded Deepali Sangha, a women's organization aimed at promoting social and political awareness, leadership, training, and empowerment among women. Her husband passed away but she was advised to stay in the-then East Pakistan to take care of Hindu rights, which she did. Umadevi (born Wanda Dynowska), a Polish convert to Sanatan Dharm too championed women's rights in India and translated ''[[Bhagavad Gita]]'', ''[[Mahabharata]]'', ''[[Ramayana]]'', and other [[Hindu Scriptures|Hindu and Bauddh literature]] into Polish. Mira Behn (born Madeleine Slade), the daughter of a British Royal Navy admiral, gave up her affluent lifestyle to become Gandhi's servant in India.
[[image:Sarla Behn Chipko Movement.jpg|right|thumb|200px|Sarla Behn's Chipko act[https://www.adda247.com/school/chipko-movement/].]]
Sarla Behn[https://growbilliontrees.com/blogs/knowledge/sarla-behn-tree-nurturing-nature-and-empowering-communities-for-a-sustainable-future?srsltid=AfmBOoq4h0d0skQBNr4w4zOvISuhYz02_EXtPvD3pUoQYjTlcvNHEbQ-#fullcontent] (born Catherine Mary Heilman) from England setup the Lakshmi Ashram Kausani in 1946 within Uttarakhand to uplift women, after having lived in the Sevagram Ashram[https://gandhiashramsevagram.org/] in Maharashtra. The organization educated rural hill girls academically, trained women of self-reliance and industrial skills (i.e., khadi weaving), taught personal care (i.e., literacy, hygiene, anti-liquor campaigns), and promoted [[Environmentalism|ecological awareness]] (Chipko Movement.) It also worked with the INC to encourage nationalist fervour. Lakshmi Ashram individual units were known as Mahila Mandals. This ashram attracted foreign residents intrigued with Sanatan Dharm even after independence, like David Hopkins, who relocated to there in the 1990's.
[[image:Durgabai Deshmukh.jpg|right|thumb|100px|Dr. D.D.]]
Dr. Durgabai Deshmukh, pupil of Gandhi and freedom fighter in the colonial era, established the Central Social Welfare Board (1953.) She later became president of the All India Women's Conference (1931.) Taraben Premchand is an important mention, as she was an important member of this organization, as well as the Jain Mahila Parishad[https://www.dbjainsabha.com], Jyoti Sangh[https://jyotisangh.org/about-us/] (local women's advancement group in Gujarat), and Shraddhanand Ashram[https://shraddhanandmahilashram.org/].

Madeleine Rolland was Women's International League for Peace and Freedom's[https://www.wilpf.org/] French section and never settled in India. However, upon engaging with Hindu culture in the 1920's, she translated Ananda Coomaraswamy's ''[[Nataraja Dasakam|The Dance of Shiva]]'' into French, introducing Hinduism to the-then residents of France. She also translated Rabindranath Tagore's writings of Sanatan themes and universal humanism, helping popularize them in Europe. She welcomed Gandhi on his visit to Marseille, France. [[image:Kanuparti Varalakshmamma.jpg|right|thumb|100px|'Sarada'.]]
Kanuparti Varalakshmamma (alias 'Sarada'), a devout Gandhian, used Hindu themes like providing ethical refences (i.e., Savitri, Sita) to depict women's morality, dignity, and conduct. She often engaged with the idea of a grihalakshmi (idea woman of the household.) She also founded the Stree Hitaishini Mandali for uplifting women. She used ''Andhra Patrika'', a newspaper created by a promoter of the ''Bhagavad Gita'', Kasinathuni Nageswara Rao, to preach her ideas.
[[image:Vijaya Lakshmi Pandit.jpg|right|thumb|100px|'Vijaya Lakshmi Pandit'.]]
It is also noteworthy that the 1st female head of government in the world was a [[Bauddh Dharm|Bauddh]] (Sirimavo Bandaranaike of Sri Lanka, non-INC member), and 2nd was a Hindu (Indira Gandhi, INC member.) Also Vijaya Lakshmi Pandit[https://news.un.org/en/story/2024/03/1147327] (born Swaroop Rani Nehru) played a significant role in global representation of women, particularly in the United Nations. She was the first woman to serve as the President of the UN General Assembly (1953-1954), a position she held to advocate for decolonization and the independence of countries in Asia and Africa. Hansa Mehta[https://india.un.org/en/311450-hansa-mehta%E2%80%99s-life-story-continues-inspire] had an impact on the UN's constitution wording wherein "''all human beings''" instead of "all men" in the Universal Declaration of Human Rights. (She was also one of only 2 women delegates working alongside Eleanor Roosevelt in the UN Human Rights Commission 1946-48.)
[[image:Nilla Cram Cook.jpg|right|thumb|100px|'Nilla Nagini Devi'.]]
Nilla Cram Cook, an American who settled at Gandhi's ashrams, had [[Conversion|converted to Hinduism]] in the 1930's but identified with the '[[Samyag Darshan#Samadarshan|sarva dharma sambhava]]' ideal, so considered herself a [[Bhakta|devotee]] of not only [[Krishna]] but of Jesus too, and so she later also translated the Quran and engaged with Islamic practices in a syncretic way with her Hindu and Christian customs. Her final literary work was ''The Way of the Swam: Poems of Kashmir'' (1958), which was mostly focused around the [[Saiva|Shaiv]] mystic poetess Lal Ded[https://hindupost.in/society-culture/lal-ded-her-life-and-works/#][https://homegrown.co.in/homegrown-voices/the-poetry-of-lal-ded-mysticism-resistance-the-female-voice-in-14th-century-kashmir] and others from Kashmir syncretic Sanatan-[[Bauddh Dharm|Bauddh]]-[[Sufism with Vaishnavism|Sufi]] tradition. She dedicated the book to Pandit. She didn't work on women's upliftment directly but did participate with Gandhi's Harijan Sevak Sangh. She had also written about Sarojini Naidu.

;Other associations
[[image:Maharani Chimnabai Gaekwad II.jpg|right|thumb|100px|Maharani Chimnabai.]]
[[image:Sethu Parvathi Bayi.jpg|right|thumb|100px|Junior Queen Bayi.]]
The National Council of Women in India[https://www.ncwi.in/], founded 1925, was also a monumental organization to make progress for women — it mainly focused on female literacy, vocational training, public participation, and legal reform. It was primarily the initiative of Lady Meherbai Tata, a Mazdaean icon, and its first president was Maharani Chimnabai Gaekwad II, born Gajrabai Ghatge, a princess of Dewas (M.P.) She supported societal progress of women that did not compromise on Hindu identity (i.e., traditional customs like wearing sari and sindhoor or like celebrating Raksha Bandhan), which is how she framed her ''The Position of Women in Indian Life'' book. She financed schools for girls, as well as Hindu charities and temples. The Gaekwad family also funded libraries and women's institutions and social reform initiatives. She discussed the eradication or the purdah, child marriage, women's restrictions (i.e., obtaining education and employment), and other obstacles towards advancement. Following her presidentship, Sethu Parvathi Bayi took over. She was from the royal family of Travancore (Kerala), and her family was deeply connected to the Padmanabhaswamy Temple[https://spst.in/][https://www.padmanabhaswamytemple.com/]. She financed Hindu institutions as well. It is notable that Sucharu Deo, daughter of Brahmo leader K.C. Sen was a prominent member and she had also helped build the Maharani Girls' High School[https://school.banglarshiksha.gov.in/ws/website/index/19013701705] in Darjeeling (W.B.) together with her sister (Suniti) and Hemlata Sarkar, daughter of Brahmo leader Sibnath Sastri.

From Hindu-based institutions like sociopolitical organizations and schools came a number of philanthropic associations.
;Most influential persons for women's upliftment
{| class="wikitable sortable"
|-
! Area of Contribution
! Meaning
! Steps Taken
! Activists
! Organizations
! Founder's Affiliation(s)
|-
|Political rights and visibility
|1. Women appearing in public political spaces 2. Women being recognized as leaders (not just participants) 3. Changing social norms about women's public roles 4. Symbolic representation
|Helped institutionalize women's leadership through bodies like Women's Indian Association
|Dr. Annie Besant (women's political rights + organizational leadership), Kamaladevi Chattopadhyay (political participation, economic empowerment, cooperatives), Margaret Cousins[https://www.womensmuseumofireland.ie/exhibits/margaret-elizabeth-cousins] (Suffarage, WIA), Sarojini Naidu (mass mobilization of women in politics)
|
|
|-
|Modern institutional equality
|
|Helped institutionalize institutional equality through contributing policy influence (Hansa Mehta) and constitutional rights (Dr. Durgabai Deshmukh)
|Dr. Durgabai Deshmukh (welfare systems), Hansa Mehta
|
|
|-
|Foundational legal reform
|
|
|Raja Ram Mohan Roy (abolition of sati), Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar (widow remarriage)
|
|
|-
|Education
|
|
|Raja Ram Mohan Roy, Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar
|
|
|-
|}

===Hindu influence internationally===
Even outside of India during the 20th century, women's rights were not perfect, and so many women incorporated Hindu symbolism (i.e., worship) and concepts towards promoting societies where women would have equal rights.
[[image:M.J. Gage.jpg|right|thumb|200px|Matilda Joslyn Gage.]]
[[image: Charlotte Despard.jpg|right|thumb|200px|Charlotte Despard, an Anglo-Irish suffragist who supported Indian independence.]]
As [[Worship of God as Mother|worship of God as a female or mother]] has been common in Sanatan Dharm since its foundation, that made validating female upliftment in India quicker. Even in Western nations, prominent women's rights organizations implemented imagery of goddesses from pertinent ancient cultures, like U.K.'s Women's Freedom League and National Union of Women's Suffrage Societies, and the global International Woman Suffrage Alliance, to legitimize female equality and women being in positions of power. Some Western feminists and women's rights activists, like Matilda Joslyn Gage<ref>"''While the sale of daughters was practiced in England for seven hundred years after the introduction of Christianity, we note that by the ancient law of India, a father was forbidden to sell his daughter in marriage, or receive the smallest present therefor.''" - P. 79-82 ''Woman, Church and State'' (1893) By Matilda Joslyn Gage</ref> (U.S. suffragist) and Helena Petrovna Blavatsky<ref>"''The pre- and post-Vedic woman was as free as man; and no impure terrestrial thought was ever mixed with the religious symbology of the early Aryans.''" 
"''This is proven by the fact that in the Vedic period their women were not placed apart from men in penetralia, or ‘Zenanas.’ Their seclusion began when the Mahomedans … had conquered the land and gradually enforced their ways and customs upon the Hindus.''" 
- P. 379-380 ''The Secret Doctrine: Volume I'' By Helena Blavatsky </ref> (European feminist), even used the examples of [[Worship of God as Mother|Hindu goddess-worship]] and Hindu queens to support their examples. (M.J. Gage[https://www.smithsonianmag.com/history/the-feminist-inspired-witches-of-oz-180985334/] in her ''Woman, Church, and State'' even highlighted Hindu texts to counter the male-centric theology of the West and referenced ''[[Bhagavad Gita]]'' to validate the concept of a female [[divinity]].) Even feminists of the colonial era like Victoria Woodhull that was skeptical of organized religion, respected "''Christna and Buddha''" (Krishna and Gautama.) Mary Lowe Dickinson at the World's Parliament Circles (1893) was so impressed by [[Swami Vivekananda|Swami Vivekanand]]'s speech, that she developed a fascination with female divinity of Hinduism, and in her editorials and public circles, argued that Hinduism's recognition of a feminine aspect within the divine was spiritually superior to the rigidly patriarchal, all-male Trinity of mainstream American Christianity. Emily Pitts Stevens and Charlotte LeMoyne Wills (wrote about the genderless [[Brahm]]) became disciples of Vivekanand. Laura de Force Gordon wrote about the immortal soul and continuous cycle of life. Alice Moore McComas wrote about the interconnectedness (aikatmyam) of all things. In U.K., Charlotte Despard's specific pamphlets linked [[karma]] to political activism. Margaret Louise Sanger was influenced by Vivekanand and Rabindranath Tagore. Sarah Bull<ref> P. 483 ''Western Admirers of Ramakrishna and His Disciples'' By Gopal Stavig, Swami Shuddhidananda </ref>, who particularly focused on women's education and reform was connected to both Vivekanand and Sister Nivedita. Josephine MacLeod was a major promoter of Vivekanand in the West and was involved in transatlantic reform-intellectual networks. Viktoria Ocampo of Argentina was deeply influenced by Tagore, even hosting him in Argentina and promoting his ideas widely. Gabriela Mistral of Chile was too, and she applied Tagore's ideas to women's education, child welfare, and cultural reform. Mabel Dodge Luhan was fascinated with Sanatan philosophy and influenced by Vivekanand. Mentionable is Emma Calve of France, who wasn't a political feminist leader but influential in women's intellectual-cultural circles, and she was deeply influenced by Vivekanand.
[[image:Carol Patrice Christ.jpg|right|thumb|200px|Carol Patrice Christ.]]
After suffragists had attained complete institutional equality, they them progressed to the next stage of female liberation by ensuring that their own spiritual faith wasn't male-chauvinistic or making them subordinates of males. Feminists were inspired by goddess deity of Hinduism to then promote it within generic spirituality. Valerie Saiving, Isaac Bonewits and Naomi Goldenberg founded in the 1970's, Thealogy, a feminine-specific theology. Carol Patrice Christ launched the Goddess Movement, which provided 4 aspects of Goddess symbolism as reasons to needing a goddess in women's lives; 1) the Goddess as affirmation of female power, 2) the female body, 3) the female will, and 4) women's bond and heritage. She specifically used the Shakti concept to prove that a major global religion (Hinduism) explicitly defined the [[Brahmanda|material universe]]/nature/change ([[Darshana#Sankhya|Prakriti]]) as an inherently active, female, and sacred force. She was an ecofeminist, as were Charlene Spretnak and Miriam Simos were ecofeminists too. Merlin Stone wrote ''Ancient Mirrors of Womanhood: Our Goddess and Heroine Heritage'' (1979) and in a chapter analyzes goddesses like [[Durga]], [[Kali]], [[Lakshmi Puja|Lakshmi]], Parvati, and Saraswati. Devout Christian women feminists too drew on Hindu practices and ideas to support women's advocacy, and they include Ivone Gebara, Pearl Sydenstricker Buck, and Sally McFague.

'Matriarchal religion' is a philosophy stating that societies were Goddess worshippers with females having the same status and rights as men before male gods began being worshipped, and the latter led to patriarchy. Goddesses being worshipped contiguously in Hindu societies for thousands of years was the backing this thought utilized, in addition to feminist archaeology (i.e., ancient idols and temples of goddesses uncovered.)

==Start of modern reforms==
In modern India, most positive social changes within Indian Hindu societies came not first as enforcement or pressure from European rulers but from advocacy of forward-thinking Hindus. Raja Ram Mohan Roy had led the campaign to purge Hindu societies of Sati and caste prejudices. Roy worked with British imperial authority, specifically Lord William Bentinck to have sati outlawed. Roy himself was a religious leader that reiterated Upanishads for their principles.

Other institutions of positive social changes were mainly Hindu ones or were governed by Hindu religious leaders, not secular ones.

The Indian National Social Conference of 1887 was organized by Justice Ranade, Rai Raghunath Rao, Narendra Nath Sen Gupta, and Janki Nath Ghoshal. Ranade was founder of the Prarthana Samaj, a religious group.

Arya Samajis, Brahmo Samajis, and Prarthana Samajis were the most vocal and active forces advocating: 
#Widow Remarriage (i.e., Widow Remarriage Act 1856—initiative of Brahmo Samaj)
#Women's right to divorce (i.e., Native Marriage Act 1872—initiative of Brahmo Samaj) 
#Property rights for women 
#Opposition to child marriages (i.e., Age of Consent Act 1891—initiative of Brahmo Samaj and Prarthana Samaj, Child Marriage Restraint Act 1929—initiative of Arya Samaj) 
#Universal accessible education (built schools, including colleges and gurukuls) 
#Caste-based reservations
[[image:Justice Ranade.jpg|right|thumb|200px|Mahadev Govind Ranade (alias 'Justice Ranade'.)]]
[[image:Jagannath Shankarshet.jpg|right|thumb|200px|Jagannath Shankarshet (alias 'Architect of Modern Mumbai'.)]]
The Indian Factories Act 1881's ratification was a landmark in workers' rights and the credit goes mainly to Sorabjee Shapoorjee Bengalee, and then Prarthana Samaj. He did work alongside the Prarthana Samaj to lobby the British authority through the First Factory Commission in 1875 (made to investigate the brutal conditions of Indian labour.) Prarthana Samaj's ''Subodh Patrika'' newspaper specifically critiqued mill owners. Rahnumai Mazdayasnan Sabha, its newspaper ''Rast Goftar'', and Bengalee himself referenced labour reformers Sasipada Banerji and Protap Chunder Mozumdar, and used the former's methods of worker upliftment as a blueprint for their own legislative arguments. Collaboration between the Sabha and Prarthana Samaj began with the latter's creation of the Theistic Association, on which the Parsi Naoroji Furdonji was its 1st Chairman. Ranade and Bhandarkar drove the Association from discussing only theism to improving society through finding solutions of work hardships. The Night School Initiative was launched, helping workers receive adequate training, particularly in labourer-heavy neighborhoods Byculla, Dongri, Khetwadi, and Thakurdwar. (From 1886-1890 alone, over 2,750 industrial workers successfully studied through this initiative.)

Brahmo Samaj's K.C. Sen’s first visit to Mumbai in March-April 1864 engaged him with Bengalee, Furdonji, Ranade, and Bhandarkar (all then members of Young India.) They all discussed ways to develop India. They also shared strategies on how to bypass orthodox religious resistance—Furdonji within Zoroastrianism and Sen within Sanatan Dharm. Bengalee's First Labor Bill (1878) laid the groundwork for the later Indian Factories Act.

Prior to all of this, Jagannath Shankarshet[https://www.vishwakonkani.org/hall-of-fame/hon-jagannath-shankar-sheth/] spent the 1850s petitioning the British Parliament for local governance. As a result, it codified the Indian Councils Act of 1861, thus creating the Bombay Legislative Council as a political body to better govern the-then Bombay Presidency. Shankarshet was the main founder of Bombay Association. In its first leadership were also Dr. Ramachandra Vitthal Lad (alias 'Dr. Bhau Daji'), a Hindu intellectual who used his Sanskrit knowledge to decipher inscriptions, preserve manuscripts, and help reconstruct the forgotten timelines of ancient Guptas and Western Kshatrapa dynasties. Mentionable is the Parsi Sir Jamsetjee Jeejeebhoy of the group. Shankarshet was a wealthy philanthropist that constructed and financed Sanatan and secular infrastructure, most notably the Bhavani Shankar Mandir[https://www.mcgm.gov.in/irj/go/km/docs/documents/D%20Ward/Heritage-Sites/73_Legacy%20of%20D%20Ward_Article_Bhavani%20Shankar%20Temple.pdf] (Mumbai), Sanskrit Seminary and Sanskrit Library (both in Mumbai too.) Elphinstone Educational Institution[https://elphinstone.ac.in/index.php] and Grant Medical College[https://gmcjjh.edu.in/] were his creations too. (Jeejeebhoy contributed to constructing the Grant Medical College.)

===Shahu's royal authority to implement reforms===
[[image:Shahu adoption.jpg|right|thumb|200px|Prince Yeshwantrao Ghatge being adopted by the royal family of Kohlapur.]]
[[image:Rajarshi.jpg|right|thumb|200px|Rajarshi Chhatrapati Shahu Maharaj.]]
[[image:School foundation.jpg|right|thumb|200px|Foundation of Shri Shahu Chhatrapati Shikshan Sanstha.]]
The greatest champion on all of these sections for reforms was Chhatrapati Shahu Maharaj[https://aissms.org/breaking-barriers-chhatrapati-shahu-maharaj-and-his-enduring-impact-on-progress-and-modernity/] (born Yeshwantrao Ghatge), '[[Rta and Spiritual Authority#Rishis|Rajarshi]]', the ruler of Kohlapur Kingdom who affiliated with organizations but probably the Arya Samaj[https://thearyasamaj.org] more than any other. Shahu definitely was not shy to publicly perform prayers, as he famously attended temples of goddesses Ambabai[https://www.mahalaxmikolhapur.com/home] and Bhavani[https://shrituljabhavani.org/] when having returned from his Europe trip in 1902. Also in 1902, Pratap Singh Maharaj of Idhar (Gujarat) introduced and educated him about the Arya Samaj. He provided patronage to the Arya Samaj.[https://navjyot.net/wp-content/uploads/2022/12/10.pdf]

The king passed many policies for for the upliftment of untouchable, nomadic, non-Brahmin communities and for females.<ref>Act of Free and Compulsory Primary Education (1917), Widow remarriage Act (1917), End of Balutedari (1918), Repeal of Kulkarni Watan (1918), Intercaste and Interreligious Marriages and Sanctioning of Registered Marriage Act (1919), Act relating to protection of Harassment of Women (1919), Divorce act (1919), Order on prohibition of Untouchability practice (1919), Illegitimate Children's Rights and Devadasi Prohibition Act (1920); 
[https://www.indiejournal.in/article/rajarshi-shahu-maharaj-and-his-tryst-with-the-arya-samaj "Rajarshi Shahu Maharaj & his tryst with the Arya Samaj Lessons for our times"] By Devkumar Ahire (Jun 26, 2023 6:42 PM)</ref>

;Prejudiced disgruntled castists promoting anti-Brahman hate, not universalism
While Shahu was affiliated with the Satyashodhak Samaj (SS) because it wanted to uplift the non-dwija castes, he did not feel they had any religious foundations, whereas the Arya Samaj was encompassed both a spiritual and social movement.<ref>"Beyond Reformism: Chhatrapati Shahu and Hinduism Reimagined" By Surajkumar Thube P. 124-144 ''Nidān: International Journal for Indian Studies, Volume 8'', Issue 1 (July 2023)</ref> Also, the SS of Pune was antithetical to social cohesion because it targeted the Brahman caste as an enemy, and while its main founder (Jyotirao Phule) made absurd claims like 'Shiv-Dharma'<ref>"''The real Shiv-Dharma that is ours, we are re-establishing it as Sarvajanik Satya Dharma.''" Chapter 4, ''Sarvajanik Satya Pustak''</ref> or 'Mahadev-Dharma' (worship of [[Shiva|Shiv]] as God and some local gods like Khandoba as avatars) being the true religion of Indians whereas every other Hindu belief and practice was an imposition by 'non-Indian Brahman invaders'. Being a chauvinist, he also criticized freedom fighter martyrs Lakshmi Bai, Nana Sahib, Tantia Tope for being Brahmans. He also wrote positively that freedom fighters lost the 1857 War of Independence against the British colonialists. He was also openly criticized by his own relative Baburao Phule, who accused the former of being a Christian convert who destroyed the Hindu religion.<ref>P. 58-59 ''The Caste Question: Dalits and the Politics of Modern India'' (2009) By Anupama Rao </ref>

Phule though anti-Brahman, was influenced by some Brahmans, such as Balshastri Jambhekar (a Hindu activist) who pushed scientific knowledge and history through Marathi, criticized caste segregation, and attacked other or kinds or orthodoxy like widowhood. He was also influenced by some Hindu activists who were not anti-Brahman (i.e., Karsandas Mulji.)

The organization would receive the most aid from Shahu (financial and social work), Karmvir (social work), and Padval (intellectual) but they themselves always kept a distance from the SS because of its explicitly castist vitriol. People would choose to align or become members of other associations for their inclusivity and harmonious vision for the future.

;Satyashodhak Samaj becoming less anti-Brahman
"''All Hindus are equal. No one is superior, no one is inferior. Let all flesh and blood be one. Four varnas are a real deceit. It's a tool to keep the non-Brahmins in slavery. There is no difference among the Hindus. Hindu is the only varna. If a Hindu eats or marries with another Hindu that's not ''[[adharma]].'' In contrast, what divide Hindus in the name of religion is not a dharma, but a trick by Brahmins. One who calls themselves a Hindu, whether they are Europeans or Africans, they are our coreligionists.''" - P. 39 ''Deshache Dushman'' (1925) By Dinkarrao Javalkar
[[image:Sasipada Banerji.jpg|right|thumb|100px|Sasipada Banerji (alias 'Sevabrata'.)]]
Notable is that Phule's friend Narayan Meghaji Lokhande, a labour organization leader, was close friends with Phule and used Khandoba-worship and the reverence of Sundays for Khandoba in his petition to British authority to achieve Sunday as a holiday for factory labourers. Phule and Lokhande emulated Brahmans, like forming the political lobby group Deenbandhu Sarvajanik Sabha after Ranade's Poona Sarvajanik Sabha and forming the Bombay Mill Hands Association based and its mouthpiece ''Deenbandhu'' on the Working Men's Club (India's 1st labour welfare platform) and its mouthpiece ''Bharat Sramajibi'' (India's 1st labour journal) of Sasipada Banerji (Brahmo Samaji.)

Though Dinkarrao Javalkar portrayed himself as pan-Hindu when discussing the specific topic of Hindu unity, he still prejudicially criticized the Brahman caste in general<ref>"''This day will be counted among the most important days in the history of Hindus. There is no reason for you to fear jail. The Brahmans who eat ghee and roti should have that fear. To make the touchable people behave is in your hands. You are the sons of Hindus. You capture the tank saying 'har har Mahadev' and follow the advice of your leader Dr. Ambedkar Saheb. This is my own position.''" -Dinkarrao Javalkar at satyagraha with Keshavrao Jedhe and Dr. Ambedkar among a Mahar crowd</ref> and targeted some prominent Brahmans like Lokmanya Tilak. (Javalkar and Keshavrao Jedhe also portrayed themselves as pro-woman but derogatory remarks about women from the Brahman and certain other castes<ref>P. 44 ''19th Century Maharashtra: A Reassessment'' (2020) By Shraddha Kumbhojkar </ref> and both appealed to Dr. B.R. Ambedkar in 1927 to exclude Brahmans from the Mahad Satyagraha<ref> P. 27 ''Social Reform Movements in India: A Historical Perspective'' (1991) By V.D. Divekar</ref>.) Jedhe did protest with other activists (including Brahmans like Narhar Vishnu Gadgil, Seshdas Ranade, Shreedhar Mahadev Joshi, and members of Arya Samaj) for the right of Dalits to worship at Pune's Devdeveshwar Mandir[https://devdeveshwarsanthan.org/home.html]. Javalkar did write favourably about some like Ranade, Gopal Ganesh Agarkar, and Krishna Gopal Gokhale but even they were rarely mentioned. He rightfully partook in the Kalaram Mandir[https://www.shrikalaramsansthannasik.org/] Satyagraha in Nasik that protested for Dalits to be able to enter the temple. He was a communist and 10 years after his death, the Peasants and Workers Party (PWP) was formed.

SS branches outside of Pune were less hateful of Brahmans. It is also noteworthy, however, is that Nana Patil, a founder of the PWP, was affiliated with both the Satyashodhak and Prarthana associations [meaning that he, like most other Satyashodhaks didn't believe in Phule's religious ideology.] Some other PWP founders like Jedhe and Madhavrao Bagal were Satyashodhaks, they popularized Shiv Jayanti and Ganesh Chathuri. The latter and his son Vasantrao even wrote devotional pieces inspired from Bhakti Era saints (i.e., [[Tukaram]], [[Eknath]]) and valourizing pieces about Shahu. Tulshidas Jadhav, a Gandian within the PWP, championed the Bhakti Era's Warkari Movement, which was still popular in his time, because it was based on social equality and public seva. Also noteworthy is, that even some prominent members supported the Arya Samaj, like Krishnarao Bhalekar (1 of the founders of SS with Phule) defended Dayanand Saraswati (Arya Samaj’s founder), when the latter’s procession was opposed by some orthodox Hindus in Pune, and Bhalekar organized a speech to be delivered by Saraswati at a dharmshal near a Rokdoba Temple in Pune.

Bhalekar himself made the claim that the SS is the true follower of Sant Tukaram's [[Bhāgavata-dharma|Bhagwat Dharma]] ([[Krishna|Krishnaite]] [[Vaishnava|Vaishnavism]].) His son was Mukundrao Patil, who made the claim, "''The Satyasodhak Samaj is the true heir of the Hindu religion. Brahmanism is not Hinduism.''"<ref>''Dinmitra'' newspaper (1920s)</ref> Javalkar claimed SS is the true representative of the Hindu religion and that SS members are liberating Hinduism from the supremacy of the Brahmins. Shivram Janma Kamble stated the SS is a revival movement of the true Hinduism. Kisan Faguji Bansode argued "Shivdharma" was the true Hindu religion and that the SS advocates that version.

There were those in his organization that promoted about how in ancient Sanatan society, there were no caste distinctions and that people were recognized by their merits. Their view was promoted by Tukaram Tatya Padval, who wrote ''Jatibhed Vivekshar'' (1861) after being inspired by Ashwaghosha's ''Vajrasuchi''. Phule republished copies of Padval's books, and the 2 developed a friendship. He did write at that in ancient India, certain sages were had Sudra or Avarna status but rose to the rank of a Brahman through their intellect, and used examples of Valmiki (wrote a ''Ramayan''), Sankhya, and Kabilar rishis. He also published copies of the ''Bhagavad Gita'', ''Yogasutra'', and compilations of the ''Rajayoga'' and ''Sankhya Karika.'' He further compiled the ''Tukarambaba ani Tyanche Shisya Yanchi Abhanga Gatha'' (1889) and ''Eknath Maharajancha Abhangachi Gatha'' (1903.) Padval, however, never became a member of Phule's organization and instead became a member of the Theosophical Society.

;Shahu forming his own Satyashodhak Samaj focused on upliftment (free of anti-Brahman distractions)
As a result of the Satyashodhak Samaj of Pune being too antagonistic of Brahmans, Shahu had instead founded his own branch in 1911 — Shri Shahu Satyashodhak Samaj. By an order, Shahu replaced the Brahman priests in the Patgaon Sansthan (Mauni Maharaj Math[https://durgbharari.in/maunibaba-patgaon/]) and Jyotiba Devasthan[https://shreejyotiba.com/?lang=E][https://maharashtratourism.gov.in/temple/jyotiba/] with Maratha priests. Bhaskarrao Jadhav and Anna Babaji Latthe were leaders of Shahu's Kolhapur Satyashodhak Samaj. Whereas Phule mostly only wrote positively of Shiva and local-born gods, Jadhav in his ''Marathas and their Religion'' wrote positively about Krishna and the ''Bhagavad Gita''. He further worked with Shahu to aid Arya Samaj in its activities and goals (i.e., train non-Brahmans to become priests too.) Noteworthy is that Latthe, who worked personally with Shahu Maharaj, was its first VP and that he worked to dismantle priestly (Jain priests, not usually Brahmans) intermediation within the Jain clergy. (He was a big-time activist for general upliftment and for reform within the Jain community (i.e., wrote ''Jain Dharmacha Parichay''.)

Latthe founded the Dakshin Bharat Jain Sabha[https://dbjainsabha.com/], of which Dr. Bhaurao Patil (from a Jain family) became a member and through he wasn't a member of any SS branch, he did sometimes participate in its activities and himself founded the Rayat Shikshan Sansthan[https://rayatshikshan.edu/], which educated students in a multitude of topics, including Sanskrit. Patil (alias 'Karmvir Anna') was deeply influenced by Mahatma Gandhi and Vitthal Ramji Shinde.

;Shahu distancing himself formally from Satyashodhak Samaj
The SS had earned a bad reputation in Maharashtra with the general public, particularly for the outright anti-Brahman vitriol spewed in the SS's publications and events. Because the goal of Shahu and true reformers was to achieve a harmonious society with all people cooperating, it would not make sense to support an organization that's known for abusing persons (i.e., Brahmans) specifically over their caste identity.

In 1921, Shahu made a public statement in a Baroda newspaper that even though he granted significant support to the non-Brahman movement and introduced measures to eliminate Brahman dominance, he had never been affiliated with Phule's SS, and that he always accepted [[Rta and Spiritual Authority#Rishis|Vedic ritual authority]].

;Granting, accommodating, and expanding Arya Samaj
Shahu attended Arya Samaj sessions like the one at Navsari in 1918 and another at Bhavnagar in 1920<ref>P. 6. ''People's Raj Volume 30'' (1974) By Directorate-General of Information and Public Relations </ref>. He provided funding for Gurukul Boarding House to be built at Kerle, wherein large buildings and well-irrigated lands were granted to the Arya Samaj. Later, the Rajaram Anathalaya orphanage was added to this grant. He also brought educational institutions in his domain under the leadership of Arya Pratinidhi Sabha. Rajaram College's administration was also granted to the Arya Samaj.

;Spiritual Authority as Rajarshi
Shahu Maharaj, being a devout Sanatan wanted to proclaim the rights that warriors of history had and so participated in important ceremonies and worked with priests (i.e., Brahmans) to achieve the rights to learn and perform Vedic ceremonies. He established the Vedokta Committee for Marathas to be able to perform Vedic rites without requiring priests. In 1905, the Karveer Peeth's (or Kolhapur Math's) Shankaracharya declared full rights of Vedokta to Chhatrapati Shahu.

Tatyarao Joshirao was appointed by Shahu Maharaj as new royal purohit, replacing the Rajopadhye (creator of the infamous 'Vedokta Controversy'), who denied the Maharaj to perform Vedic rites. Joshirao was from a family that had traditional ownership of the historic Binkhambi Ganapati Mandir in Kolhapur.

Rajaram Shastri (alias 'Bhagavata'), a Brahman scholar, linguist, and researcher, openly challenged the religious orthodoxy, arguing from scripture that Shahu Maharaj had full rights to the Vedas. Vishnu Topkhane was another Brahman who greatly helped the Chhatrapati with his progressive reforms. Topkhane the educationalist helped the latter establish the Vidyapeeth High School near the Shri Karveer Niwasini Ambabai Mahalakshmi Temple. Freedom fighter Gokhale was someone who worked with Shahu. When the Vedokta Controversy broke out and the conservative press attacked the Maharaja, Gokhale privately and publicly validated Shahu Maharaj's stance, recognizing that social reform was a prerequisite for true political freedom. Ranade, though passed away before much Shahu's reforms began, was admired by the latter for his progressive ideals and actions.

Chhatrapati Shahu founded the Satyashodhak School for spiritual training in 1913, in which seminarians (predominantly from castes such as Marathas, Mahars, and Chambhars) were taught to recite and preach the poems (i.e., abhangs of Tukaram) of sants. He also created the Shivaji Vedic School (aliases 'Shahu Vedic School', 'Shahu Vedic Pathshala', 'Shri Shahu Vaidik Vidyalay') in 1920 and had invited scholars from Varanasi (spiritual capital of Sanatan Dharm) to ensure the highest standard of scriptural and linguistic training. The school trained seminarians (of all castes) to learn Sanskrit and become priests and conduct ceremonies. He further established and financed the office of the Kshatra Jagadguru (''Warrior Universal Teacher''), a pontiff seat open to anyone of any caste. The first Kshatra Jagadguru was Sadashivrao Lakshmanrao Sankpal Patil Benadikar, was an accomplished Sanskrit scholar who received his formal higher education at Rajaram College in Kolhapur. The Kshatra Jagadguru Peeth was the pontiff's seat at Patgaon (in the Bhudargad region of Kolhapur.) Patgaon was chosen because it was the historic site of the Mauni Maharaj Math, a highly respected spiritual center that had historically blessed Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj[https://pilgrimdata.in/temple/mouni-maharaj-math-temple-patgaon-bhudargarh-dist-kolhapur/]. The Kshatra Jagadguru had the Shri Sadashivrao Patil Shikshan Sanstha educationalist association named after him, and it runs schools[https://www.mwssm.org/][https://sspiop.com/] in Maharashtra still. Other organizations too use his name for schools like Sadashivrao Mandlik Mahavidyalaya (Kolhapur) of the ⁠Jay Shivray Education Society.

===Successive associations===
From Hindu-based institutions like sociopolitical organizations and schools came a number of philanthropic associations. Even other humanitarian associations that were not established by Hindu activists, were established by their influence. For example, Krishna Gopal Gokhale had participated in many sessions of the Prarthana Samaj as he was Ranade's pupil, and he later joined the Deccan Education Society, which he left to establish the Servants of India Society. Narayan Malhar Joshi was a member of Gokhale's group and later formed his own Social Service League[https://socialserviceleague.org.in/]. Hriday Nath Kunzru too was part of Gokhale's group and left to establish the Seva Samiti.

{| class="wikitable sortable"
|-
! Organization
! Demographic of Focus
! Region(s)
! Founder
! Founder's Affiliation(s)
! Achievement
|-
|Anath Balikashram Society
|Widows
|Maharashtra
|Dhondo Keshav Karve
|Educated at BHU
|
|-
|Andhra Mahila Sabha
|Females
|Andhra Pradesh
|Durgabai Deshmukh
|
|
|-
|Bharat Stree Mahamandal
|Females
|Bengal, Bihar, Punjab, Sindh, U.P.
|Sarala Devi Chaudhurani
|Arya Samaji, Brahmo Samaji, accepted Bijoy Krishna Chattopadhyaya as her guru
|
|-
|Central Social Welfare Board
|Females and children
|
|Dr. Durgabai Deshmukh
|
|
|-
|Hindu Widow Marriage Association
|Females
|Maharashtra
|Dhondo Keshav Karve
|Educated at BHU
|
|-
|Hindustani Seva Dal
|Females
|Every province
|Dr. Narayan Subbarao Hardikar
|
|Established the Hindustani Seva Mandal (later became Rashtriya Seva Dal) in 1923, established the Arya Bala Sabha, taught the Gita during his student days in Kolkata, was a fan of Lokmanya Tilak, and had enthusiastically worked with Lala Rai
|-
|Indian Reform Association
|Females
|West Bengal
|Keshub Chandra Sen
|
|Brahmo Samaji, founded ''Sulabh Samachar'' as weekly newspaper of group
|-
|Kasthurbha Gandhi Kanya Gurukulam[http://www.kgkgurukulam.org/]
|Girls
|Tamil Nadu (Vedaranyam)
|Vedaratnam Pillai
|
|Involved in temple-based philanthropy and donated to Sri Ramakrishna Mission too
|-
|Lakshmi Ashram
|Females
|Uttarakhand
|Sarla Behn
|
|Established individual Mahila Mandals throughout Uttarakhand and promoted important skills as well as ecological awareness
|-
|Lokahitawadi Mandal
|Females and males
|Maharashtra
|Vishnu Vaman Shirwadkar
|
|Wrote about Hindu themes, including persons from scriptures and about Shivaji poetically, philosophically, and nationally
|-
|Maharshi Karve Stree Shikshan Samstha
|Females
|Maharashtra
|Dhondo Keshav Karve
|Educated at BHU
|
|-
|Mahila Vidyalaya (Pune)
|Females
|Maharashtra
|Dhondo Keshav Karve
|Educated at BHU
|
|-
|Nishkam Karma Math
|Females
|Maharashtra
|Dhondo Keshav Karve
|Educated at BHU
|
|-
|Poona Seva Sadan
|Females
|Maharashtra (at its peak, included M.P. and T.N.)
|Ramabai Ranade
|
|
|-
|Samata Sangh
|Men and Women
|Maharashtra
|Dhondo Keshav Karve
|Educated at BHU
|
|-
|Self Employed Women's Association (SEWA)
|Females
|18 states
|Ela Bhatt
|Gandhian Textile Labour Association
|Established: own bank (Shri Mahila Sewa Sahakari Bank, or 'SEWA Cooperative Bank'), SEWA Mahila Housing Trust
|-
|Servants of the People Society
|Females
|Kerala, Maharashtra, M.P., Odisha T.N., Uttarakhand U.P.
|
|
|
|-
|Shraddhanand Ashram[https://shraddhanandmahilashram.org] (alias Hindu Women's Welfare Society)
|Females and boys
|Maharashtra (Mumbai)
|Swami Shraddhanand
|
|Has cared for thousands of destitute women and orphans, and educated them and provided skills development, as well as fostered personal development
|-
|Stree Hitaishini Mandali
|Females
|Andhra Pradesh
|Kanuparti Varalakshmamma
|
|Educated many females
|-
|Widow Marriage Association
|Females
|Maharashtra
|Dhondo Keshav Karve
|Educated at BHU
|
|-
|}

==Inspiration to Madras Presidency==
[[image:M.C. Rajah.jpg|right|thumb|200px|Mylai Chinna Thambi Pillai Rajah (the real 'Periyar'.)]]
While the Arya Samaj, Brahmo Samaj, Prarthana Samaj, and a host of other Hindu-based humanitarian and sociopolitical institutions existed in the-then Madras Presidency of southern India, they inspired local organizations as well. Shahu Maharaj had friends in the-then Justice Party (JP, est. 1916), like Arcot Ramasamy Mudaliar and Panaganti Ramarayaningar. While some ethnic groups, like certain castes even falsely supported the idea of an 'Aryan Invasion Theory' and themselves (Dravidian-languages speakers) as indigenous, they still appreciated Hinduism and did not consider it alien.

The biggest uplifter of the party was M.C. Rajah, who had the highest influence upon the policies that improved the lives of the Dalits in Madras Presidency. The party itself was founded primarily by 3 individuals — Sir Pitti Theagaraya Chetty (political founder who built the political machine), Dr. Taravath Madhavan Nair (ideological co-founder), and Dr. Chintadripet Natesa Mudaliar (cultural/grassroots mobilizer who helped shape cultural legitimacy.) Dr. Nair had said that Hindu society had originally possessed broader equality before caste dominance hardened it. Chetty occasionally used dharm-based ethical framing. He is consistently described as arguing that governance must align with "''dharma and justice''". The Dr. Mudaliar was a devout Shaiva that infused into the party Shaivism as a cultural identity for southerners.
[[image:P.T. Rajan.jpg|right|thumb|200px|P.T. Rajan (centre-right, wearing glasses next to priest), touring with the idol of [[Ayyappan|Ayyappa]] he had made at Swamimalai Temple[https://swamimalaiswaminathar.hrce.tn.gov.in/] and it was placed in the Sabarimala Temple[https://www.sabarimalauptodate.in/].]]
An ideologue of influence to the JP and Self-Respect Movement was Maraimalai Adigal, a Shaiv preacher and writer, who claimed that both the JP and Self-Respect Movement were from his teachings and that militant atheist Erode Venkatappa Ramasami Naicker had hijacked them. JP founder Dr. Nair died in 1919 and Chetty in 1925, so had no interaction Naicker. Ponnambala Thiaga Rajan was an active party member and disagreed with Naicker's ideology, so joined Congress-aligned politics. Mudaliar died in 1935 around the time Naicker entered the JP. Naicker was also a prejudiced castist that criticized but did not contribute to build schools and shelters for women and children, as Rajah[https://www.news18.com/opinion/opinion-m-c-rajah-the-forgotten-hindu-mahasabha-dalit-8937192.html][https://vskbharat.com/m-c-rajah-a-staunch-hindu-leader/?lang=en][https://thecommunemag.com/m-c-rajah-the-hindu-mahasabha-dalit/], a practicing Hindu of the party did. Rajah even once formed a political alliance with the Hindu Mahasabha, was the contributor. Before Rajah, the party's caste disparity was mainly about civil service occupations and education access for underprivileged castes. Rajah was recommended by Ambedkar to convert but Rajah replied there's no religion better than Hinduism.<ref>P. 92 ''The Political Evolution of Muslims in Tamilnadu and Madras, 1930-1947'' By J.B. Prashant More (1997) </ref><ref> In a public meeting of the All India Adi Dravida Mahajana Sabha in Nungambakkam, Chennai he said, "''The president (of this meeting) mentioned that no other community other than us has more right to be called Hindus. Conversion will not bring about any good. By saying so, I am not undermining or wishing away the oppression and ills we have faced. We need to fight for our rights. The speed at which reforms are happening might be slow. But think about our current situation and how much it has improved. I beseech you to please abandon any move that will weaken us. I request the government to bring about the Untouchability Abolition Bill and pass it quickly. The Harijans are proud Hindus. That is the only reason why even after years of oppression by higher castes and a barrage of proselytization efforts by other religions hasn't changed their resolve being Hindus.''" P. 123 ''Evolution of Hindu Nationalism - Icons of HMS, RSS & BJS'' By Sankara Narayanan T (2025)</ref> Adigal's writings had a profound impact on Subramania Ramanathan, the founder of the Self-Respect Movement, and on the Naicker but the latter only wanted pro-Tamil and castist societal changes, not promotion of Shaivism. Naicker would later break away from the party and form his own Dravidar Kazhagam, a title he copied from Adigal's Shaiv association (Podhunilak Kazhagam.) (His own pupil, Conjeevaram Natarajan Annadurai, would eventually disown him after he married his own adopted daughter, and Annadurai would leave his group.)
[[image:Alamelu.jpg|right|thumb|200px|Alamelu Mangai Thayarammal, a Brahmo Samaji, was co-founder of the party among 29 others (all men.)]]
The Hindu sentiment was definitely present in the JP. Many left after Naicker's hijacking. Important members bothered by Naicker's rhetoric apart from Rajan were Ananda Prasad Patro, Arunachalam Thamaraiselvam Panneerselvam, Muthiah Annamalai Chettiar, Ramasamy Kandasamy Shanmukham Chetty, and Subbarayalu Kumaraswami Reddiar. Chettiar even personally regularly donated to temple renovations, endowing temple lands or festivals, supporting pilgrimage facilities, and Hindu-managed schools. Rajan, the last leader of the JP, was the head-of-government of the Presidency, and was a big devotee a [[Ayyappan|Swami Ayyappa]]. Rajan even solemnized a marriage of a German couple converted to Hinduism in Coimbatore (Oct 31, 1962.) He further discouraged conversion of Dalits from Hinduism to another religion<ref>"''If by mass conversion you expect to achieve your object, you will be disappointed, because of a mere change of religion it will not give you all that you want.''" 
P. 147 ''Sir P. T. Rajan's Eighty Second Birthday Souvenir, 1973'' By P.T. Rajan and K. Paramasivam</ref> while encouraging caste-Hindus to better treat Dalits. His family had deep ties to the Meenakshi Amman Temple[https://maduraimeenakshi.hrce.tn.gov.in/] in Madurai, with his son (Palanivel Rajan), serving as a minister, and his daughter-in-law (Rukmani), serving as the first female chairperson of the temple's board of trustees. His predecessor Ramakrishna Ranga Rao denied that the JP was anti-Hindu and declared that it aimed to purify Hindu society from "''absurdities''" and return "''Hinduism greater and more glorious than it was in the past...''"<ref>"''As I understand it, the Self-Respect movement stands for certain great ideals to make Hinduism greater and more glorious than it was in the past, to rid it of all those absurdities which are the accretions of an unfortunate era of the past, and unite us in a solid federation so that all those who profess to follow the Hindu faith may feel that they are brethren following one of the most ancient and glorious religions of the world. No longer should the foreigner point his finger of scorn at this or that particular phase of Hinduism which belies its cosmopolitan tendency by inflicting personal hardship on classes or communities. If a few youths in their exuberant enthusiasm have been carried away beyond the bounds of Hinduism it will not do to fight shy of the new movements, but political wisdom and sagacity lie in taking them into our fold and guiding them aright along the paths of duty and rectitude.''" 
P. 289 ''The Indian Annual Register An Annual Digest of Public Affairs of India Recording the Nation's Activities Each Year in Matters Political, Economic, Industrial, Educational, Social, Etc · Volume 2'' By Nipendra Nath Mitra (1934)</ref> Alamelu Mangai Thayarammal, conferred 'Pandithai' title by Saiva Sabha in Palamcottah, was a JP co-founder [with 29 co-founders being men] who was a Brahmo Samaji, meaning the influence of the Hindu-based organizations wasn't insignificant. Paramasivan Subbarayan Gounder, while not technically a JP member, worked with it closely, and both he and his women's rights activist wife Kailash Radhabai Kulmud were Brahmos. It is also noteworthy that [[Ascetics|ascetic]] Swamiyar Kaivalyar who supported the party without being a member wrote pro-Shaiv material. Cattamanchi Ramalinga Reddy, an ex-member who formed his own party in 1923 was a close friend of Dr. Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan, and he himself engaged with Hindu texts on a literary artistic level. As Hinduism isn't a scripture-dependent religion, some JP members like A.R. Mudaliar heavily criticized certain scriptures but were devout Hindus ([[Vaiśnava|Vaishnav]] in his case.) And while orthodox opposition was present, the majority of Indians, including religious leaders, supported reforms, like when Shankaracharya of Kanchi[https://www.kamakoti.org/] supported the "Hindu Religious Endowments Bill" (1921) even while voicing some concerns in within. Mentionable is that [[Shatata-Unnati#Female upliftment|Dr. Muthulakshmi Reddy]] wasn't part of the JP but it still nominated her in 1926 for the Madras Legislative Council to bring about positive changes.

==Related articles==
*[[Women]]
*[[Women as Rishikas in the Vedas]]
*[[Worship of God as Mother]]

==External resources==
*[https://www.ijhsss.com/files/08.-ABHISEK-KARMAKAR_6813z4a4.pdf "Changing status of women in Indian politics (1917-1947): the role of civil society"], P. 42-45 ''International Journal of Humanities & Social Science Studies'' Volume-I, Issue-II (September 2014) By Abhisek Karmakar
*[https://www.besanthill.org/about/history-heritage/annie-besant/ Besant Hill School of Happy Valley in Ojai, California]
*[https://www.anniebesant.org Annie Besant Women's College in Hyderabad, Telangana]
*[https://www.aryasabha.mu/cultural-programme-arya-mahila-mandal-in-the-context-of-the-200th-birth-anniversary-of-swami-dayananda-saraswati/ Arya Mahila Mandal (Mauritius)]
*[https://www.thearyasamaj.org/ammkarolbagh Arya Mahila Mandal Karol Bagh]
*[https://vatikashaktipeeth.com/seven-agitations/women-awakening.html Vatika Shakti Peeth]

==References==
{{reflist}}

[[Category: History]]
[[Category: Economics]]
[[Category: Societal altruism]]

The Spread of Hinduism

2026-06-08T18:09:23Z

Himanshu Bhatt: /* Americas */ added details to names

{{Author|Himanshu Bhatt}}
[[image:Submerged Indian coast.jpg|right|thumb|200px|Indian shoreline before submersion from sea levels increasing, which began after end of last ice age in 10000 BCE, devastating the [[Indus Valley Civilization]] and leading to an exodus.]]
[[image:Out of Eurasia diffusion.jpg|right|thumb|200px|Out of Eurasia theory of human dispersion contradicts the mainstream viewpoint known as Out of Africa and has gained ground among geneticists, and further supports Out of India theory and [[History of ancient geography|Hindu myths]] of the sons of Emperor Priyavrata inheriting the eastern world island from their father.]]
[[image:Human migration patterns.jpg|right|thumb|200px|M130 is believed to have originated in India, as well as others, such as M20 and M45.]]
[[image:IVC trade.jpg|right|thumb|200px|Trade of the IVC.]]
<blockquote>
“Hinduism the perennial philosophy that is at the core of all religions.” - Aldous Huxley
</blockquote>
[[Hindu]] teachings were spread not just by Indian Hindus migrating and preaching outside of the Indian Subcontinent, but also by visitors to India who came for understanding [[Hinduism|Hindu spirituality]]. This latter section includes Greek philosophers such as Pythagoras, Orpheus and Plato, who had all returned to Greece and preached the concepts of [[karma]], [[bhakti]], [[gyāna]], reincarnation and [[Mokṣa]]. Iranian philosophers such as Mani also visited India and later preached similar messages as the Greeks who had become Hindu.

Hindu scholars noted for their wisdom had further promoted the religion through becoming advisers to monarchs outside of India. [[Kingdoms]] Kucha<ref>It means Kumarayāna.</ref> and Tukhara<ref>It means Dhitika.</ref> in Central Asia, Mongolia<ref>It means Śakya Pandita.</ref>, Naiman<ref>It means Tatatungya.</ref> in Western Mongolia, Tibet<ref>It means Padmasambhava.</ref> and mainland China<ref> It means [[Bodhidharma]]. </ref>, all chose Indian [[Rulers in Hinduism|Hindu advisers]] who promoted [[Hinduism]] throughout their kingdoms. Soon an era came in which Greek philosophers describe that 'Greater India' came into being with cultural similarities between many regions outside India. Central Asia was known as Serindia, while from Burma to the Strait of Malacca became Indochina and the islands of the Strait of Malacca became Indonesia.

Around 4000-3000 BCE, is when exploration in the Indian Ocean had began, and the international regions to communicate with one another were India, Gulf (i.e., Mesopotamia), and Oman.<ref> P. 15 ''Indian Ocean In Antiquity'' By Julian Reade </ref> The curiosity of places outside of India and knowledge of trading routes had led to the Indian diaspora both from sea and land. Following this the [[Historical racial diversity of Hindus#Integration of Indian Hindu migrants with Europeans|Yamnaya culture of Europe]] that prospered from 3500-2500 BCE, which consisted of mixed peoples from both Indo-Iranian and native European ancestry was established around 3500-3200 BCE. Hindu scholars, including scientists and missionaries, remained explorers and documented the [[History of ancient geography|various geographies of global places]] wherein they traveled.

Of the Indian Hindus in the ancient times that established colonies abroad, noteworthy are the [[Danavas]] of Sind province that, with their navigation expertise, had settled in various places where they had come to be been known as Danuna, Danunites, Danaoi, Danaus, Danaids, Dene, Danai, Danaian, and Dananns. Historians have noted tribes with the demonym 'Sindi' among the Thracians, Colchis, and both ancient and modern Kurds.

With the spread of British colonialism in the modern era, many Indians started regularly traveling and emigrating to other British colonies outside of India. Many others also traveled to other colonies, such as of France and Netherlands. Resulting from this diffusion and establishment of communities abroad, Indian Hindus have gone on to democratically achieve becoming leaders of countries such as Guyana, Suriname, Fiji and Mauritius. From colonialism, Europeans also received the opportunities to travel to India and then [[Hindu-inspired organizations|share spiritual ideas]] with Western nations. As such, the establishment of the [[Theosophical Society]] by Helena Blavatsky and [[Agni]] [[Yoga]] by Nicholas Roerich. The modern age has given a boost to Hinduism through [[Hindu-inspired organizations|organizations]] such as the [[Hare Krishna]]s, [[Ananda Margi]]s, [[Brahma Kumari]]s and others. [[Yoga]] has spread now and is practiced by many non-Hindus for improving and maintaining both physical and mental health.

<blockquote>
“South Asia, which is where Bos Indicus (zebu cattle) originated, was not isolated during this period. People seem to have migrated from the Indus Valley civilization into Central Asia around the same time as the climatic effect that happened around 4,200 years ago. This may have introduced zebu cattle ancestry into Near Eastern cattle populations.” - Iosif Lazaridis, Harvard Medical School geneticist<ref> [https://www.natureasia.com/en/nmiddleeast/article/10.1038/nmiddleeast.2019.100 "Ancient cattle DNA reveals a bullish tale"] By Lara Reid, Published online 12 July 2019 </ref>
</blockquote>

The influence of Hindus and Moksh-based religions to the history of the world is definitely undeniable. Mahatma Gandhi changed the world forever and his message of peaceful non-cooperation to obtain freedom and justice was implemented by other freedom fighters in former colonies, and by notable figures towards national reform as in the cases of Martin Luther King Junior and Aung San Suu Kyi. Time Magazine ranked him as number 54 on the list the most significant figures in all of history[https://ideas.time.com/2013/12/10/whos-biggest-the-100-most-significant-figures-in-history/], on the list of the important 20th century persons while WondersList[https://www.wonderslist.com/10-most-influential-people-of-the-20th-century/#:~:text=1%20Albert%20Einstein.%20Most%20Influential%20People%20of%2020th,9%20Princess%20Diana.%20...%2010%20Alexander%20Fleming.%20] as number 5 for that list, Time as number 9 for one of history’s most important leaders[http://content.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,988159,00.html], BBC as one of the most important philosophers, and other sources like Historyplex[https://historyplex.com/influential-people-in-history] as one of the most important persons overall in all of history.

==Middle East==
[[image:Ancient_Ariana_lands.jpg|right|thumb|200px|Ancient Greek historian Aelianus in ''De natura animalium'' (16.16), also mentions that there were "Indian Arianians" and there is some suggestion that control of Ariana fluctuated between Indian and Arian Arianians.]]
"''Slowly and gradually, it dawned upon them that the language of the ''Gatha'' and Zendavesta has very great kinship with the [[Sanskrta]] language; when the grammar of Panini, Katyayana, and Patanjali was applied then the Gatha and Zendavesta came to be understood by the westerners. The lesson from this amazing fact is clear that once the Iranians of the ''Gatha and Zendavesta'' and the Indo-Aryans of the [[Vedas]] formed one single race, speaking language akin to Samskrta. Indeed this is clear from the city tablets found in Tell-El-Amarna in Egypt and Boghaz Keui in Asia Minor. On the tablets are mentioned Indra, Varuna, Mitra and Nasatya as witnesses of the treaty between the King Subiluliuma of the Hittites, and the Mitanni King Mattiwaza. These tablets date to about 1600 B.C. These tablets clearly indicate that these Vedic gods who were quite familiar in the region about 1600 B.C. and that the people living there then had more or less a common religion''." - Yaqub Masih<ref> P. 21-22 ''A Comparative Study of Religions'' By Y. Masih </ref>

The process of Hinduism spreading in the Middle East is whereby Hindus left India and had traveled to regions within the ancient Neat East and had preached the doctrine and customs. Hindus of Mitanni were Hurrians while those of Anatolia were Hittites, those of Levant the Hurus and those of Egypt, the Hyksos.

{{Cquote|Ketumalavarsha indeed extends from Romakapura to [the] Gandhamadana [mountain].|4=Srimad Bhagavatam}}

===Iranian Plateau===
''See also: [[Zoroastrianism and Hinduism]]''
[[image:Vishnu statue Mashad.jpg|right|thumb|200px|Statue of Vishnu sitting cross-legged while holding conch and lotus (underneath peacock) at mosque in Mashad, Khorasan, Iran.]]
[[image:Agathocles Indo-Bactrian coin.jpg|right|thumb|200px|One of Greco-Bactrian Empire's coins from King Agathocles Dikaios issued around 190-180 BCE, featuring Balarama (left) and Krishna (right) holding [[Dharmachakra]].<Ref> P. 330 ''The Serpent The Eagle The Lion & The Disk'' By Brannon Parke </ref>]]
[[image:Kadphises Kushan coin.jpg|right|thumb|200px|Four of Kushan Empire's coins from King Vima Katphisa issued around 166-230 CE, featuring Shiva with his bull attendant. They read, "[Coin] of the great King Vima Kathphisa, the king of kings, lord of all the world, the Mahavesvara."<ref> P. 370'' Studies in Indian Coins'' By D.C. Sircar </ref>]]
[[image:Lakshmi displayed on coin.jpg|right|thumb|200px|Hunnic Empire's coin of Bactria in Brahmi from 400-500 CE displaying Lakshmi holding a lotus in one hand and a cornucopia in the other.]]
[[image:Hindu Temple Bandar Abbas.jpg|right|thumb|200px|Vaiśnava temple in Bandar Abbas, southern Iran. The temple was built in 1892 particularly for the recent Indian immigrants, many of whom were merchants and soldiers. In 1965 the temple was vacant as Indians emigrated. Whereas temples are usually made by stone, dew the climate of Bandar Abbas, rubble stones, mortar, coral rock, soil material and plaster was used in this temple’s construction.]]

;Movement of Indians into Iran
<blockquote>
"Slowly and gradually, it dawned upon them that the language of the ''Gatha'' and Zendavesta has very great kinship with the Sanskrta language; when the grammar of Panini, Katyayana, and Patanjali was applied then the Gatha and Zendavesta came to be understood by the westerners. The lesson from this amazing fact is clear that once the Iranians of the ''Gatha'' and ''Zendavesta'' and the Indo-Aryans of the Vedas formed one single race, speaking language akin to Samskrta." - Yaqub Masih<ref> P. 21-22 ''A Comparative Study of Religions'' By Y. Masih </ref>
</blockquote>

Ancient Iranian lands had a diversity of spiritual beliefs and the religions included Zoroastrianism, Manicheism, Yazdanism, Mandeanism and others. As the original Indo-Iranian homeland was eastwards in the [[Himalayas]], the nations of those areas spread westwards and found existing non-Indo-European peoples there such as Kasodians in Gilan, Taporians in Mazandaran, Urartians in the Caucus Mountain Range, Turukkus, Kassites and Lolobites in the Zagros Mountain Range and Elamites on the southern shoreline. The Turkic groups were known collectively to the natives as the 'Turani'<ref>They were called '[[Turiya]]' in the Avesta.</ref> and they were [[Danava#Turkic affiliation|associated with Dānu]], just as the Tarukṣas coming into India were too. The non-Indo-Iranians (or non-Aryans) were known to the Aryans as 'Anariakoi' (''non-Aryan people''), and this was the term documented by Greek writers for Hyrcanians<ref> P. 25 ''An Inquiry Into the Ethnography of Afghanistan: Prepared and Presented to ...'' By Henry Walter Bellew </ref> and others. Overtime, the Indo-Iranian cultural significance in the societies of the plateau led to the formation of Indo-Iranian nations that were native to the region (i.e., [[The spread of Hinduism#Mitanni|Hurrians]], Baluchis, Armenians.) A Turani monarch had however opposed the Indo-Iranian influence on the plateau and invaded Balkh.<ref>It is in northern Afghanistan.</ref> After its conquest both its king and the king's close friend Zarathustra were executed by invading Turanis.<ref> P. 62 ''Mute [[Dreams]], Blind Owls, and Dispersed Knowledges: Persian Poesis in the Transnational Circuitry'' By Michael M. J. Fischer </ref>

Sir William Jones notes:
<blockquote>Thus it has been proved by clear evidence and plain reasoning that a powerful monarch was established in Iran long before the Assyrian or Pishadi government. That it was in fact, a '''Hindu monarchy''', though any may choose to call it Cusian, Casdean or Scythian..."<ref> P. 133 ''The works of Sir William Jones: with the life of the author by Lord Teignmouth in Thirteen Volumes Volume 3'' By Sir William Jones </ref> </blockquote>

;Closeness between religions of Iran to Hinduism
Zoroastrianism, which is also known as ''Mazdayasna'' (''Sacrifice to [[Asura|Ahura Mazda]]'') and as ''Vehdin'' (''Good Religion''), resembles Hinduism in many ways, such as in its origin, beliefs (i.e., common [[deities]]) and iconography. Dr. Mills says, "The Avesta is nearer the [[Veda]] than the [[Veda]] to its own epic [[Sanskrit]]." Major gods or yazatas<ref>Yazatas means ''venerable ones''.</ref> included Varuṇa and [[Mitra]]. Zarathustra (Greek: Zoroaster) Spitama was an Athravan priest, a descendant of the Vedic Atharvans. The swastika has been a popular symbol throughout the history of Iran and it has been called by Persians, "The four horses of [[Mitra]]."

Among the followers of Zoroastrianism, while the scriptures do not mention the idea of [[re-incarnation]], it is not denied either<ref> ''Textual Sources for the Study of Zoroastrianism'' edited by Mary Boyce </ref> and some Zoroastrians of India<ref>It is particularly members of the Parsi Theosophy.</ref> believe in reincarnation.<ref> P. 264 The Parsis of India: Preservation of Identity in Bombay City By Jesse S. Palsetia </ref> Some esoteric Parsi mystics such as Beaman adhered to the belief in reincarnation.<ref> P. 178 Parsis in India and the Diaspora edited by John Hinnells, Alan Williams </ref> The belief in karma and re-incarnation are perpetuated in the ''Desatir'', wherein it declares that those who are happy now have done good deeds in a previous life while those who suffer now have done bad deeds in former life.<ref>P. 522 ''The British Critic: A New Review, Volume 20'' </ref> It is therefore discredited as a Mazdaean work.

Of Mandeans, Chevalier Emerys writes, "Modern Johannite Mandean Christians of Iraq, also known as Nazoreans, still believe in the doctrine of reincarnation and also teach that Jesus was the reincarnation of the prophet Melchizedek."<ref>P. 49 Revelation of the Holy Grail By Chevalier Emerys </ref> The Mandeans also believe in reincarnation of the human, if a human does not marry within his or her lifetime.<ref>P. 41 ''Gnostic Ethics and Mandaean [[Origins]]'' By Edwin M. Yamauchi </ref> Islamic Druzism believes in reincarnation, and is named after Persian Batinite missionary named Muhammad bin Ismail Nashtakin ad-Darazi. Muslim Shah Ismail the Persian Sultan was one of the founders of Alevism or the "People of Fire" and this Islamic sect believes in reincarnation. The Islamic sects of Shabak, Bajalan, Sarli, and Kakais are also very closely affiliated with Iranians and has a belief in re-incarnation.

After the Islamization of the Iranian Plateau, some intellectuals resisted and established their own new religions, which contained some hindu ideas and some other themes that they were familiar with. This includes, Yarsanism (Ahl-e Haqq) established in the 14th century by Sultan Sahak as a Yazdan sect and Baha'ism by Bahá'u'lláh in the 19th century. Whereas both traditional Hinduism and [[Buddhism]] were popular in the eastern part of the Iranian Plateau, Mithraism became popular within Zoroastrianism particularly in the western part. From here the popularity of the god Mitra spread to Assyria, Anatola and Europe. The Avesta declares, "This Mitra, the lord of the wide pastures, I have created as worthy of sacrifice, as I, Ahura Mazda, am myself."<ref>P. 1xi ''The Zend-Avesta: The Sîrôzahs, Yasts, and Nyâyis'' edited by James Darmesteter, Lawrence Heyworth Mills </ref> Philosopher Mani of Persia had spent time in India, and after having accepted the ideas of re-incarnation and [[Means to Salvation|the three paths to Mokṣa]], he began preaching of them in Iran. His set of beliefs are called Manicheism.

;Association of regions within Iranian Plateau to India
The Zoroastrian Vendidad reads, "The country of Hind extends from east of the Indus to west of it." This, India in the Vendidad's definition includes Baluchistan and Seistan.

Ancient Persians called the regions stretching from Hormuz to Baluchistan as 'Hind'<ref>It is the original name of India.</ref> because those areas had more in common with India than with the other Iranian cultures located west to them. King Dhrishataketu of Kaikeya Kingdom married Śrutakirtti and had by her Santarddana, and four other sons, known together as the five Kaikeyas. The Kaikeyas were a major dynasty in India and it was on both sides of the Indus River. The Anava Kingdom of Uśinara Sibi, extended from Baluchistan to the Punjab. Even modern times Sibi is a district within Baluchistan.

Further, the Helmand region of Afghanistan was called by Persians as 'White India'. Siestan was also referred by Greek philosophers to as White India. Referring to the peoples of this region, Alexander called them, "the Indians on this side of the [[Indus River|river Indus]]."<ref>P. 128 ''Handbuch der Orientalistik. Abt. 1, Der Nahe und der Mittlere Osten, Bd 8, Religion, Abschnitt 1, Religionsgeschichte des Alten Orients, Lief. 2. H. 2, A history of Zoroastrianism, Vol. 3, Zoroastrianism under Macedonian and Roman rule'' By Mary Boyce; Frantz Grenet</ref>

Overtime, the natives of this region stayed and many became Buddhist in modern-day Afghanistan and the Afghans turned Kandahar into a Buddhist pilgrimage center which was visited by devout Buddhists from China and Indonesia. While Takśaśila was a city in east of the Indian river on the Iranian side, there were other important centres. The two great Indian grammarians [[Panini]] and [[Patanjali]] have mentioned a number of north-western cities like Balkh or Vahika, Kapisa, Pushkalavati, Masakavati, Takśaśila and Sakala. Takśaśila was the greatest and most flourishing city.<ref> P. viii ''A History of Indian Civilization: Ancient and classical traditions'' By Radhakamal Mukerjee, Gurmukh Ram Madan, Viśvaprakāśa Gupta</ref>

;Modern Relations between the Plateau and Hinduism
Hare [[Krishna]]'s founder [[A.C. Bhaktivedanta Swami Prabhupada]] traveled to Tehran in 1976. Since 1977, [[ISKCON]] runs a vegetarian restaurant in Tehran.

===Assyria===
Assyria was known as Asuristan.<Ref> P. 10 ''The [[Sound]] System of Modern Assyrian (Neo-Aramaic)'' By Edward Y. Odisho </ref> The name of Assyria comes from Rigvedic 'Asurya', the original name of the sun-god [[Surya]]. Syrians still to this day, pronounce the name of Syria as '[[Surya]]'. Hence, Assyria's name would have been pronounced as 'Asurya'.

In the 6th century CE, the Lower Euphrates was known as 'India within land' or just 'Hind' (India) in general.<ref> P. 421 ''Gazetteer of the Bombay Presidency: Tha'na (2 pts.) Volume XIII, Part II'' By Government Central Press </ref> Oderic in 1320 CE also speaks of the Lower Euphrates as 'India within land'. Much like how the [[Indus Valley Civilization|Indus River Civilization]] had priest-kings as ruler of certain towns and cities, Assyria too had a priest-prince ruler. Hence, from the Indian Hindu influence, [[Parshurama]] is also believed to have been worshiped in the region. In the ancient Sumerian [[Social Structure|social structure]] as well, there was a leader of the Baramas (i.e., [[Brahmana]]s) named Bur-Sin and the belief by some scholars is that he is Parshurama.

The patriarchal god of the Assyrians was Assur, who is always portrayed on a winged chakkra-sun or sundisk, just as the frahavars<ref>Frahavars means angels.</ref> of Iranian spirituality are shown. The Assyrians, referred to a [[dharmachakra|chakkra]] as a wheel. The cultural and political capital of the Assyrians was Assur, named after the god. Assur was also known as ''Asara Mazas''<ref>For them some scholars believe that they origin from the proto-Indo-Iranian form ''[[Asura]] Mazdas''.</ref><ref> ''History of Civilizations of Central Asia: The development of sedentary and nomadic civilizations: 700 B.C. to A.D. 250'' By Ahmad Hasan Dani </ref> Furthermore, god Enki was also known as Masda and Masenda. God Assur had later been identified within Judeo-Christian Biblical mythology as Ashur, the son of Shem.

It is believed that Europe had borrowed the planetary names for the week's days that the Babylonians used. Babylon was a part of the Assyrian Empire. When Hindus had spread to Assyria, they had brought this system of the week with them.

{| cellspacing="1" style="width:100%;" class="wikitable sortable"
|-
| || Sunday || Monday || Tuesday || Wednesday || Thursday || Friday || Saturday
|-
|Planet
| style="width:12%;"| Sun
| style="width:12%;"| Moon
| style="width:12%;"| Mars
| style="width:12%;"| Mercury
| style="width:12%;"| Jupiter
| style="width:12%;"| Venus
| style="width:12%;"| Saturn
|-
| [[Hindu gods|Hindu deity]]
| [[Ravi]]
| [[Soma]]
| [[Mangala]]
| [[Buddha]]
| [[Guru]]
| [[Shukra]]
| [[Shani]]
|-
|Mazdaen deity<ref> P. 253 ''The Wiley-Blackwell Companion to Zoroastrianism'' By Michael Stausberg, Yuhan Sohrab-Dinshaw Vevaina, [[Anna]] Tessmann </ref><REF> P. 37 ''Persian Architectural Heritage: Architecture, Structure and Conservation'' By Mehrdad Hejazi, Fatemeh Mehdizadeh Saradj </REF>
|Mitra
|
|Vrarayna
|Tiriya
|Ahura Mazda
|Ardvi Anahita [[Sura]]
|Kayvanu
|-
|Assyrian deity<ref> P. 253 ''The Wiley-Blackwell Companion to Zoroastrianism'' By Michael Stausberg, Yuhan Sohrab-Dinshaw Vevaina, [[Anna]] Tessmann </ref>
|
|
|Nergal
|Nabu
|Marduk
|Ishtar
|Kajamanu
|-
| Greco-Roman deity
| style="width:12%;"| Helios-Sol
| style="width:12%;"| Selene-Luna
| style="width:12%;"| Ares-Mars
| style="width:12%;"| Hermes-Mercury
| style="width:12%;"| Zeus-Jupiter
| style="width:12%;"| Aphrodite-Venus
| style="width:12%;"| Cronus-Saturn
|-
|}

The Assyrians had referred to India as ''Melluhha''. This comes from the name Mallhu and Malla, which many kings in India, particularly western India and Baluchistan have been called. There was even Mount Malleus mountain that Sind<ref> ''Studia Orientalia, Volume 64'' </ref> was known for having. Even the coast of Kerala is known as Malankara.

===Mitanni===
[[image:Nefertitti image at Amarna.jpg|right|thumb|200px|Mural of Nefertiti found at Amarna in 1912. She was an Indo-Aryan princess from Mitanni, who married an Egyptian Pharaoh Amenhotep IV (Akhnaton), and reigned ca. 1353-1336 BCE.]]

Today this region is known as Kurdistan. In the ancient times, the inhabitants of Mitanni were known as Hurrians. In the Judeo-Christian Bible, they are known as the Horites.<ref> P. 64 ''The Hebrew Pharaohs of Egypt: The Secret Lineage of the Patriarch Joseph'' By Ahmed Osman </ref> Sanskritic interpretations of Mitanni names render the following:
* Artashumara (artaššumara) - It means that it is as [[Arta]]-smara "who thinks of [[Arta]]/Ṛta".<ref>Mayrhofer II 780</ref>
* Biridashva (biridaša, biriiaša) - It means that it is as Prītāśva "whose horse is dear".<ref>Mayrhofer II 182</ref>
* Priyamazda (priiamazda) - It means that it is as Priyamedha "whose wisdom is dear".<ref>Mayrhofer II 189, II378</ref>
* Citrarata as [[citraratha]] - It means that it is "whose chariot is shining".<ref>Mayrhofer I 553</ref>
* Indaruda/Endaruta - It means that it is as Indrota "helped by Indra".<ref>Mayrhofer I 134</ref>
* Shativaza (šattiaza) - It means that it is as Sātivāja "winning the race price".<ref>Mayrhofer II 540, 696</ref>
* Šubandhu as Subandhu - It means that it is like 'having good relatives".<ref>It is a name in Palestine.</ref><ref>Mayrhofer II 209, 735</ref>
* Tushratta (tišeratta, tušratta, etc.) - It means that it is as taišaratha, Vedic Tveṣaratha "whose chariot is vehement".<ref>Mayrhofer I 686, I 736</ref>

Apart from Queen Nefertiti, Ramesid pharaohs were also of Mitanni descent.<Ref> P. 85 ''Arshile Gorky Adoian'' By Karlen Mooradian </ref>

===Hatti===
The Hittites or Nesili, whose empire was known as 'Hatti' and 'Kadesh', had believed in re-incarnation as attested by their writings. They [[worshiped]] the Devas like [[Indra]], [[Nasatyas]] (Ashvins), [[Mitra]] and [[Varuṇa]]. This is confirmed by the Suppiluliuma-Shattiwaza Treaty between the Hittites and Hurrians. The beleaguered Tusratta was then murdered by his son in a palace coup. Tusratta's other son, Prince Shattiwaza, fled Mitanni and was eventually given sanctuary by the Hittite King Suppiluliuma with whom he concluded a treaty 1380 BCE, which we know as the Suppiluliuma-Shattiwaza Treaty discovered in 1907 CE in Hattusa near present-day Bogazkale (Boğazkale, formerly Bogazköy) in north-central Turkey. In the treaty, the Hittite King Suppiluliuma agreed to assist Shattiwaza to gain the Mitanni throne. The Hittites captured the Mitanni capital Wassukanni after a second attempt and installed Shattiwaza as a vassal king.

The Suppiluliuma-Shattiwaza Treaty is a source of considerable information about the Mitanni. In addition, it gives us some astonishing information about the religious practices of the Mitanni for it invokes the Indo-Iranian pantheon of [[Asuras]] and Devas Mitras(il) (Mitra), Uruvanass(il) (Varuṇa), Indara (Indra) and the Nasatianna (Nasatyas.) In the Judeo-Christian Bible, the Hitties are assimilated to have been descended from Heth, the son of Ham.

===Levant===
The Levant region includes countries of the Mediterranean coast which are located at the southwest Asian area. The Hindus here were an Indo-Aryan speaking population called as the Huru.

===Egypt===
:''See also: [[Danava]]''
<blockquote>
"One of the oldest colonies founded by the Hindus was in Egypt" - G. R. Josyer<ref> P. 104 ''Astrological Magazine, Volume 73, Issues 1-6'' 1984 </ref>
</blockquote>
The Hyksos were an Indo-Aryan dynasty, according to the scholars such as Sam Kerr<ref> P. 15 ''Cyrus the Great - Celestial Sovereign'' By Sam Kerr </ref> and M. Chahin<Ref> P. 28 ''The Kingdom of Armenia: A History'' By M. Chahin </ref>. They had come to Egypt and settled within its Delta region in about 1674-1547 BCE<ref> P. 28 ''The Kingdom of Armenia: A History'' By M. Chahin </ref> and within a few centuries dominated the country. Much cultural exchange happened during the period of their rule.
<blockquote>
“Egypt was colonized from India, and the priests of Egypt were of the same order as the Brahmins of India.” - Godfrey Higgins<ref> p. 121 ''Anacalypsis: An Attempt to Draw Aside the Veil of the Saitic Isis'' (Vol. I) By Godfrey Higgins </ref>
</blockquote>
Excavations in El-Amarna in Egypt have yielded the fact that around the 14th-15th centuries BCE, kings and princes with Vedic-like names were ruling in the region of modern day Syria. Some of the names are Artamanya, Aryavirya, Yashodatta, Suttarna and Dushratta. Thutmose IV had married a daughter of Artatma, the King of the Mitanni Kingdom. A letter addressed by Dushratta, Artatama's grandson, written to Akhnaton, says that it was not until Thutmose asked seven times that King Artatma agreed to his marriage proposal. Amenhotep III married Tiy, daughter of Yuaa<ref>He is a foreigner "from North Syria".</ref> and Tuau. During this time in Egyptian history, the ruling aristocracy of Egypt, were of mixed Egyptian and Mitanni ancestry. According to Akhnaton, Aton was both the male and female. He says to Aton, "Father and Mother of all that You have made." This parallels with the Hindu terms for the sun-god, Savita<ref>He is the male form.</ref> and Savitri<ref>She is the female form.</ref> or the sun and the sun's energy ([[Puruṣa]] and [[Prakṛti]].)

The Hyksos were descendants of the Indian Danavas. They're written of in Egyptian, Hittite, and Hellenic accounts under the names Danuna, Danunites, Danaoi, Danaus, Danaids, Dene, Danai, and Danaian.<ref> P. 218 ''Sea Peoples of the Bronze Age Mediterranean c.1400 BCÂ?1000 BC'' By Raffaele DÂ?Amato, Andrea Salimbeti </ref> In mythology it was Ramses III who exiles them from Egypt, whereby they take refuge in Greece and spread further into Europe from there.

Burials have been uncovered of Indian monkeys, leading archaeologists to believe that they were imported from India.<ref> [https://www.heritagedaily.com/2020/08/ancient-animal-burials-in-egypt-were-monkeys-imported-as-pets-from-india/134834 ANCIENT ANIMAL BURIALS IN EGYPT WERE MONKEYS IMPORTED AS PETS FROM INDIA] (August 25, 2020) By HeritageDaily </ref>

===Arabian Peninsula===
This region was historically known to Indians as Arabaka or Arvasthān.<ref>It means the ''Land of Horses''.</ref> Before the Islamization of the region beginning with [[Islam]]'s prophet Mohammed, peoples here more freely practiced their spirituality. Mohammed's own uncle, Umar-bin-e-Hassham had died for his devotion to [[Śiva]]. Among his writings, one poem of him depicting his faith in Śiva, has been found. It has come to be known as the "Śiva Stuti." The poem reads as follows:

{| class="wikitable sortable"
|-
! English
! Arabic
|-
|
:The man who may spend his life in sin
:and irreligion or waste it in lechery and wrath
:If at least he relent and return to
:righteousness can he be saved?
:If but once he [[bhakti|worship]] Mahadeva with a pure
:heart, he will attain the ultimate in spirituality.
:Oh Lord [[Shiva]] exchange my entire life for but
:a day’s sojourn in India where one attains salvation.
:But one pilgrimage there secures for one all
:merit and company of the truly great.
|
:Kafavomal fikra min ulumin Tab asayru
:Kaluwan amataul Hawa was Tajakhru
:We Tajakhayroba udan Kalalwade-E Liboawa
:Walukayanay jatally, hay Yauma Tab asayru
:Wa Abalolha ajabu armeeman '''Mahadeva'''
:Manojail ilamuddin minhum wa sayattaru
:Wa Sahabi Kay-yam feema-Kamil MINDAY Yauman
:Wa Yakulum no latabahan foeennak Tawjjaru
:Massayaray akhalakan hasanan Kullahum
:Najumum aja-at Summa gabul '''Hindu'''
|-
|}

Umar-bin-e-Hassham had the title of 'Abul Kaham', which in Arabic means ''doctor''.<Ref> P. 705 ''World Vedic heritage: a history of histories : presenting a unique unified field theory of history that from the beginning of time the world practiced Vedic culture and spoke [[Sanskrit]], Volume 1'' By Puruṣottam Nagesh Oak </ref> It is a fact that the Kaaba was worshiped in by non-Muslims before Islam. It is believed by some that before the Kaaba was Islamicized and made a pilgrimage for only Muslims, it was a Śiva temple. Umar-bin-e-Hassham is known to have been a priest at Kaaba. His composition was a part of the ''Sair-ul-Okul'' compiled by Labi-bin-e-Akhtab bin-e Turfa, which contained verses composed by multiple authors.

''The Encyclopedia Islamia'' admits: "''Muhammed's grandfather and uncles were hereditary priests of the Kaaba temple which housed 360 [[idols]]!''" Besides the Arabian Umar-bin-e-Hassham having been a priest at the temple, another point that some people make is that the black stone at the Kaaba is actually a Śivalinga.

[[Kṛṣṇa]] was also worshiped in Arabia and his tale is written in an Islamic Hadith. The text titled, ''The History of Hamadan Dailmi'' (Chapter "Al-Kaaf") declares, “''There was a prophet of God in India who is dark in color and his name was Kahān [Kanha, i.e., Kṛṣṇa].''”<ref> P. 181 ''Green Leaves: Harish S. Booch Memorial Volume'' By Harish S. Booch </ref>

==East Asia==
"''Mother of wisdom...India gave her mythology to her neighbors who went to teach it to the whole world. Mother of law and philosophy, she gave to three-quarters of Asia a god, a religion, a doctrine, an art.''" - Sylvain Lévi, French Scholar & Indologist

===Tibet===
[[image:Tonpa Shenrab.jpg|right|thumb|200px|[[Yungdrung Bon|Bonpa Dharma]] founder [[Tonpa Shenrab Miwoche]], also known as Shenrab Miwo, and Buddha Shenrab.]] Hinduism in Tibet began with the Bon religion of Tonpa Shenrab, who is noted in Bon scriptures to have come from a western land called Olmo Lungring and wandered into Zhang Zhung (western Tibet.) In some Tibetan scriptures, Shenrab's country is also called as sTag-gzig, Shangri-La and Shambhalla. Like several other ṛṣis such as [[Riṣabha]], [[Rāvaṇ]] and [[Śukra|Śukracharya]], Tonpa too meditated at [[Mount Kailāśa]]. 

According to most Bon sources on Guru Shenrab's dating, he arrived in Tibet either around 18,000<ref> ''The bsTan rTsis'' </ref> or 16,000 years ago. According to another Bon tradition, he was a contemporary of the pre-8th century Zhang Zhung king Triwer Sergyi Jyaruchan.<ref>P. 339 ''The Golden Letters: The Three Statements of Garab Dorje, First Dzogchen Master'' By John Myrdhin Reynolds </ref> However, the present day Tibetan history scholar and Dzogchen master Chogyal Namkhai Norbu calculates the probable actual date of his birth as 1917 BCE. 

What brought the prince to the region was his quest to retrieve his 7 blue horses that were stolen by his aggressor Khyab-Pa Lag-Ring and taken to Zhang Zhung. Master Shenrab went forth with his four attendants to find them. During his time in Zhang Zhung, he taught the locals the basic tenants of Bon Dharma. He found the horses and Khyab-Pa became his pupil. They left Tibet to return home and at age 32 Prince Shenrab decided to give up the royal life and take solitude ([[Gyāna|sanyāsa]]) to become a monk. Khyab-Pa had become his leading disciple.

At age 82 he departed the world and attained Mokṣa. Both in his country and among the locals in Zhang Zhung, Buddha Shenrab was successful in stopping ritual [[animal sacrifices]]. Bon preachers continued visiting Tibet for further propagating the religion, and many Tibetan Bonpas visited Olmo Lungring for learning the religion and meeting with Bonpa scholars. There are two types of Bonpas classed by Buddhists, White Bon<ref>They are the ones who also follow Buddhism.</ref> and Black Bon.<ref>They are strictly Bonpas.</ref> 

Apart from Tonpa Shenrab (the teacher), there are 3 other Sugatas, who together are known as Bon's 'Four Transcendent Lords'. They are Satrig Ersang (the great mother goddess), Shenlha Okar (god of light or wisdom), and Sangpo Bumtri (the procreator.) Other recognized Sugatas are Kuntu Kazgpo (who is similar to Buddhism's Adi Buddha), Kunzang Gyalwa Gyatso (a person similar to Avalokitesvara), and Welse Ngampa, Sipai Gyalmo (a 9-headed protector of Bon.)<ref> P. 304 ''[[Annapurna]]: A Trekker's Guide'' By Siân Pritchard-Jones, Bob Gibbons </ref>

===Uyghurstan===
{{Cquote|It is said that Bhadrasva-varṣa extends from the city of Yamakoti up to the Malyavat mountain.|4=Srimad Bhagavatam}}

Known anciently as Turkharistan, and now as East Turkistan or Uyghurstan, Buddhism was originally spread here by many missionaries from India. Later, missionaries within the country spread the [[dharma]]. It is noteworthy that the sun-god was known to the Saka Khotan Kingdom of the Tarim Basin as ''Urmaysde'' which scholars link to the term Ahura Mazda<ref> P. 132 ''The Nativist Prophets of Early Islamic Iran: Rural Revolt and Local Zoroastrianism'' By Patricia Crone</ref>. These Indo-Iranian words started coming over with migrants who were missionaries and merchants from India and Iran.

[[Bhadrasva]]-varṣa is the name for the Tarim Basin or southern Uyghurstan, and for northern Uyghurstan (plus Kazakhstan) it is Uttara-[[Kuru]].

===China===
''See also: [[Daoism and Hinduism]]''
"''India conquered and dominated China culturally for 20 centuries without ever having to send a single soldier across her border''." - Hu Shih, Chinese ambassador to the U.S. (1938-42)[http://www.hinduwisdom.info/India_and_China.htm]

Indian missionaries and monks worked with Chinese spiritual leaders and together preached the message of Moksha.

Bodhidharma is the well-known of the persons that increased the cultural relationships between India and China.

Some Tamil Siddhars too had visited China to discuss and spread spiritual knowledge. The Siddhar saint Bogar, disciple of Kalanginaathar, visited China. It is said that he proceeded there to teach the ways of the Siddhars. There is a legend that Lao Tze is Bogar. Daoxuan said passionately that India, and not China, should be considered the center of the world.

Writing of the Chinese language, Christian Reverend Joseph Edkins writes that Hindus prepared the model of the Chinese first letters during 3rd-6th centuries CE, arranged them under heads of 36 consonants like in Sanskrit, and instructed Chinese people in the way of right pronunciation with regard to the scientific basis of the sound.<ref> P. 248 ''Some Missing Chapters of World History'' By Purushottam Nagesh Oak </ref>

===Japan===
[[image:Saraswati, Vaishravana, and Ganesh statue Hatsukaichi.jpg|left|thumb|200px|From left to right, Benzaiten ([[Saraswati]]), Kangiten ([[Ganesh]]) and Bishamonten ([[Vaishravana]]) in the 1,200 year-old Daishō-in Temple Complex, Hatsukaichi, Japan.]]
[[image:Shivlinga Nayoga.jpg|right|thumb|200px|Shivlinga in the Toganji Temple at Nayoga, Japan.]]

"''India is culturally, Mother of Japan. For centuries it has, in her own characteristic way, been exercising her influence on the thought and culture of Japan.''" - Professor Hajime Nakamura

Atsushi Taguchi<ref>"''The transmission of Indian concepts—Hindu deities adapted into Shinto kami and Buddhist mandalas—exerted significant influence on Japan's religious worldview, contributing to its unique civilizational blend.''" - Atsushi Taguchi, Indologist and cultural historian; ''India-Japan Cultural Relations: From Ancient Times to Modern'' (2018)</ref>, Gen'ichi Yamaguchi<ref>"''Indian Buddhist thought, carrying Hindu philosophical undercurrents, profoundly shaped Japanese aesthetics and social harmony, influencing everything from tea ceremonies to imperial rituals—without which modern Japanese civilization would lack its syncretic depth.''" - Gen'ichi Yamaguchi, Buddhist studies scholar; "The Influence of Indian Buddhism on Japanese Culture" (2012) article–excerpts in ''Journal of Indian Philosophy'' (2015)</ref>Dr. Yoshihiro Kaburagi<ref>"''Since ancient times, Japan has assimilated various foreign cultures, particularly through Buddhism from India, which led to the formation of Japanese civilization.''" - Dr. Yoshihiro Kaburagi, historian and comparative civilization scholar</ref> have also written about the historical influence of Hinduism/India on Japan.
Due to the cultural exchange between India and Japan, mainstream Hindu gods were adopted by Japanese. Ganesh is known as Kangi-ten and as Bināyaka-ten which originates from the Sanskrit name [[Vināyaka]].

==South East Asia==
This whole region has been known in Hindu scriptures as Suvarṇabhumi.<ref>It means ''The Golden Land''.</ref> Hinduism has been the dominant religion amongst several nations for a long time here. Indonesia<ref>It was former Javadwipa.</ref> was dominantly Hindu until Islamization by missionaries and Islamists within the islands. At one point, lands even as far as the Philippines were part of the Chola Empire.<ref> [http://www.sanskritimagazine.com/history/the-tamil-chola-empire/ The Tamil Chola Empire] </ref>

===Burma===
"''They did not practice Theravada Buddhism, rather they observed a form of Mahayana Buddhism much influenced by Vaishnavism and native Naga (serpent) worship.''"<ref>''Essays on the History and Buddhism of Burma'' (2005) By Dr. U Than Tun</ref> - Dr. U Than Tun

Dr. Aye Aye Mar (Indologist), Dr. Khin Maung Nyunt (archaeologist & epigraphist), U Min Naing (cultural historian), and U Aung Thwin (historian) have also written about the historical influence of Hinduism/India on Burma.

In most Hindu scriptures, Burma is known as Brahmadesh. Buddhist scriptures sometimes called it Majjhimadesh. Greek philosopher Pliny had said that on the river called Ava or Pumas or Puman, many nations along it are in general called Bracmanae or Brahmane.<ref> P. 443 ''Asiatick Researches, Or, Transactions of the Society Instituted ..., Volume 14'' </ref> Hence, there is also the [[Brahmaputra]] River near Burma which crosses North-East India.

Several Hindu temples here date back to pre-Buddhistic times. In Burma there is a Dagoba dedicated to Dagon ([[Matsya|Matsya avatār]] of [[Viṣṇu]]) which Burmese claim is over 3000 years old.<ref> P. 37 ''Shambhala'' By Nicholas Roerich </ref>

===Cambodia===
[[image:Angkot War.jpg|right|thumb|200px|[[List of UNESCO Hindu World Heritage Sites#Cambodia|Angkot Wat Temple]], Cambodia.]]
"''From the 5th century, Hinduism established cults in Chenla that integrated with indigenous beliefs, creating a syncretic society... The Preah Thong myth shows how Indian origins were localized to legitimize Khmer rule.''"<ref>Quote in ''Inscriptions du Cambodge'' (Volume on Chenla, 2012, EFEO) By George Cœdès</ref> - Sovath Prak, epigraphist & historian

Chea Socheat, Michael Vickery (historian), Ros Chantrabot (historian & former diplomat), and Serey Sok (archaeologist) have also written about the historical influence of Hinduism/India on Cambodia.

The name Cambodia comes from the founder of the first Khmer Dynasty from India, who was Kambhoja. From him Cambodia is usually called by its natives as either 'Kambuja' or 'Kampuchea'. Its national flag displays the world-famous [[List of UNESCO Hindu World Heritage Sites#Cambodia|Angkor Wat Temple]] within the country. Angkor Wat is the largest spiritual monument in the world. It was built by King Suryavarman II.

An inscription from Anghor Vat runs thus: "''The [[Brahman]] Agastya, born in the land of the Aryans, devoted to the [[worship]] of Siva, having come by his psychic powers to the land of the Cambodians for the purpose of worshipping the Siva-linga known as Bhadresvara, and having worshipped the god for a long time, attained to beatitude.''"

===Indonesia===
[[image:Chola Empire and its tributaries.jpg|right|thumb|200px|The Chola Empire and its tributary lands. Indonesia was once a part of the Greater Chola Empire or 'Choladesh'.]]
"''Indonesia's ancient Hindu legacy, through processes of Indianization, laid the groundwork for tolerant pluralism...The Majapahit Empire (14th century) exemplifies how Hindu dharma fostered unity across ethnic groups, influencing modern Pancasila."''<ref>"Hindu Roots of Indonesian Tolerance", ''Journal of Indonesian Islam'' (2009) By Hilman Latief</ref> - Professor Dr. Hilman Latief, Syarif Hidayatullah State Islamic University

Agus Aris Munandar (archaeologist and historian), I Made Titib (theologian and philosopher), Ida Bagus Putu Jandhy (philosopher and cultural scholar), and Ni Wayan Sukerti (linguist and Indologist) have also written about the historical influence of Hinduism/India on Indonesia.

The largest and most prestigious native Indonesian dynasties were Srivijaya, Mataram, Shailendra, and Majapahit. The Chola Dynasty of India was a great link between both India and Indonesia as the exchange of cultures occurred, leading to closer ties between Indonesians and Indians.

Indonesians believe that [[Agastya|Sage Agastya]] and [[Markandeya|Sage Markandeya]] brought Hinduism to Indonesia. Hence, this shows that sages particularly of the [[Gotra#Pravara gotras|pravara gotra]] lineages from [[Agastya]] and Markandeya had been the first preachers of Hinduism in the islands.

Many Indians had migrated to Indonesia, some of them being Gujaratis. It is said that King Aji Saka, who came to Java in Indonesia in year 1 of the Śaka calender, was believed to be a king of Gujarat by some.<ref name="ReferenceA">P. 67 ''An era of peace'' By Krishna Chandra Sagar</ref> It is also believed that the first Indian settlements in Java Island of Indonesia was established with the coming of Prince Dhruvavijaya of Gujarat with 5,000 traders.<ref name="ReferenceA"/> Some stories propose that a sage named Tritresta was the first to bring Gujarati migrants with him to Java, hence some scholars equate him with Aji Saka.<ref> P. 158 ''Foreign Influence on Ancient India'' By Krishna Chandra Sagar </ref>

===Laos===
"Hindu influencers via Dvaravati Mon traders established elite religious practices in central Laos by the 7th century, paving the way for Theravada...This syncretic layer remains in Lao festivals symbolizing our Indosphere heritage.''"<ref>"From Brahmanism to Buddhism in Lao History", ''Lao Heritage Journal'' (2019) By Khammy Phommaseng</ref> - Khammy Phommaseng

Bounleuam Chaleunsinh (ethnologist), Phothong Phoummachanh (historian & cultural scholar), Sisouk Vongvichit (cultural heritage expert), and Vongkot Thammavongsa (archaeologist) have also written about the historical influence of Hinduism/India on Laos.

===Malaysia===
"''Up to the 14th century, Hindu-Buddhist influences had a major impact on Malaysian culture...The massive cultural impact of India on Malay Peninsula prior to the 14th century was virtually overwhelming, shaping early kingdoms like Langkasura and Kadaram through trade and elite adoption.''"<ref>''Early History of Peninsular Malaysia (2002)'' By Dr. Nik Hassan Shuhaimi Nik Abdul Rahman</ref> - Dr. Nik Hassan Shuhaimi Nik Abdul Rahman, archaeologist and historian

Ahmad Murad Merican (literary historian), Mohd. Taib Osman (cultural anthropologist), Raja Zarina Raja Zain (social anthropologist), and Wan Suhana Wan Sulaiman (Indologist) have also written about the historical influence of Hinduism/India on Malaysia.

* [[Bujang Valley Civilization]]

===Thailand===
"''Thailand is the most crucial place for study of Sanskrit. We started to study Sanskrit long back. Hinduism and Buddhism existed in Thailand and have very strong influences''." - Professor Chirapat Prapandvidya, founder and director of Sanskrit Studies Centre at Silpakorn University in Bangkok, Thailand

Charuwan Chareonla (art historian), Kessara Srinaka (art historian), Piriya Krairiksh (art historian) and Prapod Assavavirulhakarn (Buddhist scholar) have also written about the historical influence of Hinduism/India on Thailand.

In Hindu scriptures, Burma is known as Shyamdesh. Hence the other name of the country is 'Siam'.

===Vietnam===
"''Hinduism, introduced via Indian traders to Funan around the 1st century CE, established the socio-political framework for early Khmer-Cham societies in southern Vietnam...Temples like Óc Eo reflect this, blending Indian [[Rulership in Hinduism|devaraja]] cults with local animism to form hybrid polities.''"<ref>Paper in ''Archaeology of Asia'' (2012) By Tran Ky Phuong </ref> - Tran Ky Phuong

Ngô Đức Thịnh (ethnologist & cultural historian), Phan Huy Lê (historian, former national education department president), Lương Ninh (cultural anthropologist), and Vũ Kim Thắng (epigraphist) have also written about the historical influence of Hinduism/India on Vietnam.

==Oceania==
"''Soon after the establishment of a great Hindu civilisation in Java, and in a lessor degree in the Philippines, about the time of the Christian Era, it is certain that many expeditions of adventurous Hindu-Malay sea-captains in large ocean-going Wangkang and Barangai, "junks" and "big galleys" must have launched out into the Pacific, both by the N.W. route by way of the Moluccas, Caroline Islands and Havaii, as well as by the S.W. route, followed in much more recent times by Abel Tasman.''" - F.W. Christian<ref> P, 77-79 ''The Journal of the Polynesian Society: Volumes 1-22'' By Polynesian Society (N.Z.) </ref>

F.W. Christian had written of similarities between Sanskrit and Polynesian languages, such as Maori and Samoan.<ref> P, 77 ''The Journal of the Polynesian Society: Volumes 1-22'' By Polynesian Society (N.Z.) </ref>
;Australia
Their closest blood links are with the groups in New Guinea, South India and Sri Lanka, representing their path of migration into Australia.<ref> P. 186 ''Native Peoples of the World: An Encylopedia of Groups, Cultures and Contemporary Issues'' By Steven L. Danver</ref>

One academic, Professor Alan Cooper, from the University of Adelaide’s Centre for Ancient DNA, says the Indian influence may well have played a role in the development of the Aboriginal culture – outlined in a paper titled ‘Genome-wide data substantiate Holocene gene flow from India to Australia’.

Professor Cooper says it is impossible to ignore the link with the discovery of the dingo…"''The timing of all those things in the archaeological record, about 4,000 to 5,000 years ago, happens to match the timing estimated for this genetic influx from India.''"

Professor Cooper also points to another development that happened around the time of the Australia-Indian connection – an expansion of one of the Aboriginal language groups. "''This other language seems to have taken over Australia relatively recently – perhaps 5,000 years ago,…And how it did it, how it replaced the other ancient languages, we don’t know…So suddenly, 4,000 to 5,000 years ago is starting to become a fairly tumultuous time in Australian history.''"

;New Zealand
[[image:Tamil Bell found near Whangarei, Northland Region.jpg|left|thumb|200px|Tamil bell found near Whangarei, Northland Region.]]
[[image:Sanskrit writing found near Hokianga Harbour.jpg|right|thumb|200px|Sanskrit writing (digitally highlighted) found near Hokianga Harbour, Northland Region.]]
The oldest Indian settlement in New Zealand comes from the [[Dānavas]] that sailed originally from Patala in Sind. These Indians became known locally in New Zealand as the Tuhoe.

About 150 years ago, a bell was discovered in New Zealand near Whangarei in the Northland Region with Tamil writings on it.<ref> [https://www.cmi.ac.in/gift/Epigraphy/epig_tambaramnewly.htm "Newly discovered Tamil inscriptions from the Tambaram area", ''Madras Christian College Magazine'', v. 42, 1973 Gift Siromoney] </ref> It is believed to have come from a Pallava Dynasty ship which was sailing in the area and had possibly landed on New Zealand. The bell had led Indologist, V. R. Ramachandra Dikshitar to investigate and claims in his book ''The Origin and Spread of the Tamils'' that ancient Tamil sea-farers might have had a knowledge of Australia and Polynesia. There has also been Sanskrit writing discovered on a boulder in Hokianga Harbor. This finding has led to the belief that Hindu monks had arrived in New Zealand before Europeans did.

It is even believed by some historians that among the ancestry of indigenous New Zealanders there is some Indian descent. Joan Leaf through oral tradition of genealogy (''whakapapa'') among the Maori and having consulted with the Maori Wharewananga, traced the lineage of her husband, who is Maori on both sides of his ancestry, back to India.<ref>''Hawaiiki to the Hokianga, 2000 BC''</ref> That the Tuhoe of New Zealand were Dānavas is further evidenced by their oral traditions which recants Dānavas having fought other Indians in the typical wars that Indian epics mention about them.

"''Maori tradition tells us that their ancestors in times long past away, 165 generations ago, they migrated from a hot country named India''." - Eldson Best<ref> "The cause of this exodus was a disastrous war with a dark skinned folk in which great numbers were slain."; ''Tuhoe: The Children of the Mist'' By Eldson Best </ref>

;Rest of Polynesia
[[image:From Indus to Easter Island.jpg|right|thumb|200px|The trajectory from Mohenjo-Daro ([[Indus Valley Civilization]]) to Giza (Egypt) then Machu Pichu (Peru), and to Easter Island is a perfect 30° incline.]]
[[image:IVC and rongorongo scripts.jpg|left|thumb|200px|The scripts of [[Indus Valley Civilization]] and Eastern Island. An image from ''The Indians And The Amerindians'' By Dr. S. Chakravarti.]]

Balaram Chakravarti writes, "The Lapita potteries which seem to be of [[Dānava]] origin seems to lend evidence to the stepping stone of Dānava migration from New-Britain to Fiji with an off-shoot in New-Caledonia."<ref> P. ii ''The Children of Abo Tani in India, Fiji, and Polynesia: An Account of the Migration of the Indian Dānavas and the Nāgas, and Their Contribution to the Efflorescence of Culture in Fiji and Polynesia, Volume 1'' By Balaram Chakravarti </ref>

Easter Island has stories among its natives of long-eared (''Hanau epe'') people having come there, led by Hotu Matu'a (''Great Parent'', a title given to their 'ariki' or ''king''.) The Hanau epe were said to have been from Hiva (''Far away land.'') The reason for their migration was a great flood. The Indus Valley Civilization was devastated and abandoned due to severe flooding. Together they had built the Moai monuments.

Elongated earlobes are a common feature in many depictions of devas, gandharvas, ṛṣis and others. Long and hanging earlobes are known as
''larhba-karṇa''. Even the ''Viṣṇu-koṣa''<ref> P. 311 ''Viṣṇu-koṣa'' By Śaligrama K Ramachandra Rao </ref> mentions it as a feature of Viṣṇu. Dr. B. A. Saletore had published in his book, ''The Wild Tribes in Indian History''<ref> P. 375 ''Indian Culture: Journal of the Indian Research Institute, Volume 2, Issues 1-2'' By I.B. Corporation </ref> about a tribe called the Labhakarṇas. It is not an unknown trait in Indian history and so it is likely that the Dānavas who arrived in Easter Island had elongated ears.

"''It has been suggested Easter Island ''rongorongo'' script arrived from Peru, South America and is related to the Indus River Valley dating back to 2000 BC which is likely since there were Indus River Valley migrations to Peru, South America, by 1500 BC or perhaps as early as 2000 BC. Many Harappan glyphs appear in both Peruvian and Easter Island scripts''." - Jeffrey L. Gross <ref> ''Waipio Valley: A Polynesian Journey from Eden to Eden'' By Jeffrey L. Gross </ref>

==Europe==
''See also: [[Hindu Temples in Europe]]''

At the time that the Indo-Iranians came into Europe, the natives of Europe were Palesgians in the Balkan Peninsula, Basques in Iberian Peninsula, Fins and Sami in Northern Europe and the Magyars to later become Hungarians, Estonians and Kami in Eastern Europe and several other non-Indo-European linguistic families within the Caucasus. With the influence on the Indo-Iranian comers, the Indo-European nations of Europe were born. Some identified groups that had come into Europe were [[Druyus]] (becoming the British Druids and German Druvis), Parthians (Thracians from Parthenope and some Irish from Partholonians) and Medians.

The reason why it was easy for the Indo-European languages to gain popularity among Europe's natives is because the native Europeans were nomads that relied on hunting and gathering, the Indo-Iranians were agarians that brought an agricultural revolution. [[Historical racial diversity of Hindus#Vedic period|DNA samples of the Yamnayas]] (mixed of Indo-Iranians and Europeans) show that they were not lactose intolerant whereas the European natives were. Thus, Indo-Iranians showed Europeans to be able to live sedentary lives opposite to foraging and constantly relocating.

The Sanskrit word ''[[Deva]]'' took on vernacular forms amongst European nations wherein it became ''Theo'' in Greek, ''Dio'' in Latin and Italian, ''Dios'' in Spanish, ''Deos'' in Portuguese, ''Déu'' in Catalan, ''Dieu'' in French, ''Dievs'' in Latvian, ''Dievas'' in Lithuanian, ''Duw'' in Welsh, and the words ''Deity'' and ''[[Divinity]]'' in English. Even the word 'devil' means ''slanderer'' ('il') ''of'' ''god'' ('dev') and its Latin version is 'deofel' wherein 'deo' means ''god'' and 'fel' means ''slanderer''. So ''[[Theology]]'' means the study of "''The study of Theo''" and ''Theism'' is "''The belief in Theo''". Further, the Sanskrit word '[[Asura]]' became ''Æsir'' for Scandinavia's worshipers of the Norse gods.

===Thrace===
[[image:Hekate and Gayatri.jpg|right|thumb|200px|Goddess Hekate's depictions look similar to those of a Hindu goddess.]]
The Thracians called their country 'Aria'<ref> P. 277 ''Encyclopedia britannica''; or, ''A dictionary of [[arts]], sciences, and miscellaneous literature'' by Colin Macfarquhar; George Gleig </ref> which means ''Noble''. It is a word which has much significance in Hinduism, including Buddhism and [[Jainism]]. In Hellenist mythology, Thrace was the offspring of Parthenope, the daughter of Olympian god Ares. The 'Parth' in the name Parthenope indicates Parthian and hence an Indo-Iranian origin. Goddess Hecate was portrayed as a multi-headed and multi-handed deity.

There were several tribes among Thracians. Originally there was one but as they expanded control of other territories in the Balkans, other nations became Thracianized. Hesychius notes that the Sindi tribe of Thracians was from India.<ref> P. 107 ''Asiatic Researches; Or, Transactions Of The Society, Instituted ..., Volume 10'' </ref> Sir W. Drummond was also of the same viewpoint. George Faber wrote that Thracians came from a frontier of India.<ref> P. 293 ''The Origin of Pagan Idolatry: Ascertained from Historical ..., Volume 2'' By George Stanley Faber </ref>

The Thracians inhabited this region even before the earliest Greeks<ref>They are Achaeans or Mycenaeans.</ref> made their way south to the present Greece.<ref> P. 37 ''Chronicles, Volume 21'' By Rockford Institute </ref> Thracians even preceded Greeks to important islands in the northern, central, eastern and eastern Aegean. This includes Thasos, Samothrace, Imbros, Lemnos, Euboea, Naxos, Lesbos and Chios.<ref> ''The Rise Of The Greeks'' By Michael Grant </ref>

The Sindi Colchi country, located in the Taman Peninsula, was known as Sindike and Sindikos, and its largest city was named Sinda. Greek writer Strabo referred to these Sindi as 'Sindoi'. Ancient Greek Pliny called it 'Scythia Sindica', Ptolemy as 'Indo-Scythia', and both Socrates and Stephanus as 'India'. Because the Thracians were also in the Aegean Sea, they were in Lemnos island. There was an ethnicity here named 'Sindians', whom Homer in his ''Iliad'' and ''Odyssey'' wrote, "spoke a strange language" and the Scholiast Thucydides wrote the Thracians are derived from India.<ref>''Iliad'' I.594; ''Odyssey'' VIII.294; P. 516 ''The History of India: As Told by Its Own Historians. The Muhammadan Period, Volume 1'' By Sir Henry Miers Elliot </ref>

"''We can firmly say that the Bulgarians had entered their present areas from Hindistan (India) in the most ancient times...and their migration took place much earlier than the division of the Aryan tribe in Hindistan.''" - Paisii Hilendarski<ref> vol. 4.369; P. 299 ''Myths and boundaries in southern-eastern Europe'' By Pal Kolsto</ref>

Francis Wilford claimed “that so early as B.C. 189, or before it, Hindus of both sexes were not uncommon in Greece: that they were settled in Colchis, and that the Sindi of Thrace came originally from India.”

===Greece===
[[image:Krishna_mosaic _Corinth.jpg|right|thumb|200px|Greek mosaic of Kṛṣṇa in his iconic cross-legged pose playing the flute by cows, from 2nd century CE, now found at Corinth, Greece.]]
[[image:Swastika_coin_Corinth.jpg|right|thumb|200px|Coin with Swastika issued at Corinth, Greece.]]
;Early Indo-Europeans in Greece
“''The whole of this state of society, civil and military, must strike anyone as eminently Asiatic; much of it specifically Indian. Such it undoubtedly is. . . these evidences were but the attendant tokens of an Indian colonization with its corresponding religion and language. . . the whole of Greece, from the era of the supposed godships of Poseidon and Zeus, down to the close of the Trojan war was Indian in language, sentiment and religion, as well as the arts of peace and war.''” - Edward G Pococke

The natives of Greece were Palesgians. From the academic influence of the Indo-Iranians in the region, the ancient Greek and Latin languages were established from which all the other Indo-European languages of Europe were created. This can be seen in the wars between the Olympian gods and the Titans. Scholar Ignatius Donnelly believes the conflict between the Olympians and Titans represented a war between the Olympians and Titans.<ref> P. 320 ''Atlantis: The Antediluvian World'' By Ignatius Donnelly </ref> Lewis Spence also mentions that the conflict between the Olympians and the Titans was of Aryans with non-Aryans with the Titans being projected as the latter.<ref> P. 59 ''The Magic [[Arts]] in Celtic Britain'' By Lewis Spence </ref>

;Philosophical contribution to Greece
"''We find that it (India) was visited for the purpose of acquiring knowledge by Pythagoras, Anaxarches, Pyrrho and others who afterwards became eminent philosophers in Greece.''" - Dr. William Enfield<Ref> P. 41 ''Bharātīya [[Vidyā]], Volume 51'' By [[Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan]]</ref>

Overtime, a link was established between Greece and India, wherein Greek scholars would visit India and learn from Hindu clergy. Count Bjornstjerna says that Greek philosophy was indebted almost wholly to the Hindu philosophy for its cardinal doctrines.<ref> P. 974 ''Indian Law Quarterly Review, Volume 5'' By Arora Law [[House]] </ref> From this cultural phenomena, Pythagorus founded Pythagorism, Orpheus founded Orphism and Plato founded Platoism. Orphism from 6th century BCE believed in reincarnation<Ref> P. xviii ''The Orphic Hymns'' By Apostolos N Athanassakis and Benjamin M Wolkow </ref>, a Supreme God.<Ref> P. xiv: 'The Orphic Hymns' By Apostolos N Athanassakis and Benjamin M Wolkow. </ref> Pythagorism from 5th century BCE believed in reincarnation<Ref> P. 2 ''Pythagoras and the Pythagoreans: A Brief History'' By Charles H. Kahn </ref>, a Supreme God<Ref> P. 97 ''Pythagoras and the Pythagoreans: A Brief History'' By Charles H. Kahn </ref>, promoted asceticism<Ref> P. 9 ''Pythagoras and the Pythagoreans: A Brief History'' By Charles H. Kahn </ref> and vegetarianism.<Ref> P. 9 ''Pythagoras and the Pythagoreans: A Brief History'' By Charles H. Kahn </ref> Platonism from 5th century BCE believed in reincarnation<ref> P. 377 ''The Middle Platonists, 80 B.C. to A.D. 220'' By John M. Dillon </ref> and a Supreme God.<ref> P. 199 ''The Middle Platonists, 80 B.C. to A.D. 220'' By John M. Dillon </ref> Although Orphism, Pythagorism, and Platoism spirituality are all Hindu, Western scholars note that non-Hindu spiritualties of Greek thought also demonstrate Hindu influence such as Stoicism<ref> ,'Experiencing World History'' By Paul Vauthier Adams, Erick Detlef Langer, Lily Hwa, Peter N. Stearns, Merry E. Wiesner-Hanks </ref> which advocated asceticism. These schools were in start opposition to the Cyrenaicism (Greek Hedonistic school), and was opposed to Stoicism in its metaphysics.

"''The Hindus were, in this respect, the teachers and not the learners.''" - Henry Colebrooke <ref> P. 974 ''Indian Law Quarterly Review, Volume 5'' By Arora Law [[House]] </ref>

When Greek scholars had spoken of philosophies of wisdom, they regarded amongst the highest as Orphism, Pythagoreanism and Platonism. Early Christian sects not only regarded Pythagorus as a prophet of God, but drew on Orphic, Pythagorean and Platonic, as well as Neo-Platonic Mystery schools.<ref> P. 77 ''Jesus: The Explosive Story of the 30 Lost Years and the Ancient Mystery'' By Tricia McCannon </ref> Plaethon not only stated that he preferred Indian Brahmans and Magi amongst the non-Greeks, but that "inspired men" like Pythagorus, Plato and other philosophers belonging to their school, notably Parmenides, Timaeus, Plutarch, Plotinus, Porphyry and Iamblichus were great people.<ref> P. 39 Hermes in the Academy: Ten Years' Study of Western Esotericism at the ... edited by Wouter J. Hanegraaff, Joyce Pijnenburg </ref>

The Grecianized version of 'Brahman' is ''Brachman'' and ''Bragmanni''. The ancient Greeks mention them in many instances when discussing spirituality, [[Hindu philosophies|philosophy]], [[astrology]], geopolitics and other steams of study. In about 270-303 CE, makes distinguishing statements among the gymnosophists wherein he describes differences amongst them.<ref> P. 133 ''The Bhilsa Topes; Or, Buddhist Monuments of Central India, Etc'' By Sir Alexander Cunningham </ref> Purchas had written that all the things observed by Nsturall Philosophers in Greece had been handled before, partly by the Brachmancs amongst the Indians.<ref> P. 2705 ''The Century Dictionary: An Encyclopedic Lexicon of the English Language, Volume 4'' edited by William Dwight Whitney, Benjamin Eli Smith </ref> A type of non combustible cloth made from stone was also said to have been used by the Brachmancs.<ref> P. 686 ''The Gentleman's Magazine and Historical Review, Volume 202'' By Sylvania Urban </ref> It later became used by some in Europe.

There were also Hindu monks that had visited Greece for the purpose of discussing philosophy. Zarmanochegas is the most known of these. In Greece, he had self-immolated himself to protest Alexander's invasion of India. His tomb in Greece reads, "Here lies Zarmanochegas an Indian, a native of Bargose, having immortalized himself according to the custom of his country."[http://www.ibiblio.org/britishraj/Jackson9/chapter01.html] Other Hindu sages that were in the company of Emperor Elagabalus also were written about.<ref> P. 6 ''Neoplatonic Saints: The Lives of Plotinus and Proclus by Their Students'' By Mark Edwards </ref>

;Worship of similar deities between Hindus and Hellenists
"''While Dionysus (Siva) is worshipped in the mountain, Heracles (Krsna) is worshipped on the plain, especially by the Surasenoi (Surasena), an Indian people who possess two towns, Methora (Mathura) and Kleisobora (Krsnapura)''" - Megastheses<ref> Arrian, Ind., VIII, 4; P. 393 ''History of Indian Buddhism: From the Origins to the Saka Era'' By Etienne Lamotte </ref>, Greek historian and ethnographer, 4th century BCE

The gods worshiped by Hellenists were similar to that of Hindus. Whereas Indra is called Vetethragna in the Avesta, and Vahagn by the Armenians, he's also known as Artagnes-Herakles in Commagene.<ref>P. 132 ''Opuscula Atheniensia, Volumes 2-3; Volumes 7-10; Volume 12; Volumes 14-15; Volume 17; Volume 27; Volume 37'' C.W.K. Gleerup., Nov 1, 1988 </ref> Many of the soldiers in Alexander of Macedonia's army readily became Hindu. "Close to 10,000 Greeks, who came in the wake of Alexander the Great, were Krishna's devotees. There is an inscription by Heliodorus, the Greek ambassador at Takshila , which reads Deva, deva, Vasudeva. Krishna is my god and I have installed this Garuda Pillar at Bes Nagar (now in Bihar)," says researcher T K V Rajan.[http://m.timesofindia.com/city/chennai/New-finds-take-archaeologists-closer-to-Krishna/articleshow/3898205.cms] Further, Hydaspes is written by Nonnus in his Dionysiaca as a son of the sea-god Thaumas and cloud-goddess Elektra. He was the brother of Iris the rainbow-goddess and half-brother of Harpies.[http://news.statetimes.in/the-journey-of-vitasta-river/]

;Other contribution of customs
"''Cremation was brought by barbarians from the East [India] to the Mediterranean basin about 2500–2000 BC, where previously the practice was unknown.''" - William Howels<ref> P. 43 ''Honoring God to the Very, Very, Very End!'' </ref>

[[Jyotiṣa|Astrology]] was also a science that Hindus spread with them in Greece. Philostratus tells how Iarbas the Brachman or Brahman gave Apolloneus of Tyans a set of rings for days of the week to maintain good health.<ref> Page 147 ''The Archaeological Journal - Volume 33'' By The Royal Anthropological Institute of Great Britain and Ireland </ref>

Apart from the Greeks having visited India for learning Hinduism and its ideals and customs, Indians had colonized Greece as the first Indo-Iranians in the country. They were the Danauna (also known as Aavaoi), who descend from King Danaus. This king has founded the city Argos, and from his descend figures like the Danai, who are Argives mentioned by Homer.<ref> P. 306 ''The Century Cyclopedia of Names: A Pronouncing and Etymological Dictionary of Names in Geography, Biography, Mythology, History, Ethnology, Art, Archaeology, Fiction, Etc., Etc., Etc'' By Benjamin Eli Smith </ref> They were also known as Achaians, who are mentioned separately from the people of Greece, the Hellenes, themselves because they were a foreign nationality.

===Austria, Germany & Netherlands===
"''The runes were brought to the Germans by the Brahmins of ancient India...The priestly caste of the Teutons was identical with the Brahmin caste''." - Guido von List<ref>P. 67 ''Das Geheimnis der Runen'' (1908) By Guido von List</ref>
Guido von List the Austrian wrote that the Germanic peoples were taught by Brahmans from India. He said the German priesthood descended from Indian Brahmans.<ref>"''The German priesthood descends from Indian Brahmins''." - ''Die Religion der Ario-Germanen'' (1910) By Guido von List</ref><ref>"''The Aryan Germans received their religion and social order from the Brahmins who migrated from India''."- P. 112 ''Die Religion der Ario'-Germanen'' By Guido von List </ref>

===France===
Fabre d'Olivet the Frenchman wrote that Gauls (Celtic peoples) were originally a colony of Brahmans from India.
"''The Gauls were a colony of Brahmins''." - Fabre d'Olivet<ref>''The Gauls were a colony of Indian Brahmins''''." - P. 45 ''La Langue Hebaique Restituee'' Vol. II (1815) By Fabre d'Olivet </ref>
François-Marie Arouet wrote the the Gauls and their Druids were taught by Indian Brahmans.
"''The Gauls had their Druids, who were Brahmins come from India''." - François-Marie Arouet<ref>Chapter 6 ''Philosophie de I'Histoire'' (1765) By François-Marie Arouet </ref>

===British Isles===
[[image:Brigid.jpg|right|thumb|200px|Goddess Brigid by artist Miranda Gray. The triple goddess’ depictions normally look similar to those of a Hindu goddess.]]
"''I fear we must class the descent of the Afghans from the Jews with that of the Romans, and the British from the Trojans, and that of the Irish from the Milesians or Brahmins.''" - Mountstuart Elphinstone<ref> [P. 278 "Asiatic Journal and Monthly Register for British and Foreign India, China and Australasia
Volume 28''] 1829 </ref>
Many Irish have written of an Indian influence on ancient Ireland including Mrs. Dorothy Chaplin and Madam Wilde.<ref>P. 33 ''Text Book of Indian Culture'' By Chaman Lal </ref> The Druids were the chief priests of the isles and their religion is known as Druidism. Godfrey Higgins wrote a book supporting that the Druids had come from India, titled ''The Celtic Druids, Or, An Attempt to Shew that the Druids Were the Priests of Oriental Colonies who Emigrated from India, and Were the Introducers of the First Or Cadmean System of Letters, and the Builders of Stonehenge, of Carnac, and of Other Cyclopean Works in Asia and Europe.'' They were a priestly hereditary group and are said to have been descended of the Brahman Druyus. The Druids had propitiated Danu because Druyu, their patriarch, was her great-great grandson as the son of [[Gagarin|King Yayati]] and [[Sarmishṭha|Queen Sarmishṭha]], who was a Danava (descendant of Danu.)

Being of Indian descent, Druids would have been Indo-European speakers and they likely would have been the first speakers of the language family in the British Isles. They had also worshiped the Thracian Hecate. One group of Indo-Iranians, according to Irish legends that emigrated were the Partholonians from Parthia.<ref> P. 7 ''The Book of Finglas'' By Seán Ó Broin; Other groups were Nemedians from Black Sea, Milesians are descendants of Milead (from his 3 sons Ir, Heremon, Heber, sent westward in search of Island of Destiny) from Iberia, Gailiuns, Liogarne and later arrivals to Moynalta were described as big, blond, fair-haired men of Teutonic origin, who came to Moynalta about the time of Alexander the Great. </ref> Druids were Partholonians because according to a legend, a person named Parthalon landed in Ireland three-hundred years after a mythic deluge and had brought with him three Druids named Fios, Folus and Fochmare.<ref>P. 229 ''Paradise Rediscovered: The Roots of Civilization, Volume 1'' By Michael A. Cahill </ref> They had come to Ireland from Midgonia.<ref>It is in Middle Greece.</ref>

"''The very name Druid is composed of two Celtic word roots which have parallels in Sanskrit. Indeed, the root vid for knowledge also emerges in the Sanskrit word Veda, demonstrates the similarity. The Celtic root dru which means 'immersion' also appears in the Sanskrit. So a Druid was the one 'immersed in knowledge.'''" - Peter Beresford-Ellis<ref> [http://druidry.org/druid-way/other-paths/druidry-dharma Druidism and the ancient Religions of India] </ref>

In history, the Druids were later pushed into Ireland and Scotland. "In Britain, the Kelts pushed the Albans into northern Ireland and northern Scotland.”<ref> P. 28 ''Footprints of the Welsh Indians and Sailors of the Past'' By William L. Traxel </ref> Druidism still survives today in the isles and revivalist efforts have been put forth by its followers.

"''The island [Britain] has long been pre-disposed of it's [[[Christianity]]] through the doctrines of the Druids and Buddhists who already inculcated the doctrine of the Godhead.''" - Christian cleric Origen, 3rd century CE

It is notable that there is a Druid named Arias, which even further strengthens the relationship between the Druids and Brahmans as Aria/Arya meant ''noble'' and was used in the ethical and spiritual sense even by the [[Buddha]] who referred to his creed as the [[Arya]] Astanga [[Dharma]] (''Noble Eight-fold Religion.'') Peter Berresford Ellis writes, "Moreover, we learn that in these four cities were 'four Druids who taught the Children of [[Danu]] skill and knowledge and perfect wisdom'. Morias dwelt in Falias; Urias 'of the noble nature' lived in Gorias; Arias the poet resided in Finias and Senias had his abode in Murias."<ref> P. 124 ''The Druids'' By Peter Berresford Ellis </ref>

The Druids were especially the priests of the Tuatha De Danann. D'Arbois translates ''Tuatha De Danann'' as "people of the god whose mother is called Danu."
Goddess Danu written of in Celtic spirituality is the same Danu from the [[Ṛgveda]]. The Danavas, upon leaving India, moved westwards to Iran (i.e., Parthia), then more westwards, which led them to arrive in Egypt. In Egypt, these Danavas are recorded in legend to have been banished from the country where in legend, King Ramses exiled his brother Danaus. From the exile, Danaus moved to Middle Greece and eventually to Ireland. George A. Christopoulos had also connected the Danaans and Danawois to the Danawos mentioned in the Avesta.

Englishmen Francis Wilford<ref>"''Britain was colonised by Brahmins from India...the Druids preserved Brahminical learning''." - ''On Egypt and Other Countries Adjacent to the Nile'' By Francis Wilford and Asiatic Researches (1798) </ref>, Thomas Maurice<ref>"'The Druids of Britain were Brahmins...the Celtic religion is nothing but a corrupted form of the Brahminical system brought from India''." - ''Indian Antiquities'' (Vol. VI) By Thomas Maurice (1793-1800)</ref>, and William Stukeley<ref>"''The Druids...were of the same patriarchal religion as Abraham and the Brahmins of India''." - ''Stonehenge'' (1740) and ''Abury'' (1743) By William Stukeley</ref> wrote of Brahmans in the Isles. Wilford said Brahmans colonized the isles and that Druids taught Vedic doctrines, Maurice that the Druids were Brahmans, and Stukeley that the Druids were Brahmans from the East.

Irishmen Charles Vallancey<ref>"''The Irish Druids were Brahmins...the ancient Irish are descendants of Hindoo colonists''." - ''Collectanea de Rebus Hibernicus'' (1770-1804) By Charles Vallancey</ref> and John Toland<ref>"''</ref> wrote of the Hindu connection too. Vallancey that the Irish Druids and their language were of Brahmans and Toland that the Irish Druids were Indian philosophers.

===Scandinavia===
[[image:Buddha, Helgö.jpg|right|thumb|200px|Statue of [[Buddha]] dated from 5th Century CE<Ref> [http://www.lionsroar.com/the-buddha-statue-found-in-an-ancient-viking-hoard/ How did a Buddha statue land in Viking hands? BY SAM LITTLEFAIR| MARCH 24, 2016] </ref> found on a Viking tombstone in Helgö, Sweden.]]

The Norse gods referred to god as 'Æsir'. The name of thunder-god Thor comes from 'Thortian' of the Zoroastrian ''Vendiad'' and the name derives it's form from the Vedic [[Trita]], who was known as Trita in the Avesta and then later as Traitana, then 'Thraetaona' and finally as 'Thortian' to the Zoroastrians. In Sweden's Helgö, a small Buddha statuette from North India dating from 6th century AD; was found in Viking's grave.<Ref> [http://irisharchaeology.ie/2013/12/the-helgo-treasure-a-viking-age-buddha/ "The Helgo Treasure: A Viking Age Buddha" by Colm]</ref>

===Eastern Europe===
The names of [[deities]] of Eastern Europe indicate a strong Hindu influence.
;Azerbaijan
Currently the Fire Temple of Baku is a site revered for its historic uniqueness which was established by Hindu priests from India in the 19th century. It was nominated by the Azerbaijani government for being recognized as a UNESCO Hindu Site. Currently there is an [[ISKCON]] temple in Baku[http://centers.iskcondesiretree.com/baku/], the country's capital city.

;Poland
Śivā is the name of a female deity in Poland, just as Śivā is the name of Kali Mātā of Hinduism, the wife of Śiva. Further, in Poland, "''Vogt in his lectures of Man assumes the Polish to be descended from Hindu sources..."<ref> P. 386 ''The Races of Europe: A Sociological Study (Lowell Institute Lectures)'''' By William Zebina Ripley </ref>

;Lithuania
{| class="wikitable sortable"
Table of gods worshiped in pre-Christian Lithuania:
|-
! Deity
! Vedic equivalent
! About god
|-
!Praamžius Dievas
|Prajapati
|The supreme or leader of the gods.
|-
! Dievas Senelis ("''Good Old Man''")
| Yama
|He is a teacher of people and judge of their morality. He looks like an old traveling beggar. Dievas Senelis is proficient at magic and medicine. Epithet of Dievas.
|-
!Perkūnas
|Prajanya
|Thunder, a son of Dievas ("dievaitis.")
|-
!Saulė
|Surya
|The Sun Goddess.
|-
!Ašvieniai
|Ashvins
|The divine twins who pulled the chariot of the Sun.
|-
|}

There is a Lithuanian folk song reminiscent of a Vedic tale.<Ref> P. 323 ''The Religion of the Ṛgveda'' By Hervey De Witt Griswold </reF>[https://gazetteers.maharashtra.gov.in/cultural.maharashtra.gov.in/english/gazetteer/Thana%20District/appendix.html]

;Russia
"''I also feel the great sympathy with modern Hinduism of [[Rama]] Krishna and Girikananda...''"<ref> P. 40 ''Christianity Today, Volume 11'' By Carl Ferdinand Howard Henry </ref> 
"''The mystico-religious elements in Indian culture didn't interest me much...The moral teachings of early Buddhism, the personality of the Buddha, the great ascetic life of Mahatma Gandhi, who blended ancient philosophies so harmoniously with modern conditions, fascinated me far more.''"<ref> ''Only One Year: A Memoir'' By Svetlana Alliluyeva </ref> - Svetlana Alliluyeva, ex-atheist daughter of Joseph Stalin

In Russia's Volga region during excavation, a 7th century AD Varāha statue was found in Staraya Maina village within the Ulyanovsk region.<Ref> [http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/world/rest-of-world/Ancient-Viṣṇu-idol-found-in-Russian-town/articleshow/1046928.cms "Ancient Viṣṇu idol found in Russian town"] </ref> This ancient area was highly populated city 1,700 years ago. Ulyanovsk State University's archaeology department Dr. Alexander Kozhevin's team had made the discovery after having excavated the area. A famous Russian historian had written that thousands of years before the 'Kiev-Rus' culture, from which Russian nation originated, there was a 'Vedic-Rus' which was characterized by an international Vedic culture.<ref> ''India’s Emerging Partnerships in Eurasia: Strategies of New Regionalism'' By Dr. Nivedita Das Kundu </ref> During the 14th century CE Indian gold coins were found in the Volga region near the village of Tenishevo indicating a flourishing trade between India and Russia.

==Americas==
Before reaching [[Editing The Spread of Hinduism#Oceania|Polynesia]], the Davanas passed through South America. Surprisingly, it seems they may have left a mark on the indigenous there because, like in Easter Island, the native language Aymara resembles an Indian language. In this case it is Sanskrit, which is bares similarities to the Aymara tongue spoken in Bolivian Andes mountain. Writers, such as the 19th century Vicente de Ballivián y Roxas, 20th century F.W. Christian<ref> P, 77 ''The Journal of the Polynesian Society
Volumes 1-22'' By Polynesian Society (N.Z.) </ref>, and 21st century ‎Geoffrey V. Davis, as well as others have written about this.

;USA
“''I didn't have a dorm room, so I slept on the floor in friends' rooms. I returned coke bottles for the 5¢ deposits to buy food with. And I would walk the 7 miles across town every Sunday night to get one good meal a week at the Hare Krishna temple. I loved it.''” - Steve Jobs, Stanford University conference in 2005<ref> [https://iskconnews.org/steve-jobs-and-the-krishna-connection,2907/ ''Steve Jobs and the Krishna Connection'' By Venkata Bhatta dasa (Vineet Chander) for ISKCON News on Oct. 7, 2011] </ref>

The USA has been the base for establishing several [[Hindu-oriented organizations]], such as ISKCON.

American-born converts to Sanatan Dharm promoted it by establishing their own institutions like specific monastic orders or sectarian temples. Ranked in order of most influential are James Donald Walters, Richard Slavin, Richard Alpert, David Frawley, Anthony Paul Moo-Young, Robert Hansen, Lawrence Miles, John Edwin Favors, Stephen Cope, Andrew Cohen, Leopold Fischer, Georg Feuerstein, Merle Roberson, and Christopher Isherwood.

{| class="wikitable sortable"
|-
! Person
! Sectarian or Darshan Affiliation
! Organizational Affiliation
! Discipleship
! Establishment
! Other Achievement(s)
! Prominent Compilation(s)
|-
|Andrew Cohen
|Neo-Advaita Vedanta
|
|No
|EnlightenNext[https://enlightennext.org/] (Moksha Foundation)
|
|''EnlightenNext'' magazine (formerly ''What Is Enlightenment?'')
|-
|Anthony Paul Moo-Young (Mooji)
|
|
|Yes (of Sri H.W.L. Poonja)
|Monte Sahaja[https://mooji.org/monte-sahaja
|
|
|-
|Chris Butler ('Jagad Guru Siddhaswarupananda Paramahamsa')
|Vaishnavism (Gaudiya)
|ISKCON
|Yes (of Srila Prabhupada)
|Science of Identity Foundation[https://www.scienceofidentityfoundation.org/discover?language=en]
|
|
|-
|Christopher Isherwood
|
|
|
|Vedanta Society of Southern California[https://vedanta.org/]
|Translated ''⁠Bhagavad Gita'' and ''Vedanta for the Modern World''
|''My Guru and His Disciple'' (1980)
|-
|David Frawley ('Pandit Vamadeva Shastri')
|
|
|No
|American Institute of Vedic Studies[https://www.vedanet.com/]
|
|
|-
|Georg Feuerstein
|
|
|No
|
|
|''The Yoga Tradition'' (1998), ''Tantra: The Path of Ecstasy''[https://in.yoga/wp-content/uploads/2021/09/Feuerstein-G.-Tantra.-Path-of-Ecstasy.pdf (1998, 2001), ''The Philosophy of Classical Yoga'', ''The Deeper Dimension of Yoga'', ''The Shambhala Encyclopedia of Yoga'', ''In Search of the Cradle of Civilization'' 
|-
|James Donald Walters ('Swami Kriyananda')
|Neo-Vedanta
|
|
|Ananda Sangha[https://www.ananda.org/][https://anandamonastery.org/ananda-sangha/]
|Spread Kriya Yoga
|
|-
|John Edwin Favors ('Bhakti Tirtha Swami')
|Vaishnavism (Gaudiya)
|ISKCON
|
|iFast[https://ifastglobal.com/]
|
|
|-
|Leopold Fischer (Swami Agehananda Bharati)
|
|Dasnami Sampraday
|Yes
|
|
|''The Orche Robe'' (1962), ''The Titanic Tradition'' (1965), ''The Light at the Centre'' (1976)
|-
|Lawrence Miles ('Swami Shyam')
|Shaivism (Nath)
|Dasnami Sampraday
|Yes
|International Nath Order[https://www.internationalnathorder.org/], Shyam Mission
|
|
|-
|Merle Antoinette Roberson ('Gangaji')
|
|
|
|Gangaji Foundation[https://gangaji.org/
|
|''The Diamond in Your Pocket'', ''Hidden Treasure'', ''Freedom and Resolve''
|-
|Richard Alpert ('Ram Dass')
|Vedanta
|
|
|Hanuman Foundation[https://hanumanfoundation.org/
|
|
|-
|Paul Muller-Ortega
|Shaivism (Kashmir)
|
|
|Blue Throat Yoga[https://www.bluethroatyoga.com/]
|
|
|-
|Richard Slavin ('Radhanath Swami')
|Vaishnavism
|ISKCON
|
|Govardhan Eco Village[https://www.ecovillage.org.in/]
|Established multiple educational and bhakti institutions
|
|-
|Robert Hansen ('Satguru Sivaya Subramuniyaswami')
|Shaivism (Siddhanta)
|
|Yes
|Saiva Siddhanta Church[https://www.himalayanacademy.com/saiva-siddhanta-church/], Himalayan Academy[https://www.himalayanacademy.com/]
|
|''Hinduism Today''[https://www.hinduismtoday.com/] magazine
|-
|Stephen Cope
|
|
|Kripalu Centre for Yoga and Health[https://kripalu.org/]
|Integrated Vedanta/yoga ethics into Western therapeutic spirituality
|
|
|-
|Stephen Guarino ('Satsvarupa Dasa Goswami')
|Vaishnavism (Gaudiya)
|ISKCON
|Yes
|
|
|''Śrīla Prabhupāda-līlāmṛta''[https://vedabase.io/en/library/spl/] (1978-83)
|-
|}

;Guyanas
Guyana, former British Guyana and Suriname, former Dutch Guyana, were the countries of many Hindu immigrants. Both have had Hindu leaders as heads of the government.

==Africa==
Technically [[The spread of Hinduism#Egypt|Egypt]] was the first part of Africa in which the Hinduism spread.

;South Africa
[[image:First Hindus Temple in South Africa.jpg|right|thumb|200px|The first Hindu Temple in South Africa was a very simple design. It was built in 1869 and is now a Protected Site by South African government.]] The first Hindu temple in South Africa was constructed in 1869.

;Ghana
[[image:Hindus in Ghana.jpg|right|thumb|200px|Hindus celebrating [[Ganesha Chaturthi]] in Ghana.<Ref> [http://drishtikone.com/hinduism-growing-in-africa-without-proselytizing/ ''Hinduism growing in Africa without Proselytizing'' by Desh Kapoor] </ref>]]
[[image:Hare Krishnas in Ghana.jpg|right|thumb|200px|Hare Krishnas chanting in Ghana.<Ref> [http://drishtikone.com/hinduism-growing-in-africa-without-proselytizing/ ''Hinduism growing in Africa without Proselytizing'' by Desh Kapoor] </ref>]]

==See also==
*[[List of UNESCO Hindu World Heritage Sites|UNESCO Hindu World Heritage Sites]]
*[[Hindu Temples in Europe]]
*[[Temples]]
*[[Pilgrimages]]
*[[Zoroastrianism and Hinduism]]
*[[Historical racial diversity of Hindus]]
*[[Indus Valley Civilization]]
*[[Hindu response to conversions]]
*[[Hindu-inspired organizations]]
*[[The Hindu Renaissances]]
*[[Buddhist patronage by Hindu kings]]
*[[Sufism with Vaishnavism]]
*[[History of ancient geography]]

==External resources==
*[http://hinduwisdom.info/Pacific.htm Pacific Waves]
*[http://hinduwisdom.info/Seafaring_in_Ancient_India.htm Seafarers]
*[https://www.myindiamyglory.com/2018/06/28/western-alphabet-modelled-after-an-indian-alphabet-3400-plus-years-ago-indologist-wim-borsboom/ “Western Alphabet Modelled after an Indian Alphabet 3400 Plus Years Ago – Indologist Wim Borsboom”]
*[https://www.thesun.co.uk/news/1411522/sorry-nazis-the-swastika-is-11000-years-old-and-indian/ "GET YOUR FACTS REICH Sorry Nazis, the swastika is 11,000 years old and INDIAN" By Jasper Hamill, 8th July 2016, 11:14 am]

==References==
{{reflist}}

[[Category: The spread of Hinduism]]
[[Category: Geography]]
[[Category: Hindu history]]

The Spread of Hinduism

2026-06-08T07:27:05Z

Himanshu Bhatt: /* Americas */

{{Author|Himanshu Bhatt}}
[[image:Submerged Indian coast.jpg|right|thumb|200px|Indian shoreline before submersion from sea levels increasing, which began after end of last ice age in 10000 BCE, devastating the [[Indus Valley Civilization]] and leading to an exodus.]]
[[image:Out of Eurasia diffusion.jpg|right|thumb|200px|Out of Eurasia theory of human dispersion contradicts the mainstream viewpoint known as Out of Africa and has gained ground among geneticists, and further supports Out of India theory and [[History of ancient geography|Hindu myths]] of the sons of Emperor Priyavrata inheriting the eastern world island from their father.]]
[[image:Human migration patterns.jpg|right|thumb|200px|M130 is believed to have originated in India, as well as others, such as M20 and M45.]]
[[image:IVC trade.jpg|right|thumb|200px|Trade of the IVC.]]
<blockquote>
“Hinduism the perennial philosophy that is at the core of all religions.” - Aldous Huxley
</blockquote>
[[Hindu]] teachings were spread not just by Indian Hindus migrating and preaching outside of the Indian Subcontinent, but also by visitors to India who came for understanding [[Hinduism|Hindu spirituality]]. This latter section includes Greek philosophers such as Pythagoras, Orpheus and Plato, who had all returned to Greece and preached the concepts of [[karma]], [[bhakti]], [[gyāna]], reincarnation and [[Mokṣa]]. Iranian philosophers such as Mani also visited India and later preached similar messages as the Greeks who had become Hindu.

Hindu scholars noted for their wisdom had further promoted the religion through becoming advisers to monarchs outside of India. [[Kingdoms]] Kucha<ref>It means Kumarayāna.</ref> and Tukhara<ref>It means Dhitika.</ref> in Central Asia, Mongolia<ref>It means Śakya Pandita.</ref>, Naiman<ref>It means Tatatungya.</ref> in Western Mongolia, Tibet<ref>It means Padmasambhava.</ref> and mainland China<ref> It means [[Bodhidharma]]. </ref>, all chose Indian [[Rulers in Hinduism|Hindu advisers]] who promoted [[Hinduism]] throughout their kingdoms. Soon an era came in which Greek philosophers describe that 'Greater India' came into being with cultural similarities between many regions outside India. Central Asia was known as Serindia, while from Burma to the Strait of Malacca became Indochina and the islands of the Strait of Malacca became Indonesia.

Around 4000-3000 BCE, is when exploration in the Indian Ocean had began, and the international regions to communicate with one another were India, Gulf (i.e., Mesopotamia), and Oman.<ref> P. 15 ''Indian Ocean In Antiquity'' By Julian Reade </ref> The curiosity of places outside of India and knowledge of trading routes had led to the Indian diaspora both from sea and land. Following this the [[Historical racial diversity of Hindus#Integration of Indian Hindu migrants with Europeans|Yamnaya culture of Europe]] that prospered from 3500-2500 BCE, which consisted of mixed peoples from both Indo-Iranian and native European ancestry was established around 3500-3200 BCE. Hindu scholars, including scientists and missionaries, remained explorers and documented the [[History of ancient geography|various geographies of global places]] wherein they traveled.

Of the Indian Hindus in the ancient times that established colonies abroad, noteworthy are the [[Danavas]] of Sind province that, with their navigation expertise, had settled in various places where they had come to be been known as Danuna, Danunites, Danaoi, Danaus, Danaids, Dene, Danai, Danaian, and Dananns. Historians have noted tribes with the demonym 'Sindi' among the Thracians, Colchis, and both ancient and modern Kurds.

With the spread of British colonialism in the modern era, many Indians started regularly traveling and emigrating to other British colonies outside of India. Many others also traveled to other colonies, such as of France and Netherlands. Resulting from this diffusion and establishment of communities abroad, Indian Hindus have gone on to democratically achieve becoming leaders of countries such as Guyana, Suriname, Fiji and Mauritius. From colonialism, Europeans also received the opportunities to travel to India and then [[Hindu-inspired organizations|share spiritual ideas]] with Western nations. As such, the establishment of the [[Theosophical Society]] by Helena Blavatsky and [[Agni]] [[Yoga]] by Nicholas Roerich. The modern age has given a boost to Hinduism through [[Hindu-inspired organizations|organizations]] such as the [[Hare Krishna]]s, [[Ananda Margi]]s, [[Brahma Kumari]]s and others. [[Yoga]] has spread now and is practiced by many non-Hindus for improving and maintaining both physical and mental health.

<blockquote>
“South Asia, which is where Bos Indicus (zebu cattle) originated, was not isolated during this period. People seem to have migrated from the Indus Valley civilization into Central Asia around the same time as the climatic effect that happened around 4,200 years ago. This may have introduced zebu cattle ancestry into Near Eastern cattle populations.” - Iosif Lazaridis, Harvard Medical School geneticist<ref> [https://www.natureasia.com/en/nmiddleeast/article/10.1038/nmiddleeast.2019.100 "Ancient cattle DNA reveals a bullish tale"] By Lara Reid, Published online 12 July 2019 </ref>
</blockquote>

The influence of Hindus and Moksh-based religions to the history of the world is definitely undeniable. Mahatma Gandhi changed the world forever and his message of peaceful non-cooperation to obtain freedom and justice was implemented by other freedom fighters in former colonies, and by notable figures towards national reform as in the cases of Martin Luther King Junior and Aung San Suu Kyi. Time Magazine ranked him as number 54 on the list the most significant figures in all of history[https://ideas.time.com/2013/12/10/whos-biggest-the-100-most-significant-figures-in-history/], on the list of the important 20th century persons while WondersList[https://www.wonderslist.com/10-most-influential-people-of-the-20th-century/#:~:text=1%20Albert%20Einstein.%20Most%20Influential%20People%20of%2020th,9%20Princess%20Diana.%20...%2010%20Alexander%20Fleming.%20] as number 5 for that list, Time as number 9 for one of history’s most important leaders[http://content.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,988159,00.html], BBC as one of the most important philosophers, and other sources like Historyplex[https://historyplex.com/influential-people-in-history] as one of the most important persons overall in all of history.

==Middle East==
[[image:Ancient_Ariana_lands.jpg|right|thumb|200px|Ancient Greek historian Aelianus in ''De natura animalium'' (16.16), also mentions that there were "Indian Arianians" and there is some suggestion that control of Ariana fluctuated between Indian and Arian Arianians.]]
"''Slowly and gradually, it dawned upon them that the language of the ''Gatha'' and Zendavesta has very great kinship with the [[Sanskrta]] language; when the grammar of Panini, Katyayana, and Patanjali was applied then the Gatha and Zendavesta came to be understood by the westerners. The lesson from this amazing fact is clear that once the Iranians of the ''Gatha and Zendavesta'' and the Indo-Aryans of the [[Vedas]] formed one single race, speaking language akin to Samskrta. Indeed this is clear from the city tablets found in Tell-El-Amarna in Egypt and Boghaz Keui in Asia Minor. On the tablets are mentioned Indra, Varuna, Mitra and Nasatya as witnesses of the treaty between the King Subiluliuma of the Hittites, and the Mitanni King Mattiwaza. These tablets date to about 1600 B.C. These tablets clearly indicate that these Vedic gods who were quite familiar in the region about 1600 B.C. and that the people living there then had more or less a common religion''." - Yaqub Masih<ref> P. 21-22 ''A Comparative Study of Religions'' By Y. Masih </ref>

The process of Hinduism spreading in the Middle East is whereby Hindus left India and had traveled to regions within the ancient Neat East and had preached the doctrine and customs. Hindus of Mitanni were Hurrians while those of Anatolia were Hittites, those of Levant the Hurus and those of Egypt, the Hyksos.

{{Cquote|Ketumalavarsha indeed extends from Romakapura to [the] Gandhamadana [mountain].|4=Srimad Bhagavatam}}

===Iranian Plateau===
''See also: [[Zoroastrianism and Hinduism]]''
[[image:Vishnu statue Mashad.jpg|right|thumb|200px|Statue of Vishnu sitting cross-legged while holding conch and lotus (underneath peacock) at mosque in Mashad, Khorasan, Iran.]]
[[image:Agathocles Indo-Bactrian coin.jpg|right|thumb|200px|One of Greco-Bactrian Empire's coins from King Agathocles Dikaios issued around 190-180 BCE, featuring Balarama (left) and Krishna (right) holding [[Dharmachakra]].<Ref> P. 330 ''The Serpent The Eagle The Lion & The Disk'' By Brannon Parke </ref>]]
[[image:Kadphises Kushan coin.jpg|right|thumb|200px|Four of Kushan Empire's coins from King Vima Katphisa issued around 166-230 CE, featuring Shiva with his bull attendant. They read, "[Coin] of the great King Vima Kathphisa, the king of kings, lord of all the world, the Mahavesvara."<ref> P. 370'' Studies in Indian Coins'' By D.C. Sircar </ref>]]
[[image:Lakshmi displayed on coin.jpg|right|thumb|200px|Hunnic Empire's coin of Bactria in Brahmi from 400-500 CE displaying Lakshmi holding a lotus in one hand and a cornucopia in the other.]]
[[image:Hindu Temple Bandar Abbas.jpg|right|thumb|200px|Vaiśnava temple in Bandar Abbas, southern Iran. The temple was built in 1892 particularly for the recent Indian immigrants, many of whom were merchants and soldiers. In 1965 the temple was vacant as Indians emigrated. Whereas temples are usually made by stone, dew the climate of Bandar Abbas, rubble stones, mortar, coral rock, soil material and plaster was used in this temple’s construction.]]

;Movement of Indians into Iran
<blockquote>
"Slowly and gradually, it dawned upon them that the language of the ''Gatha'' and Zendavesta has very great kinship with the Sanskrta language; when the grammar of Panini, Katyayana, and Patanjali was applied then the Gatha and Zendavesta came to be understood by the westerners. The lesson from this amazing fact is clear that once the Iranians of the ''Gatha'' and ''Zendavesta'' and the Indo-Aryans of the Vedas formed one single race, speaking language akin to Samskrta." - Yaqub Masih<ref> P. 21-22 ''A Comparative Study of Religions'' By Y. Masih </ref>
</blockquote>

Ancient Iranian lands had a diversity of spiritual beliefs and the religions included Zoroastrianism, Manicheism, Yazdanism, Mandeanism and others. As the original Indo-Iranian homeland was eastwards in the [[Himalayas]], the nations of those areas spread westwards and found existing non-Indo-European peoples there such as Kasodians in Gilan, Taporians in Mazandaran, Urartians in the Caucus Mountain Range, Turukkus, Kassites and Lolobites in the Zagros Mountain Range and Elamites on the southern shoreline. The Turkic groups were known collectively to the natives as the 'Turani'<ref>They were called '[[Turiya]]' in the Avesta.</ref> and they were [[Danava#Turkic affiliation|associated with Dānu]], just as the Tarukṣas coming into India were too. The non-Indo-Iranians (or non-Aryans) were known to the Aryans as 'Anariakoi' (''non-Aryan people''), and this was the term documented by Greek writers for Hyrcanians<ref> P. 25 ''An Inquiry Into the Ethnography of Afghanistan: Prepared and Presented to ...'' By Henry Walter Bellew </ref> and others. Overtime, the Indo-Iranian cultural significance in the societies of the plateau led to the formation of Indo-Iranian nations that were native to the region (i.e., [[The spread of Hinduism#Mitanni|Hurrians]], Baluchis, Armenians.) A Turani monarch had however opposed the Indo-Iranian influence on the plateau and invaded Balkh.<ref>It is in northern Afghanistan.</ref> After its conquest both its king and the king's close friend Zarathustra were executed by invading Turanis.<ref> P. 62 ''Mute [[Dreams]], Blind Owls, and Dispersed Knowledges: Persian Poesis in the Transnational Circuitry'' By Michael M. J. Fischer </ref>

Sir William Jones notes:
<blockquote>Thus it has been proved by clear evidence and plain reasoning that a powerful monarch was established in Iran long before the Assyrian or Pishadi government. That it was in fact, a '''Hindu monarchy''', though any may choose to call it Cusian, Casdean or Scythian..."<ref> P. 133 ''The works of Sir William Jones: with the life of the author by Lord Teignmouth in Thirteen Volumes Volume 3'' By Sir William Jones </ref> </blockquote>

;Closeness between religions of Iran to Hinduism
Zoroastrianism, which is also known as ''Mazdayasna'' (''Sacrifice to [[Asura|Ahura Mazda]]'') and as ''Vehdin'' (''Good Religion''), resembles Hinduism in many ways, such as in its origin, beliefs (i.e., common [[deities]]) and iconography. Dr. Mills says, "The Avesta is nearer the [[Veda]] than the [[Veda]] to its own epic [[Sanskrit]]." Major gods or yazatas<ref>Yazatas means ''venerable ones''.</ref> included Varuṇa and [[Mitra]]. Zarathustra (Greek: Zoroaster) Spitama was an Athravan priest, a descendant of the Vedic Atharvans. The swastika has been a popular symbol throughout the history of Iran and it has been called by Persians, "The four horses of [[Mitra]]."

Among the followers of Zoroastrianism, while the scriptures do not mention the idea of [[re-incarnation]], it is not denied either<ref> ''Textual Sources for the Study of Zoroastrianism'' edited by Mary Boyce </ref> and some Zoroastrians of India<ref>It is particularly members of the Parsi Theosophy.</ref> believe in reincarnation.<ref> P. 264 The Parsis of India: Preservation of Identity in Bombay City By Jesse S. Palsetia </ref> Some esoteric Parsi mystics such as Beaman adhered to the belief in reincarnation.<ref> P. 178 Parsis in India and the Diaspora edited by John Hinnells, Alan Williams </ref> The belief in karma and re-incarnation are perpetuated in the ''Desatir'', wherein it declares that those who are happy now have done good deeds in a previous life while those who suffer now have done bad deeds in former life.<ref>P. 522 ''The British Critic: A New Review, Volume 20'' </ref> It is therefore discredited as a Mazdaean work.

Of Mandeans, Chevalier Emerys writes, "Modern Johannite Mandean Christians of Iraq, also known as Nazoreans, still believe in the doctrine of reincarnation and also teach that Jesus was the reincarnation of the prophet Melchizedek."<ref>P. 49 Revelation of the Holy Grail By Chevalier Emerys </ref> The Mandeans also believe in reincarnation of the human, if a human does not marry within his or her lifetime.<ref>P. 41 ''Gnostic Ethics and Mandaean [[Origins]]'' By Edwin M. Yamauchi </ref> Islamic Druzism believes in reincarnation, and is named after Persian Batinite missionary named Muhammad bin Ismail Nashtakin ad-Darazi. Muslim Shah Ismail the Persian Sultan was one of the founders of Alevism or the "People of Fire" and this Islamic sect believes in reincarnation. The Islamic sects of Shabak, Bajalan, Sarli, and Kakais are also very closely affiliated with Iranians and has a belief in re-incarnation.

After the Islamization of the Iranian Plateau, some intellectuals resisted and established their own new religions, which contained some hindu ideas and some other themes that they were familiar with. This includes, Yarsanism (Ahl-e Haqq) established in the 14th century by Sultan Sahak as a Yazdan sect and Baha'ism by Bahá'u'lláh in the 19th century. Whereas both traditional Hinduism and [[Buddhism]] were popular in the eastern part of the Iranian Plateau, Mithraism became popular within Zoroastrianism particularly in the western part. From here the popularity of the god Mitra spread to Assyria, Anatola and Europe. The Avesta declares, "This Mitra, the lord of the wide pastures, I have created as worthy of sacrifice, as I, Ahura Mazda, am myself."<ref>P. 1xi ''The Zend-Avesta: The Sîrôzahs, Yasts, and Nyâyis'' edited by James Darmesteter, Lawrence Heyworth Mills </ref> Philosopher Mani of Persia had spent time in India, and after having accepted the ideas of re-incarnation and [[Means to Salvation|the three paths to Mokṣa]], he began preaching of them in Iran. His set of beliefs are called Manicheism.

;Association of regions within Iranian Plateau to India
The Zoroastrian Vendidad reads, "The country of Hind extends from east of the Indus to west of it." This, India in the Vendidad's definition includes Baluchistan and Seistan.

Ancient Persians called the regions stretching from Hormuz to Baluchistan as 'Hind'<ref>It is the original name of India.</ref> because those areas had more in common with India than with the other Iranian cultures located west to them. King Dhrishataketu of Kaikeya Kingdom married Śrutakirtti and had by her Santarddana, and four other sons, known together as the five Kaikeyas. The Kaikeyas were a major dynasty in India and it was on both sides of the Indus River. The Anava Kingdom of Uśinara Sibi, extended from Baluchistan to the Punjab. Even modern times Sibi is a district within Baluchistan.

Further, the Helmand region of Afghanistan was called by Persians as 'White India'. Siestan was also referred by Greek philosophers to as White India. Referring to the peoples of this region, Alexander called them, "the Indians on this side of the [[Indus River|river Indus]]."<ref>P. 128 ''Handbuch der Orientalistik. Abt. 1, Der Nahe und der Mittlere Osten, Bd 8, Religion, Abschnitt 1, Religionsgeschichte des Alten Orients, Lief. 2. H. 2, A history of Zoroastrianism, Vol. 3, Zoroastrianism under Macedonian and Roman rule'' By Mary Boyce; Frantz Grenet</ref>

Overtime, the natives of this region stayed and many became Buddhist in modern-day Afghanistan and the Afghans turned Kandahar into a Buddhist pilgrimage center which was visited by devout Buddhists from China and Indonesia. While Takśaśila was a city in east of the Indian river on the Iranian side, there were other important centres. The two great Indian grammarians [[Panini]] and [[Patanjali]] have mentioned a number of north-western cities like Balkh or Vahika, Kapisa, Pushkalavati, Masakavati, Takśaśila and Sakala. Takśaśila was the greatest and most flourishing city.<ref> P. viii ''A History of Indian Civilization: Ancient and classical traditions'' By Radhakamal Mukerjee, Gurmukh Ram Madan, Viśvaprakāśa Gupta</ref>

;Modern Relations between the Plateau and Hinduism
Hare [[Krishna]]'s founder [[A.C. Bhaktivedanta Swami Prabhupada]] traveled to Tehran in 1976. Since 1977, [[ISKCON]] runs a vegetarian restaurant in Tehran.

===Assyria===
Assyria was known as Asuristan.<Ref> P. 10 ''The [[Sound]] System of Modern Assyrian (Neo-Aramaic)'' By Edward Y. Odisho </ref> The name of Assyria comes from Rigvedic 'Asurya', the original name of the sun-god [[Surya]]. Syrians still to this day, pronounce the name of Syria as '[[Surya]]'. Hence, Assyria's name would have been pronounced as 'Asurya'.

In the 6th century CE, the Lower Euphrates was known as 'India within land' or just 'Hind' (India) in general.<ref> P. 421 ''Gazetteer of the Bombay Presidency: Tha'na (2 pts.) Volume XIII, Part II'' By Government Central Press </ref> Oderic in 1320 CE also speaks of the Lower Euphrates as 'India within land'. Much like how the [[Indus Valley Civilization|Indus River Civilization]] had priest-kings as ruler of certain towns and cities, Assyria too had a priest-prince ruler. Hence, from the Indian Hindu influence, [[Parshurama]] is also believed to have been worshiped in the region. In the ancient Sumerian [[Social Structure|social structure]] as well, there was a leader of the Baramas (i.e., [[Brahmana]]s) named Bur-Sin and the belief by some scholars is that he is Parshurama.

The patriarchal god of the Assyrians was Assur, who is always portrayed on a winged chakkra-sun or sundisk, just as the frahavars<ref>Frahavars means angels.</ref> of Iranian spirituality are shown. The Assyrians, referred to a [[dharmachakra|chakkra]] as a wheel. The cultural and political capital of the Assyrians was Assur, named after the god. Assur was also known as ''Asara Mazas''<ref>For them some scholars believe that they origin from the proto-Indo-Iranian form ''[[Asura]] Mazdas''.</ref><ref> ''History of Civilizations of Central Asia: The development of sedentary and nomadic civilizations: 700 B.C. to A.D. 250'' By Ahmad Hasan Dani </ref> Furthermore, god Enki was also known as Masda and Masenda. God Assur had later been identified within Judeo-Christian Biblical mythology as Ashur, the son of Shem.

It is believed that Europe had borrowed the planetary names for the week's days that the Babylonians used. Babylon was a part of the Assyrian Empire. When Hindus had spread to Assyria, they had brought this system of the week with them.

{| cellspacing="1" style="width:100%;" class="wikitable sortable"
|-
| || Sunday || Monday || Tuesday || Wednesday || Thursday || Friday || Saturday
|-
|Planet
| style="width:12%;"| Sun
| style="width:12%;"| Moon
| style="width:12%;"| Mars
| style="width:12%;"| Mercury
| style="width:12%;"| Jupiter
| style="width:12%;"| Venus
| style="width:12%;"| Saturn
|-
| [[Hindu gods|Hindu deity]]
| [[Ravi]]
| [[Soma]]
| [[Mangala]]
| [[Buddha]]
| [[Guru]]
| [[Shukra]]
| [[Shani]]
|-
|Mazdaen deity<ref> P. 253 ''The Wiley-Blackwell Companion to Zoroastrianism'' By Michael Stausberg, Yuhan Sohrab-Dinshaw Vevaina, [[Anna]] Tessmann </ref><REF> P. 37 ''Persian Architectural Heritage: Architecture, Structure and Conservation'' By Mehrdad Hejazi, Fatemeh Mehdizadeh Saradj </REF>
|Mitra
|
|Vrarayna
|Tiriya
|Ahura Mazda
|Ardvi Anahita [[Sura]]
|Kayvanu
|-
|Assyrian deity<ref> P. 253 ''The Wiley-Blackwell Companion to Zoroastrianism'' By Michael Stausberg, Yuhan Sohrab-Dinshaw Vevaina, [[Anna]] Tessmann </ref>
|
|
|Nergal
|Nabu
|Marduk
|Ishtar
|Kajamanu
|-
| Greco-Roman deity
| style="width:12%;"| Helios-Sol
| style="width:12%;"| Selene-Luna
| style="width:12%;"| Ares-Mars
| style="width:12%;"| Hermes-Mercury
| style="width:12%;"| Zeus-Jupiter
| style="width:12%;"| Aphrodite-Venus
| style="width:12%;"| Cronus-Saturn
|-
|}

The Assyrians had referred to India as ''Melluhha''. This comes from the name Mallhu and Malla, which many kings in India, particularly western India and Baluchistan have been called. There was even Mount Malleus mountain that Sind<ref> ''Studia Orientalia, Volume 64'' </ref> was known for having. Even the coast of Kerala is known as Malankara.

===Mitanni===
[[image:Nefertitti image at Amarna.jpg|right|thumb|200px|Mural of Nefertiti found at Amarna in 1912. She was an Indo-Aryan princess from Mitanni, who married an Egyptian Pharaoh Amenhotep IV (Akhnaton), and reigned ca. 1353-1336 BCE.]]

Today this region is known as Kurdistan. In the ancient times, the inhabitants of Mitanni were known as Hurrians. In the Judeo-Christian Bible, they are known as the Horites.<ref> P. 64 ''The Hebrew Pharaohs of Egypt: The Secret Lineage of the Patriarch Joseph'' By Ahmed Osman </ref> Sanskritic interpretations of Mitanni names render the following:
* Artashumara (artaššumara) - It means that it is as [[Arta]]-smara "who thinks of [[Arta]]/Ṛta".<ref>Mayrhofer II 780</ref>
* Biridashva (biridaša, biriiaša) - It means that it is as Prītāśva "whose horse is dear".<ref>Mayrhofer II 182</ref>
* Priyamazda (priiamazda) - It means that it is as Priyamedha "whose wisdom is dear".<ref>Mayrhofer II 189, II378</ref>
* Citrarata as [[citraratha]] - It means that it is "whose chariot is shining".<ref>Mayrhofer I 553</ref>
* Indaruda/Endaruta - It means that it is as Indrota "helped by Indra".<ref>Mayrhofer I 134</ref>
* Shativaza (šattiaza) - It means that it is as Sātivāja "winning the race price".<ref>Mayrhofer II 540, 696</ref>
* Šubandhu as Subandhu - It means that it is like 'having good relatives".<ref>It is a name in Palestine.</ref><ref>Mayrhofer II 209, 735</ref>
* Tushratta (tišeratta, tušratta, etc.) - It means that it is as taišaratha, Vedic Tveṣaratha "whose chariot is vehement".<ref>Mayrhofer I 686, I 736</ref>

Apart from Queen Nefertiti, Ramesid pharaohs were also of Mitanni descent.<Ref> P. 85 ''Arshile Gorky Adoian'' By Karlen Mooradian </ref>

===Hatti===
The Hittites or Nesili, whose empire was known as 'Hatti' and 'Kadesh', had believed in re-incarnation as attested by their writings. They [[worshiped]] the Devas like [[Indra]], [[Nasatyas]] (Ashvins), [[Mitra]] and [[Varuṇa]]. This is confirmed by the Suppiluliuma-Shattiwaza Treaty between the Hittites and Hurrians. The beleaguered Tusratta was then murdered by his son in a palace coup. Tusratta's other son, Prince Shattiwaza, fled Mitanni and was eventually given sanctuary by the Hittite King Suppiluliuma with whom he concluded a treaty 1380 BCE, which we know as the Suppiluliuma-Shattiwaza Treaty discovered in 1907 CE in Hattusa near present-day Bogazkale (Boğazkale, formerly Bogazköy) in north-central Turkey. In the treaty, the Hittite King Suppiluliuma agreed to assist Shattiwaza to gain the Mitanni throne. The Hittites captured the Mitanni capital Wassukanni after a second attempt and installed Shattiwaza as a vassal king.

The Suppiluliuma-Shattiwaza Treaty is a source of considerable information about the Mitanni. In addition, it gives us some astonishing information about the religious practices of the Mitanni for it invokes the Indo-Iranian pantheon of [[Asuras]] and Devas Mitras(il) (Mitra), Uruvanass(il) (Varuṇa), Indara (Indra) and the Nasatianna (Nasatyas.) In the Judeo-Christian Bible, the Hitties are assimilated to have been descended from Heth, the son of Ham.

===Levant===
The Levant region includes countries of the Mediterranean coast which are located at the southwest Asian area. The Hindus here were an Indo-Aryan speaking population called as the Huru.

===Egypt===
:''See also: [[Danava]]''
<blockquote>
"One of the oldest colonies founded by the Hindus was in Egypt" - G. R. Josyer<ref> P. 104 ''Astrological Magazine, Volume 73, Issues 1-6'' 1984 </ref>
</blockquote>
The Hyksos were an Indo-Aryan dynasty, according to the scholars such as Sam Kerr<ref> P. 15 ''Cyrus the Great - Celestial Sovereign'' By Sam Kerr </ref> and M. Chahin<Ref> P. 28 ''The Kingdom of Armenia: A History'' By M. Chahin </ref>. They had come to Egypt and settled within its Delta region in about 1674-1547 BCE<ref> P. 28 ''The Kingdom of Armenia: A History'' By M. Chahin </ref> and within a few centuries dominated the country. Much cultural exchange happened during the period of their rule.
<blockquote>
“Egypt was colonized from India, and the priests of Egypt were of the same order as the Brahmins of India.” - Godfrey Higgins<ref> p. 121 ''Anacalypsis: An Attempt to Draw Aside the Veil of the Saitic Isis'' (Vol. I) By Godfrey Higgins </ref>
</blockquote>
Excavations in El-Amarna in Egypt have yielded the fact that around the 14th-15th centuries BCE, kings and princes with Vedic-like names were ruling in the region of modern day Syria. Some of the names are Artamanya, Aryavirya, Yashodatta, Suttarna and Dushratta. Thutmose IV had married a daughter of Artatma, the King of the Mitanni Kingdom. A letter addressed by Dushratta, Artatama's grandson, written to Akhnaton, says that it was not until Thutmose asked seven times that King Artatma agreed to his marriage proposal. Amenhotep III married Tiy, daughter of Yuaa<ref>He is a foreigner "from North Syria".</ref> and Tuau. During this time in Egyptian history, the ruling aristocracy of Egypt, were of mixed Egyptian and Mitanni ancestry. According to Akhnaton, Aton was both the male and female. He says to Aton, "Father and Mother of all that You have made." This parallels with the Hindu terms for the sun-god, Savita<ref>He is the male form.</ref> and Savitri<ref>She is the female form.</ref> or the sun and the sun's energy ([[Puruṣa]] and [[Prakṛti]].)

The Hyksos were descendants of the Indian Danavas. They're written of in Egyptian, Hittite, and Hellenic accounts under the names Danuna, Danunites, Danaoi, Danaus, Danaids, Dene, Danai, and Danaian.<ref> P. 218 ''Sea Peoples of the Bronze Age Mediterranean c.1400 BCÂ?1000 BC'' By Raffaele DÂ?Amato, Andrea Salimbeti </ref> In mythology it was Ramses III who exiles them from Egypt, whereby they take refuge in Greece and spread further into Europe from there.

Burials have been uncovered of Indian monkeys, leading archaeologists to believe that they were imported from India.<ref> [https://www.heritagedaily.com/2020/08/ancient-animal-burials-in-egypt-were-monkeys-imported-as-pets-from-india/134834 ANCIENT ANIMAL BURIALS IN EGYPT WERE MONKEYS IMPORTED AS PETS FROM INDIA] (August 25, 2020) By HeritageDaily </ref>

===Arabian Peninsula===
This region was historically known to Indians as Arabaka or Arvasthān.<ref>It means the ''Land of Horses''.</ref> Before the Islamization of the region beginning with [[Islam]]'s prophet Mohammed, peoples here more freely practiced their spirituality. Mohammed's own uncle, Umar-bin-e-Hassham had died for his devotion to [[Śiva]]. Among his writings, one poem of him depicting his faith in Śiva, has been found. It has come to be known as the "Śiva Stuti." The poem reads as follows:

{| class="wikitable sortable"
|-
! English
! Arabic
|-
|
:The man who may spend his life in sin
:and irreligion or waste it in lechery and wrath
:If at least he relent and return to
:righteousness can he be saved?
:If but once he [[bhakti|worship]] Mahadeva with a pure
:heart, he will attain the ultimate in spirituality.
:Oh Lord [[Shiva]] exchange my entire life for but
:a day’s sojourn in India where one attains salvation.
:But one pilgrimage there secures for one all
:merit and company of the truly great.
|
:Kafavomal fikra min ulumin Tab asayru
:Kaluwan amataul Hawa was Tajakhru
:We Tajakhayroba udan Kalalwade-E Liboawa
:Walukayanay jatally, hay Yauma Tab asayru
:Wa Abalolha ajabu armeeman '''Mahadeva'''
:Manojail ilamuddin minhum wa sayattaru
:Wa Sahabi Kay-yam feema-Kamil MINDAY Yauman
:Wa Yakulum no latabahan foeennak Tawjjaru
:Massayaray akhalakan hasanan Kullahum
:Najumum aja-at Summa gabul '''Hindu'''
|-
|}

Umar-bin-e-Hassham had the title of 'Abul Kaham', which in Arabic means ''doctor''.<Ref> P. 705 ''World Vedic heritage: a history of histories : presenting a unique unified field theory of history that from the beginning of time the world practiced Vedic culture and spoke [[Sanskrit]], Volume 1'' By Puruṣottam Nagesh Oak </ref> It is a fact that the Kaaba was worshiped in by non-Muslims before Islam. It is believed by some that before the Kaaba was Islamicized and made a pilgrimage for only Muslims, it was a Śiva temple. Umar-bin-e-Hassham is known to have been a priest at Kaaba. His composition was a part of the ''Sair-ul-Okul'' compiled by Labi-bin-e-Akhtab bin-e Turfa, which contained verses composed by multiple authors.

''The Encyclopedia Islamia'' admits: "''Muhammed's grandfather and uncles were hereditary priests of the Kaaba temple which housed 360 [[idols]]!''" Besides the Arabian Umar-bin-e-Hassham having been a priest at the temple, another point that some people make is that the black stone at the Kaaba is actually a Śivalinga.

[[Kṛṣṇa]] was also worshiped in Arabia and his tale is written in an Islamic Hadith. The text titled, ''The History of Hamadan Dailmi'' (Chapter "Al-Kaaf") declares, “''There was a prophet of God in India who is dark in color and his name was Kahān [Kanha, i.e., Kṛṣṇa].''”<ref> P. 181 ''Green Leaves: Harish S. Booch Memorial Volume'' By Harish S. Booch </ref>

==East Asia==
"''Mother of wisdom...India gave her mythology to her neighbors who went to teach it to the whole world. Mother of law and philosophy, she gave to three-quarters of Asia a god, a religion, a doctrine, an art.''" - Sylvain Lévi, French Scholar & Indologist

===Tibet===
[[image:Tonpa Shenrab.jpg|right|thumb|200px|[[Yungdrung Bon|Bonpa Dharma]] founder [[Tonpa Shenrab Miwoche]], also known as Shenrab Miwo, and Buddha Shenrab.]] Hinduism in Tibet began with the Bon religion of Tonpa Shenrab, who is noted in Bon scriptures to have come from a western land called Olmo Lungring and wandered into Zhang Zhung (western Tibet.) In some Tibetan scriptures, Shenrab's country is also called as sTag-gzig, Shangri-La and Shambhalla. Like several other ṛṣis such as [[Riṣabha]], [[Rāvaṇ]] and [[Śukra|Śukracharya]], Tonpa too meditated at [[Mount Kailāśa]]. 

According to most Bon sources on Guru Shenrab's dating, he arrived in Tibet either around 18,000<ref> ''The bsTan rTsis'' </ref> or 16,000 years ago. According to another Bon tradition, he was a contemporary of the pre-8th century Zhang Zhung king Triwer Sergyi Jyaruchan.<ref>P. 339 ''The Golden Letters: The Three Statements of Garab Dorje, First Dzogchen Master'' By John Myrdhin Reynolds </ref> However, the present day Tibetan history scholar and Dzogchen master Chogyal Namkhai Norbu calculates the probable actual date of his birth as 1917 BCE. 

What brought the prince to the region was his quest to retrieve his 7 blue horses that were stolen by his aggressor Khyab-Pa Lag-Ring and taken to Zhang Zhung. Master Shenrab went forth with his four attendants to find them. During his time in Zhang Zhung, he taught the locals the basic tenants of Bon Dharma. He found the horses and Khyab-Pa became his pupil. They left Tibet to return home and at age 32 Prince Shenrab decided to give up the royal life and take solitude ([[Gyāna|sanyāsa]]) to become a monk. Khyab-Pa had become his leading disciple.

At age 82 he departed the world and attained Mokṣa. Both in his country and among the locals in Zhang Zhung, Buddha Shenrab was successful in stopping ritual [[animal sacrifices]]. Bon preachers continued visiting Tibet for further propagating the religion, and many Tibetan Bonpas visited Olmo Lungring for learning the religion and meeting with Bonpa scholars. There are two types of Bonpas classed by Buddhists, White Bon<ref>They are the ones who also follow Buddhism.</ref> and Black Bon.<ref>They are strictly Bonpas.</ref> 

Apart from Tonpa Shenrab (the teacher), there are 3 other Sugatas, who together are known as Bon's 'Four Transcendent Lords'. They are Satrig Ersang (the great mother goddess), Shenlha Okar (god of light or wisdom), and Sangpo Bumtri (the procreator.) Other recognized Sugatas are Kuntu Kazgpo (who is similar to Buddhism's Adi Buddha), Kunzang Gyalwa Gyatso (a person similar to Avalokitesvara), and Welse Ngampa, Sipai Gyalmo (a 9-headed protector of Bon.)<ref> P. 304 ''[[Annapurna]]: A Trekker's Guide'' By Siân Pritchard-Jones, Bob Gibbons </ref>

===Uyghurstan===
{{Cquote|It is said that Bhadrasva-varṣa extends from the city of Yamakoti up to the Malyavat mountain.|4=Srimad Bhagavatam}}

Known anciently as Turkharistan, and now as East Turkistan or Uyghurstan, Buddhism was originally spread here by many missionaries from India. Later, missionaries within the country spread the [[dharma]]. It is noteworthy that the sun-god was known to the Saka Khotan Kingdom of the Tarim Basin as ''Urmaysde'' which scholars link to the term Ahura Mazda<ref> P. 132 ''The Nativist Prophets of Early Islamic Iran: Rural Revolt and Local Zoroastrianism'' By Patricia Crone</ref>. These Indo-Iranian words started coming over with migrants who were missionaries and merchants from India and Iran.

[[Bhadrasva]]-varṣa is the name for the Tarim Basin or southern Uyghurstan, and for northern Uyghurstan (plus Kazakhstan) it is Uttara-[[Kuru]].

===China===
''See also: [[Daoism and Hinduism]]''
"''India conquered and dominated China culturally for 20 centuries without ever having to send a single soldier across her border''." - Hu Shih, Chinese ambassador to the U.S. (1938-42)[http://www.hinduwisdom.info/India_and_China.htm]

Indian missionaries and monks worked with Chinese spiritual leaders and together preached the message of Moksha.

Bodhidharma is the well-known of the persons that increased the cultural relationships between India and China.

Some Tamil Siddhars too had visited China to discuss and spread spiritual knowledge. The Siddhar saint Bogar, disciple of Kalanginaathar, visited China. It is said that he proceeded there to teach the ways of the Siddhars. There is a legend that Lao Tze is Bogar. Daoxuan said passionately that India, and not China, should be considered the center of the world.

Writing of the Chinese language, Christian Reverend Joseph Edkins writes that Hindus prepared the model of the Chinese first letters during 3rd-6th centuries CE, arranged them under heads of 36 consonants like in Sanskrit, and instructed Chinese people in the way of right pronunciation with regard to the scientific basis of the sound.<ref> P. 248 ''Some Missing Chapters of World History'' By Purushottam Nagesh Oak </ref>

===Japan===
[[image:Saraswati, Vaishravana, and Ganesh statue Hatsukaichi.jpg|left|thumb|200px|From left to right, Benzaiten ([[Saraswati]]), Kangiten ([[Ganesh]]) and Bishamonten ([[Vaishravana]]) in the 1,200 year-old Daishō-in Temple Complex, Hatsukaichi, Japan.]]
[[image:Shivlinga Nayoga.jpg|right|thumb|200px|Shivlinga in the Toganji Temple at Nayoga, Japan.]]

"''India is culturally, Mother of Japan. For centuries it has, in her own characteristic way, been exercising her influence on the thought and culture of Japan.''" - Professor Hajime Nakamura

Atsushi Taguchi<ref>"''The transmission of Indian concepts—Hindu deities adapted into Shinto kami and Buddhist mandalas—exerted significant influence on Japan's religious worldview, contributing to its unique civilizational blend.''" - Atsushi Taguchi, Indologist and cultural historian; ''India-Japan Cultural Relations: From Ancient Times to Modern'' (2018)</ref>, Gen'ichi Yamaguchi<ref>"''Indian Buddhist thought, carrying Hindu philosophical undercurrents, profoundly shaped Japanese aesthetics and social harmony, influencing everything from tea ceremonies to imperial rituals—without which modern Japanese civilization would lack its syncretic depth.''" - Gen'ichi Yamaguchi, Buddhist studies scholar; "The Influence of Indian Buddhism on Japanese Culture" (2012) article–excerpts in ''Journal of Indian Philosophy'' (2015)</ref>Dr. Yoshihiro Kaburagi<ref>"''Since ancient times, Japan has assimilated various foreign cultures, particularly through Buddhism from India, which led to the formation of Japanese civilization.''" - Dr. Yoshihiro Kaburagi, historian and comparative civilization scholar</ref> have also written about the historical influence of Hinduism/India on Japan.
Due to the cultural exchange between India and Japan, mainstream Hindu gods were adopted by Japanese. Ganesh is known as Kangi-ten and as Bināyaka-ten which originates from the Sanskrit name [[Vināyaka]].

==South East Asia==
This whole region has been known in Hindu scriptures as Suvarṇabhumi.<ref>It means ''The Golden Land''.</ref> Hinduism has been the dominant religion amongst several nations for a long time here. Indonesia<ref>It was former Javadwipa.</ref> was dominantly Hindu until Islamization by missionaries and Islamists within the islands. At one point, lands even as far as the Philippines were part of the Chola Empire.<ref> [http://www.sanskritimagazine.com/history/the-tamil-chola-empire/ The Tamil Chola Empire] </ref>

===Burma===
"''They did not practice Theravada Buddhism, rather they observed a form of Mahayana Buddhism much influenced by Vaishnavism and native Naga (serpent) worship.''"<ref>''Essays on the History and Buddhism of Burma'' (2005) By Dr. U Than Tun</ref> - Dr. U Than Tun

Dr. Aye Aye Mar (Indologist), Dr. Khin Maung Nyunt (archaeologist & epigraphist), U Min Naing (cultural historian), and U Aung Thwin (historian) have also written about the historical influence of Hinduism/India on Burma.

In most Hindu scriptures, Burma is known as Brahmadesh. Buddhist scriptures sometimes called it Majjhimadesh. Greek philosopher Pliny had said that on the river called Ava or Pumas or Puman, many nations along it are in general called Bracmanae or Brahmane.<ref> P. 443 ''Asiatick Researches, Or, Transactions of the Society Instituted ..., Volume 14'' </ref> Hence, there is also the [[Brahmaputra]] River near Burma which crosses North-East India.

Several Hindu temples here date back to pre-Buddhistic times. In Burma there is a Dagoba dedicated to Dagon ([[Matsya|Matsya avatār]] of [[Viṣṇu]]) which Burmese claim is over 3000 years old.<ref> P. 37 ''Shambhala'' By Nicholas Roerich </ref>

===Cambodia===
[[image:Angkot War.jpg|right|thumb|200px|[[List of UNESCO Hindu World Heritage Sites#Cambodia|Angkot Wat Temple]], Cambodia.]]
"''From the 5th century, Hinduism established cults in Chenla that integrated with indigenous beliefs, creating a syncretic society... The Preah Thong myth shows how Indian origins were localized to legitimize Khmer rule.''"<ref>Quote in ''Inscriptions du Cambodge'' (Volume on Chenla, 2012, EFEO) By George Cœdès</ref> - Sovath Prak, epigraphist & historian

Chea Socheat, Michael Vickery (historian), Ros Chantrabot (historian & former diplomat), and Serey Sok (archaeologist) have also written about the historical influence of Hinduism/India on Cambodia.

The name Cambodia comes from the founder of the first Khmer Dynasty from India, who was Kambhoja. From him Cambodia is usually called by its natives as either 'Kambuja' or 'Kampuchea'. Its national flag displays the world-famous [[List of UNESCO Hindu World Heritage Sites#Cambodia|Angkor Wat Temple]] within the country. Angkor Wat is the largest spiritual monument in the world. It was built by King Suryavarman II.

An inscription from Anghor Vat runs thus: "''The [[Brahman]] Agastya, born in the land of the Aryans, devoted to the [[worship]] of Siva, having come by his psychic powers to the land of the Cambodians for the purpose of worshipping the Siva-linga known as Bhadresvara, and having worshipped the god for a long time, attained to beatitude.''"

===Indonesia===
[[image:Chola Empire and its tributaries.jpg|right|thumb|200px|The Chola Empire and its tributary lands. Indonesia was once a part of the Greater Chola Empire or 'Choladesh'.]]
"''Indonesia's ancient Hindu legacy, through processes of Indianization, laid the groundwork for tolerant pluralism...The Majapahit Empire (14th century) exemplifies how Hindu dharma fostered unity across ethnic groups, influencing modern Pancasila."''<ref>"Hindu Roots of Indonesian Tolerance", ''Journal of Indonesian Islam'' (2009) By Hilman Latief</ref> - Professor Dr. Hilman Latief, Syarif Hidayatullah State Islamic University

Agus Aris Munandar (archaeologist and historian), I Made Titib (theologian and philosopher), Ida Bagus Putu Jandhy (philosopher and cultural scholar), and Ni Wayan Sukerti (linguist and Indologist) have also written about the historical influence of Hinduism/India on Indonesia.

The largest and most prestigious native Indonesian dynasties were Srivijaya, Mataram, Shailendra, and Majapahit. The Chola Dynasty of India was a great link between both India and Indonesia as the exchange of cultures occurred, leading to closer ties between Indonesians and Indians.

Indonesians believe that [[Agastya|Sage Agastya]] and [[Markandeya|Sage Markandeya]] brought Hinduism to Indonesia. Hence, this shows that sages particularly of the [[Gotra#Pravara gotras|pravara gotra]] lineages from [[Agastya]] and Markandeya had been the first preachers of Hinduism in the islands.

Many Indians had migrated to Indonesia, some of them being Gujaratis. It is said that King Aji Saka, who came to Java in Indonesia in year 1 of the Śaka calender, was believed to be a king of Gujarat by some.<ref name="ReferenceA">P. 67 ''An era of peace'' By Krishna Chandra Sagar</ref> It is also believed that the first Indian settlements in Java Island of Indonesia was established with the coming of Prince Dhruvavijaya of Gujarat with 5,000 traders.<ref name="ReferenceA"/> Some stories propose that a sage named Tritresta was the first to bring Gujarati migrants with him to Java, hence some scholars equate him with Aji Saka.<ref> P. 158 ''Foreign Influence on Ancient India'' By Krishna Chandra Sagar </ref>

===Laos===
"Hindu influencers via Dvaravati Mon traders established elite religious practices in central Laos by the 7th century, paving the way for Theravada...This syncretic layer remains in Lao festivals symbolizing our Indosphere heritage.''"<ref>"From Brahmanism to Buddhism in Lao History", ''Lao Heritage Journal'' (2019) By Khammy Phommaseng</ref> - Khammy Phommaseng

Bounleuam Chaleunsinh (ethnologist), Phothong Phoummachanh (historian & cultural scholar), Sisouk Vongvichit (cultural heritage expert), and Vongkot Thammavongsa (archaeologist) have also written about the historical influence of Hinduism/India on Laos.

===Malaysia===
"''Up to the 14th century, Hindu-Buddhist influences had a major impact on Malaysian culture...The massive cultural impact of India on Malay Peninsula prior to the 14th century was virtually overwhelming, shaping early kingdoms like Langkasura and Kadaram through trade and elite adoption.''"<ref>''Early History of Peninsular Malaysia (2002)'' By Dr. Nik Hassan Shuhaimi Nik Abdul Rahman</ref> - Dr. Nik Hassan Shuhaimi Nik Abdul Rahman, archaeologist and historian

Ahmad Murad Merican (literary historian), Mohd. Taib Osman (cultural anthropologist), Raja Zarina Raja Zain (social anthropologist), and Wan Suhana Wan Sulaiman (Indologist) have also written about the historical influence of Hinduism/India on Malaysia.

* [[Bujang Valley Civilization]]

===Thailand===
"''Thailand is the most crucial place for study of Sanskrit. We started to study Sanskrit long back. Hinduism and Buddhism existed in Thailand and have very strong influences''." - Professor Chirapat Prapandvidya, founder and director of Sanskrit Studies Centre at Silpakorn University in Bangkok, Thailand

Charuwan Chareonla (art historian), Kessara Srinaka (art historian), Piriya Krairiksh (art historian) and Prapod Assavavirulhakarn (Buddhist scholar) have also written about the historical influence of Hinduism/India on Thailand.

In Hindu scriptures, Burma is known as Shyamdesh. Hence the other name of the country is 'Siam'.

===Vietnam===
"''Hinduism, introduced via Indian traders to Funan around the 1st century CE, established the socio-political framework for early Khmer-Cham societies in southern Vietnam...Temples like Óc Eo reflect this, blending Indian [[Rulership in Hinduism|devaraja]] cults with local animism to form hybrid polities.''"<ref>Paper in ''Archaeology of Asia'' (2012) By Tran Ky Phuong </ref> - Tran Ky Phuong

Ngô Đức Thịnh (ethnologist & cultural historian), Phan Huy Lê (historian, former national education department president), Lương Ninh (cultural anthropologist), and Vũ Kim Thắng (epigraphist) have also written about the historical influence of Hinduism/India on Vietnam.

==Oceania==
"''Soon after the establishment of a great Hindu civilisation in Java, and in a lessor degree in the Philippines, about the time of the Christian Era, it is certain that many expeditions of adventurous Hindu-Malay sea-captains in large ocean-going Wangkang and Barangai, "junks" and "big galleys" must have launched out into the Pacific, both by the N.W. route by way of the Moluccas, Caroline Islands and Havaii, as well as by the S.W. route, followed in much more recent times by Abel Tasman.''" - F.W. Christian<ref> P, 77-79 ''The Journal of the Polynesian Society: Volumes 1-22'' By Polynesian Society (N.Z.) </ref>

F.W. Christian had written of similarities between Sanskrit and Polynesian languages, such as Maori and Samoan.<ref> P, 77 ''The Journal of the Polynesian Society: Volumes 1-22'' By Polynesian Society (N.Z.) </ref>
;Australia
Their closest blood links are with the groups in New Guinea, South India and Sri Lanka, representing their path of migration into Australia.<ref> P. 186 ''Native Peoples of the World: An Encylopedia of Groups, Cultures and Contemporary Issues'' By Steven L. Danver</ref>

One academic, Professor Alan Cooper, from the University of Adelaide’s Centre for Ancient DNA, says the Indian influence may well have played a role in the development of the Aboriginal culture – outlined in a paper titled ‘Genome-wide data substantiate Holocene gene flow from India to Australia’.

Professor Cooper says it is impossible to ignore the link with the discovery of the dingo…"''The timing of all those things in the archaeological record, about 4,000 to 5,000 years ago, happens to match the timing estimated for this genetic influx from India.''"

Professor Cooper also points to another development that happened around the time of the Australia-Indian connection – an expansion of one of the Aboriginal language groups. "''This other language seems to have taken over Australia relatively recently – perhaps 5,000 years ago,…And how it did it, how it replaced the other ancient languages, we don’t know…So suddenly, 4,000 to 5,000 years ago is starting to become a fairly tumultuous time in Australian history.''"

;New Zealand
[[image:Tamil Bell found near Whangarei, Northland Region.jpg|left|thumb|200px|Tamil bell found near Whangarei, Northland Region.]]
[[image:Sanskrit writing found near Hokianga Harbour.jpg|right|thumb|200px|Sanskrit writing (digitally highlighted) found near Hokianga Harbour, Northland Region.]]
The oldest Indian settlement in New Zealand comes from the [[Dānavas]] that sailed originally from Patala in Sind. These Indians became known locally in New Zealand as the Tuhoe.

About 150 years ago, a bell was discovered in New Zealand near Whangarei in the Northland Region with Tamil writings on it.<ref> [https://www.cmi.ac.in/gift/Epigraphy/epig_tambaramnewly.htm "Newly discovered Tamil inscriptions from the Tambaram area", ''Madras Christian College Magazine'', v. 42, 1973 Gift Siromoney] </ref> It is believed to have come from a Pallava Dynasty ship which was sailing in the area and had possibly landed on New Zealand. The bell had led Indologist, V. R. Ramachandra Dikshitar to investigate and claims in his book ''The Origin and Spread of the Tamils'' that ancient Tamil sea-farers might have had a knowledge of Australia and Polynesia. There has also been Sanskrit writing discovered on a boulder in Hokianga Harbor. This finding has led to the belief that Hindu monks had arrived in New Zealand before Europeans did.

It is even believed by some historians that among the ancestry of indigenous New Zealanders there is some Indian descent. Joan Leaf through oral tradition of genealogy (''whakapapa'') among the Maori and having consulted with the Maori Wharewananga, traced the lineage of her husband, who is Maori on both sides of his ancestry, back to India.<ref>''Hawaiiki to the Hokianga, 2000 BC''</ref> That the Tuhoe of New Zealand were Dānavas is further evidenced by their oral traditions which recants Dānavas having fought other Indians in the typical wars that Indian epics mention about them.

"''Maori tradition tells us that their ancestors in times long past away, 165 generations ago, they migrated from a hot country named India''." - Eldson Best<ref> "The cause of this exodus was a disastrous war with a dark skinned folk in which great numbers were slain."; ''Tuhoe: The Children of the Mist'' By Eldson Best </ref>

;Rest of Polynesia
[[image:From Indus to Easter Island.jpg|right|thumb|200px|The trajectory from Mohenjo-Daro ([[Indus Valley Civilization]]) to Giza (Egypt) then Machu Pichu (Peru), and to Easter Island is a perfect 30° incline.]]
[[image:IVC and rongorongo scripts.jpg|left|thumb|200px|The scripts of [[Indus Valley Civilization]] and Eastern Island. An image from ''The Indians And The Amerindians'' By Dr. S. Chakravarti.]]

Balaram Chakravarti writes, "The Lapita potteries which seem to be of [[Dānava]] origin seems to lend evidence to the stepping stone of Dānava migration from New-Britain to Fiji with an off-shoot in New-Caledonia."<ref> P. ii ''The Children of Abo Tani in India, Fiji, and Polynesia: An Account of the Migration of the Indian Dānavas and the Nāgas, and Their Contribution to the Efflorescence of Culture in Fiji and Polynesia, Volume 1'' By Balaram Chakravarti </ref>

Easter Island has stories among its natives of long-eared (''Hanau epe'') people having come there, led by Hotu Matu'a (''Great Parent'', a title given to their 'ariki' or ''king''.) The Hanau epe were said to have been from Hiva (''Far away land.'') The reason for their migration was a great flood. The Indus Valley Civilization was devastated and abandoned due to severe flooding. Together they had built the Moai monuments.

Elongated earlobes are a common feature in many depictions of devas, gandharvas, ṛṣis and others. Long and hanging earlobes are known as
''larhba-karṇa''. Even the ''Viṣṇu-koṣa''<ref> P. 311 ''Viṣṇu-koṣa'' By Śaligrama K Ramachandra Rao </ref> mentions it as a feature of Viṣṇu. Dr. B. A. Saletore had published in his book, ''The Wild Tribes in Indian History''<ref> P. 375 ''Indian Culture: Journal of the Indian Research Institute, Volume 2, Issues 1-2'' By I.B. Corporation </ref> about a tribe called the Labhakarṇas. It is not an unknown trait in Indian history and so it is likely that the Dānavas who arrived in Easter Island had elongated ears.

"''It has been suggested Easter Island ''rongorongo'' script arrived from Peru, South America and is related to the Indus River Valley dating back to 2000 BC which is likely since there were Indus River Valley migrations to Peru, South America, by 1500 BC or perhaps as early as 2000 BC. Many Harappan glyphs appear in both Peruvian and Easter Island scripts''." - Jeffrey L. Gross <ref> ''Waipio Valley: A Polynesian Journey from Eden to Eden'' By Jeffrey L. Gross </ref>

==Europe==
''See also: [[Hindu Temples in Europe]]''

At the time that the Indo-Iranians came into Europe, the natives of Europe were Palesgians in the Balkan Peninsula, Basques in Iberian Peninsula, Fins and Sami in Northern Europe and the Magyars to later become Hungarians, Estonians and Kami in Eastern Europe and several other non-Indo-European linguistic families within the Caucasus. With the influence on the Indo-Iranian comers, the Indo-European nations of Europe were born. Some identified groups that had come into Europe were [[Druyus]] (becoming the British Druids and German Druvis), Parthians (Thracians from Parthenope and some Irish from Partholonians) and Medians.

The reason why it was easy for the Indo-European languages to gain popularity among Europe's natives is because the native Europeans were nomads that relied on hunting and gathering, the Indo-Iranians were agarians that brought an agricultural revolution. [[Historical racial diversity of Hindus#Vedic period|DNA samples of the Yamnayas]] (mixed of Indo-Iranians and Europeans) show that they were not lactose intolerant whereas the European natives were. Thus, Indo-Iranians showed Europeans to be able to live sedentary lives opposite to foraging and constantly relocating.

The Sanskrit word ''[[Deva]]'' took on vernacular forms amongst European nations wherein it became ''Theo'' in Greek, ''Dio'' in Latin and Italian, ''Dios'' in Spanish, ''Deos'' in Portuguese, ''Déu'' in Catalan, ''Dieu'' in French, ''Dievs'' in Latvian, ''Dievas'' in Lithuanian, ''Duw'' in Welsh, and the words ''Deity'' and ''[[Divinity]]'' in English. Even the word 'devil' means ''slanderer'' ('il') ''of'' ''god'' ('dev') and its Latin version is 'deofel' wherein 'deo' means ''god'' and 'fel' means ''slanderer''. So ''[[Theology]]'' means the study of "''The study of Theo''" and ''Theism'' is "''The belief in Theo''". Further, the Sanskrit word '[[Asura]]' became ''Æsir'' for Scandinavia's worshipers of the Norse gods.

===Thrace===
[[image:Hekate and Gayatri.jpg|right|thumb|200px|Goddess Hekate's depictions look similar to those of a Hindu goddess.]]
The Thracians called their country 'Aria'<ref> P. 277 ''Encyclopedia britannica''; or, ''A dictionary of [[arts]], sciences, and miscellaneous literature'' by Colin Macfarquhar; George Gleig </ref> which means ''Noble''. It is a word which has much significance in Hinduism, including Buddhism and [[Jainism]]. In Hellenist mythology, Thrace was the offspring of Parthenope, the daughter of Olympian god Ares. The 'Parth' in the name Parthenope indicates Parthian and hence an Indo-Iranian origin. Goddess Hecate was portrayed as a multi-headed and multi-handed deity.

There were several tribes among Thracians. Originally there was one but as they expanded control of other territories in the Balkans, other nations became Thracianized. Hesychius notes that the Sindi tribe of Thracians was from India.<ref> P. 107 ''Asiatic Researches; Or, Transactions Of The Society, Instituted ..., Volume 10'' </ref> Sir W. Drummond was also of the same viewpoint. George Faber wrote that Thracians came from a frontier of India.<ref> P. 293 ''The Origin of Pagan Idolatry: Ascertained from Historical ..., Volume 2'' By George Stanley Faber </ref>

The Thracians inhabited this region even before the earliest Greeks<ref>They are Achaeans or Mycenaeans.</ref> made their way south to the present Greece.<ref> P. 37 ''Chronicles, Volume 21'' By Rockford Institute </ref> Thracians even preceded Greeks to important islands in the northern, central, eastern and eastern Aegean. This includes Thasos, Samothrace, Imbros, Lemnos, Euboea, Naxos, Lesbos and Chios.<ref> ''The Rise Of The Greeks'' By Michael Grant </ref>

The Sindi Colchi country, located in the Taman Peninsula, was known as Sindike and Sindikos, and its largest city was named Sinda. Greek writer Strabo referred to these Sindi as 'Sindoi'. Ancient Greek Pliny called it 'Scythia Sindica', Ptolemy as 'Indo-Scythia', and both Socrates and Stephanus as 'India'. Because the Thracians were also in the Aegean Sea, they were in Lemnos island. There was an ethnicity here named 'Sindians', whom Homer in his ''Iliad'' and ''Odyssey'' wrote, "spoke a strange language" and the Scholiast Thucydides wrote the Thracians are derived from India.<ref>''Iliad'' I.594; ''Odyssey'' VIII.294; P. 516 ''The History of India: As Told by Its Own Historians. The Muhammadan Period, Volume 1'' By Sir Henry Miers Elliot </ref>

"''We can firmly say that the Bulgarians had entered their present areas from Hindistan (India) in the most ancient times...and their migration took place much earlier than the division of the Aryan tribe in Hindistan.''" - Paisii Hilendarski<ref> vol. 4.369; P. 299 ''Myths and boundaries in southern-eastern Europe'' By Pal Kolsto</ref>

Francis Wilford claimed “that so early as B.C. 189, or before it, Hindus of both sexes were not uncommon in Greece: that they were settled in Colchis, and that the Sindi of Thrace came originally from India.”

===Greece===
[[image:Krishna_mosaic _Corinth.jpg|right|thumb|200px|Greek mosaic of Kṛṣṇa in his iconic cross-legged pose playing the flute by cows, from 2nd century CE, now found at Corinth, Greece.]]
[[image:Swastika_coin_Corinth.jpg|right|thumb|200px|Coin with Swastika issued at Corinth, Greece.]]
;Early Indo-Europeans in Greece
“''The whole of this state of society, civil and military, must strike anyone as eminently Asiatic; much of it specifically Indian. Such it undoubtedly is. . . these evidences were but the attendant tokens of an Indian colonization with its corresponding religion and language. . . the whole of Greece, from the era of the supposed godships of Poseidon and Zeus, down to the close of the Trojan war was Indian in language, sentiment and religion, as well as the arts of peace and war.''” - Edward G Pococke

The natives of Greece were Palesgians. From the academic influence of the Indo-Iranians in the region, the ancient Greek and Latin languages were established from which all the other Indo-European languages of Europe were created. This can be seen in the wars between the Olympian gods and the Titans. Scholar Ignatius Donnelly believes the conflict between the Olympians and Titans represented a war between the Olympians and Titans.<ref> P. 320 ''Atlantis: The Antediluvian World'' By Ignatius Donnelly </ref> Lewis Spence also mentions that the conflict between the Olympians and the Titans was of Aryans with non-Aryans with the Titans being projected as the latter.<ref> P. 59 ''The Magic [[Arts]] in Celtic Britain'' By Lewis Spence </ref>

;Philosophical contribution to Greece
"''We find that it (India) was visited for the purpose of acquiring knowledge by Pythagoras, Anaxarches, Pyrrho and others who afterwards became eminent philosophers in Greece.''" - Dr. William Enfield<Ref> P. 41 ''Bharātīya [[Vidyā]], Volume 51'' By [[Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan]]</ref>

Overtime, a link was established between Greece and India, wherein Greek scholars would visit India and learn from Hindu clergy. Count Bjornstjerna says that Greek philosophy was indebted almost wholly to the Hindu philosophy for its cardinal doctrines.<ref> P. 974 ''Indian Law Quarterly Review, Volume 5'' By Arora Law [[House]] </ref> From this cultural phenomena, Pythagorus founded Pythagorism, Orpheus founded Orphism and Plato founded Platoism. Orphism from 6th century BCE believed in reincarnation<Ref> P. xviii ''The Orphic Hymns'' By Apostolos N Athanassakis and Benjamin M Wolkow </ref>, a Supreme God.<Ref> P. xiv: 'The Orphic Hymns' By Apostolos N Athanassakis and Benjamin M Wolkow. </ref> Pythagorism from 5th century BCE believed in reincarnation<Ref> P. 2 ''Pythagoras and the Pythagoreans: A Brief History'' By Charles H. Kahn </ref>, a Supreme God<Ref> P. 97 ''Pythagoras and the Pythagoreans: A Brief History'' By Charles H. Kahn </ref>, promoted asceticism<Ref> P. 9 ''Pythagoras and the Pythagoreans: A Brief History'' By Charles H. Kahn </ref> and vegetarianism.<Ref> P. 9 ''Pythagoras and the Pythagoreans: A Brief History'' By Charles H. Kahn </ref> Platonism from 5th century BCE believed in reincarnation<ref> P. 377 ''The Middle Platonists, 80 B.C. to A.D. 220'' By John M. Dillon </ref> and a Supreme God.<ref> P. 199 ''The Middle Platonists, 80 B.C. to A.D. 220'' By John M. Dillon </ref> Although Orphism, Pythagorism, and Platoism spirituality are all Hindu, Western scholars note that non-Hindu spiritualties of Greek thought also demonstrate Hindu influence such as Stoicism<ref> ,'Experiencing World History'' By Paul Vauthier Adams, Erick Detlef Langer, Lily Hwa, Peter N. Stearns, Merry E. Wiesner-Hanks </ref> which advocated asceticism. These schools were in start opposition to the Cyrenaicism (Greek Hedonistic school), and was opposed to Stoicism in its metaphysics.

"''The Hindus were, in this respect, the teachers and not the learners.''" - Henry Colebrooke <ref> P. 974 ''Indian Law Quarterly Review, Volume 5'' By Arora Law [[House]] </ref>

When Greek scholars had spoken of philosophies of wisdom, they regarded amongst the highest as Orphism, Pythagoreanism and Platonism. Early Christian sects not only regarded Pythagorus as a prophet of God, but drew on Orphic, Pythagorean and Platonic, as well as Neo-Platonic Mystery schools.<ref> P. 77 ''Jesus: The Explosive Story of the 30 Lost Years and the Ancient Mystery'' By Tricia McCannon </ref> Plaethon not only stated that he preferred Indian Brahmans and Magi amongst the non-Greeks, but that "inspired men" like Pythagorus, Plato and other philosophers belonging to their school, notably Parmenides, Timaeus, Plutarch, Plotinus, Porphyry and Iamblichus were great people.<ref> P. 39 Hermes in the Academy: Ten Years' Study of Western Esotericism at the ... edited by Wouter J. Hanegraaff, Joyce Pijnenburg </ref>

The Grecianized version of 'Brahman' is ''Brachman'' and ''Bragmanni''. The ancient Greeks mention them in many instances when discussing spirituality, [[Hindu philosophies|philosophy]], [[astrology]], geopolitics and other steams of study. In about 270-303 CE, makes distinguishing statements among the gymnosophists wherein he describes differences amongst them.<ref> P. 133 ''The Bhilsa Topes; Or, Buddhist Monuments of Central India, Etc'' By Sir Alexander Cunningham </ref> Purchas had written that all the things observed by Nsturall Philosophers in Greece had been handled before, partly by the Brachmancs amongst the Indians.<ref> P. 2705 ''The Century Dictionary: An Encyclopedic Lexicon of the English Language, Volume 4'' edited by William Dwight Whitney, Benjamin Eli Smith </ref> A type of non combustible cloth made from stone was also said to have been used by the Brachmancs.<ref> P. 686 ''The Gentleman's Magazine and Historical Review, Volume 202'' By Sylvania Urban </ref> It later became used by some in Europe.

There were also Hindu monks that had visited Greece for the purpose of discussing philosophy. Zarmanochegas is the most known of these. In Greece, he had self-immolated himself to protest Alexander's invasion of India. His tomb in Greece reads, "Here lies Zarmanochegas an Indian, a native of Bargose, having immortalized himself according to the custom of his country."[http://www.ibiblio.org/britishraj/Jackson9/chapter01.html] Other Hindu sages that were in the company of Emperor Elagabalus also were written about.<ref> P. 6 ''Neoplatonic Saints: The Lives of Plotinus and Proclus by Their Students'' By Mark Edwards </ref>

;Worship of similar deities between Hindus and Hellenists
"''While Dionysus (Siva) is worshipped in the mountain, Heracles (Krsna) is worshipped on the plain, especially by the Surasenoi (Surasena), an Indian people who possess two towns, Methora (Mathura) and Kleisobora (Krsnapura)''" - Megastheses<ref> Arrian, Ind., VIII, 4; P. 393 ''History of Indian Buddhism: From the Origins to the Saka Era'' By Etienne Lamotte </ref>, Greek historian and ethnographer, 4th century BCE

The gods worshiped by Hellenists were similar to that of Hindus. Whereas Indra is called Vetethragna in the Avesta, and Vahagn by the Armenians, he's also known as Artagnes-Herakles in Commagene.<ref>P. 132 ''Opuscula Atheniensia, Volumes 2-3; Volumes 7-10; Volume 12; Volumes 14-15; Volume 17; Volume 27; Volume 37'' C.W.K. Gleerup., Nov 1, 1988 </ref> Many of the soldiers in Alexander of Macedonia's army readily became Hindu. "Close to 10,000 Greeks, who came in the wake of Alexander the Great, were Krishna's devotees. There is an inscription by Heliodorus, the Greek ambassador at Takshila , which reads Deva, deva, Vasudeva. Krishna is my god and I have installed this Garuda Pillar at Bes Nagar (now in Bihar)," says researcher T K V Rajan.[http://m.timesofindia.com/city/chennai/New-finds-take-archaeologists-closer-to-Krishna/articleshow/3898205.cms] Further, Hydaspes is written by Nonnus in his Dionysiaca as a son of the sea-god Thaumas and cloud-goddess Elektra. He was the brother of Iris the rainbow-goddess and half-brother of Harpies.[http://news.statetimes.in/the-journey-of-vitasta-river/]

;Other contribution of customs
"''Cremation was brought by barbarians from the East [India] to the Mediterranean basin about 2500–2000 BC, where previously the practice was unknown.''" - William Howels<ref> P. 43 ''Honoring God to the Very, Very, Very End!'' </ref>

[[Jyotiṣa|Astrology]] was also a science that Hindus spread with them in Greece. Philostratus tells how Iarbas the Brachman or Brahman gave Apolloneus of Tyans a set of rings for days of the week to maintain good health.<ref> Page 147 ''The Archaeological Journal - Volume 33'' By The Royal Anthropological Institute of Great Britain and Ireland </ref>

Apart from the Greeks having visited India for learning Hinduism and its ideals and customs, Indians had colonized Greece as the first Indo-Iranians in the country. They were the Danauna (also known as Aavaoi), who descend from King Danaus. This king has founded the city Argos, and from his descend figures like the Danai, who are Argives mentioned by Homer.<ref> P. 306 ''The Century Cyclopedia of Names: A Pronouncing and Etymological Dictionary of Names in Geography, Biography, Mythology, History, Ethnology, Art, Archaeology, Fiction, Etc., Etc., Etc'' By Benjamin Eli Smith </ref> They were also known as Achaians, who are mentioned separately from the people of Greece, the Hellenes, themselves because they were a foreign nationality.

===Austria, Germany & Netherlands===
"''The runes were brought to the Germans by the Brahmins of ancient India...The priestly caste of the Teutons was identical with the Brahmin caste''." - Guido von List<ref>P. 67 ''Das Geheimnis der Runen'' (1908) By Guido von List</ref>
Guido von List the Austrian wrote that the Germanic peoples were taught by Brahmans from India. He said the German priesthood descended from Indian Brahmans.<ref>"''The German priesthood descends from Indian Brahmins''." - ''Die Religion der Ario-Germanen'' (1910) By Guido von List</ref><ref>"''The Aryan Germans received their religion and social order from the Brahmins who migrated from India''."- P. 112 ''Die Religion der Ario'-Germanen'' By Guido von List </ref>

===France===
Fabre d'Olivet the Frenchman wrote that Gauls (Celtic peoples) were originally a colony of Brahmans from India.
"''The Gauls were a colony of Brahmins''." - Fabre d'Olivet<ref>''The Gauls were a colony of Indian Brahmins''''." - P. 45 ''La Langue Hebaique Restituee'' Vol. II (1815) By Fabre d'Olivet </ref>
François-Marie Arouet wrote the the Gauls and their Druids were taught by Indian Brahmans.
"''The Gauls had their Druids, who were Brahmins come from India''." - François-Marie Arouet<ref>Chapter 6 ''Philosophie de I'Histoire'' (1765) By François-Marie Arouet </ref>

===British Isles===
[[image:Brigid.jpg|right|thumb|200px|Goddess Brigid by artist Miranda Gray. The triple goddess’ depictions normally look similar to those of a Hindu goddess.]]
"''I fear we must class the descent of the Afghans from the Jews with that of the Romans, and the British from the Trojans, and that of the Irish from the Milesians or Brahmins.''" - Mountstuart Elphinstone<ref> [P. 278 "Asiatic Journal and Monthly Register for British and Foreign India, China and Australasia
Volume 28''] 1829 </ref>
Many Irish have written of an Indian influence on ancient Ireland including Mrs. Dorothy Chaplin and Madam Wilde.<ref>P. 33 ''Text Book of Indian Culture'' By Chaman Lal </ref> The Druids were the chief priests of the isles and their religion is known as Druidism. Godfrey Higgins wrote a book supporting that the Druids had come from India, titled ''The Celtic Druids, Or, An Attempt to Shew that the Druids Were the Priests of Oriental Colonies who Emigrated from India, and Were the Introducers of the First Or Cadmean System of Letters, and the Builders of Stonehenge, of Carnac, and of Other Cyclopean Works in Asia and Europe.'' They were a priestly hereditary group and are said to have been descended of the Brahman Druyus. The Druids had propitiated Danu because Druyu, their patriarch, was her great-great grandson as the son of [[Gagarin|King Yayati]] and [[Sarmishṭha|Queen Sarmishṭha]], who was a Danava (descendant of Danu.)

Being of Indian descent, Druids would have been Indo-European speakers and they likely would have been the first speakers of the language family in the British Isles. They had also worshiped the Thracian Hecate. One group of Indo-Iranians, according to Irish legends that emigrated were the Partholonians from Parthia.<ref> P. 7 ''The Book of Finglas'' By Seán Ó Broin; Other groups were Nemedians from Black Sea, Milesians are descendants of Milead (from his 3 sons Ir, Heremon, Heber, sent westward in search of Island of Destiny) from Iberia, Gailiuns, Liogarne and later arrivals to Moynalta were described as big, blond, fair-haired men of Teutonic origin, who came to Moynalta about the time of Alexander the Great. </ref> Druids were Partholonians because according to a legend, a person named Parthalon landed in Ireland three-hundred years after a mythic deluge and had brought with him three Druids named Fios, Folus and Fochmare.<ref>P. 229 ''Paradise Rediscovered: The Roots of Civilization, Volume 1'' By Michael A. Cahill </ref> They had come to Ireland from Midgonia.<ref>It is in Middle Greece.</ref>

"''The very name Druid is composed of two Celtic word roots which have parallels in Sanskrit. Indeed, the root vid for knowledge also emerges in the Sanskrit word Veda, demonstrates the similarity. The Celtic root dru which means 'immersion' also appears in the Sanskrit. So a Druid was the one 'immersed in knowledge.'''" - Peter Beresford-Ellis<ref> [http://druidry.org/druid-way/other-paths/druidry-dharma Druidism and the ancient Religions of India] </ref>

In history, the Druids were later pushed into Ireland and Scotland. "In Britain, the Kelts pushed the Albans into northern Ireland and northern Scotland.”<ref> P. 28 ''Footprints of the Welsh Indians and Sailors of the Past'' By William L. Traxel </ref> Druidism still survives today in the isles and revivalist efforts have been put forth by its followers.

"''The island [Britain] has long been pre-disposed of it's [[[Christianity]]] through the doctrines of the Druids and Buddhists who already inculcated the doctrine of the Godhead.''" - Christian cleric Origen, 3rd century CE

It is notable that there is a Druid named Arias, which even further strengthens the relationship between the Druids and Brahmans as Aria/Arya meant ''noble'' and was used in the ethical and spiritual sense even by the [[Buddha]] who referred to his creed as the [[Arya]] Astanga [[Dharma]] (''Noble Eight-fold Religion.'') Peter Berresford Ellis writes, "Moreover, we learn that in these four cities were 'four Druids who taught the Children of [[Danu]] skill and knowledge and perfect wisdom'. Morias dwelt in Falias; Urias 'of the noble nature' lived in Gorias; Arias the poet resided in Finias and Senias had his abode in Murias."<ref> P. 124 ''The Druids'' By Peter Berresford Ellis </ref>

The Druids were especially the priests of the Tuatha De Danann. D'Arbois translates ''Tuatha De Danann'' as "people of the god whose mother is called Danu."
Goddess Danu written of in Celtic spirituality is the same Danu from the [[Ṛgveda]]. The Danavas, upon leaving India, moved westwards to Iran (i.e., Parthia), then more westwards, which led them to arrive in Egypt. In Egypt, these Danavas are recorded in legend to have been banished from the country where in legend, King Ramses exiled his brother Danaus. From the exile, Danaus moved to Middle Greece and eventually to Ireland. George A. Christopoulos had also connected the Danaans and Danawois to the Danawos mentioned in the Avesta.

Englishmen Francis Wilford<ref>"''Britain was colonised by Brahmins from India...the Druids preserved Brahminical learning''." - ''On Egypt and Other Countries Adjacent to the Nile'' By Francis Wilford and Asiatic Researches (1798) </ref>, Thomas Maurice<ref>"'The Druids of Britain were Brahmins...the Celtic religion is nothing but a corrupted form of the Brahminical system brought from India''." - ''Indian Antiquities'' (Vol. VI) By Thomas Maurice (1793-1800)</ref>, and William Stukeley<ref>"''The Druids...were of the same patriarchal religion as Abraham and the Brahmins of India''." - ''Stonehenge'' (1740) and ''Abury'' (1743) By William Stukeley</ref> wrote of Brahmans in the Isles. Wilford said Brahmans colonized the isles and that Druids taught Vedic doctrines, Maurice that the Druids were Brahmans, and Stukeley that the Druids were Brahmans from the East.

Irishmen Charles Vallancey<ref>"''The Irish Druids were Brahmins...the ancient Irish are descendants of Hindoo colonists''." - ''Collectanea de Rebus Hibernicus'' (1770-1804) By Charles Vallancey</ref> and John Toland<ref>"''</ref> wrote of the Hindu connection too. Vallancey that the Irish Druids and their language were of Brahmans and Toland that the Irish Druids were Indian philosophers.

===Scandinavia===
[[image:Buddha, Helgö.jpg|right|thumb|200px|Statue of [[Buddha]] dated from 5th Century CE<Ref> [http://www.lionsroar.com/the-buddha-statue-found-in-an-ancient-viking-hoard/ How did a Buddha statue land in Viking hands? BY SAM LITTLEFAIR| MARCH 24, 2016] </ref> found on a Viking tombstone in Helgö, Sweden.]]

The Norse gods referred to god as 'Æsir'. The name of thunder-god Thor comes from 'Thortian' of the Zoroastrian ''Vendiad'' and the name derives it's form from the Vedic [[Trita]], who was known as Trita in the Avesta and then later as Traitana, then 'Thraetaona' and finally as 'Thortian' to the Zoroastrians. In Sweden's Helgö, a small Buddha statuette from North India dating from 6th century AD; was found in Viking's grave.<Ref> [http://irisharchaeology.ie/2013/12/the-helgo-treasure-a-viking-age-buddha/ "The Helgo Treasure: A Viking Age Buddha" by Colm]</ref>

===Eastern Europe===
The names of [[deities]] of Eastern Europe indicate a strong Hindu influence.
;Azerbaijan
Currently the Fire Temple of Baku is a site revered for its historic uniqueness which was established by Hindu priests from India in the 19th century. It was nominated by the Azerbaijani government for being recognized as a UNESCO Hindu Site. Currently there is an [[ISKCON]] temple in Baku[http://centers.iskcondesiretree.com/baku/], the country's capital city.

;Poland
Śivā is the name of a female deity in Poland, just as Śivā is the name of Kali Mātā of Hinduism, the wife of Śiva. Further, in Poland, "''Vogt in his lectures of Man assumes the Polish to be descended from Hindu sources..."<ref> P. 386 ''The Races of Europe: A Sociological Study (Lowell Institute Lectures)'''' By William Zebina Ripley </ref>

;Lithuania
{| class="wikitable sortable"
Table of gods worshiped in pre-Christian Lithuania:
|-
! Deity
! Vedic equivalent
! About god
|-
!Praamžius Dievas
|Prajapati
|The supreme or leader of the gods.
|-
! Dievas Senelis ("''Good Old Man''")
| Yama
|He is a teacher of people and judge of their morality. He looks like an old traveling beggar. Dievas Senelis is proficient at magic and medicine. Epithet of Dievas.
|-
!Perkūnas
|Prajanya
|Thunder, a son of Dievas ("dievaitis.")
|-
!Saulė
|Surya
|The Sun Goddess.
|-
!Ašvieniai
|Ashvins
|The divine twins who pulled the chariot of the Sun.
|-
|}

There is a Lithuanian folk song reminiscent of a Vedic tale.<Ref> P. 323 ''The Religion of the Ṛgveda'' By Hervey De Witt Griswold </reF>[https://gazetteers.maharashtra.gov.in/cultural.maharashtra.gov.in/english/gazetteer/Thana%20District/appendix.html]

;Russia
"''I also feel the great sympathy with modern Hinduism of [[Rama]] Krishna and Girikananda...''"<ref> P. 40 ''Christianity Today, Volume 11'' By Carl Ferdinand Howard Henry </ref> 
"''The mystico-religious elements in Indian culture didn't interest me much...The moral teachings of early Buddhism, the personality of the Buddha, the great ascetic life of Mahatma Gandhi, who blended ancient philosophies so harmoniously with modern conditions, fascinated me far more.''"<ref> ''Only One Year: A Memoir'' By Svetlana Alliluyeva </ref> - Svetlana Alliluyeva, ex-atheist daughter of Joseph Stalin

In Russia's Volga region during excavation, a 7th century AD Varāha statue was found in Staraya Maina village within the Ulyanovsk region.<Ref> [http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/world/rest-of-world/Ancient-Viṣṇu-idol-found-in-Russian-town/articleshow/1046928.cms "Ancient Viṣṇu idol found in Russian town"] </ref> This ancient area was highly populated city 1,700 years ago. Ulyanovsk State University's archaeology department Dr. Alexander Kozhevin's team had made the discovery after having excavated the area. A famous Russian historian had written that thousands of years before the 'Kiev-Rus' culture, from which Russian nation originated, there was a 'Vedic-Rus' which was characterized by an international Vedic culture.<ref> ''India’s Emerging Partnerships in Eurasia: Strategies of New Regionalism'' By Dr. Nivedita Das Kundu </ref> During the 14th century CE Indian gold coins were found in the Volga region near the village of Tenishevo indicating a flourishing trade between India and Russia.

==Americas==
Before reaching [[Editing The Spread of Hinduism#Oceania|Polynesia]], the Davanas passed through South America. Surprisingly, it seems they may have left a mark on the indigenous there because, like in Easter Island, the native language Aymara resembles an Indian language. In this case it is Sanskrit, which is bares similarities to the Aymara tongue spoken in Bolivian Andes mountain. Writers, such as the 19th century Vicente de Ballivián y Roxas, 20th century F.W. Christian<ref> P, 77 ''The Journal of the Polynesian Society
Volumes 1-22'' By Polynesian Society (N.Z.) </ref>, and 21st century ‎Geoffrey V. Davis, as well as others have written about this.

;USA
“''I didn't have a dorm room, so I slept on the floor in friends' rooms. I returned coke bottles for the 5¢ deposits to buy food with. And I would walk the 7 miles across town every Sunday night to get one good meal a week at the Hare Krishna temple. I loved it.''” - Steve Jobs, Stanford University conference in 2005<ref> [https://iskconnews.org/steve-jobs-and-the-krishna-connection,2907/ ''Steve Jobs and the Krishna Connection'' By Venkata Bhatta dasa (Vineet Chander) for ISKCON News on Oct. 7, 2011] </ref>

The USA has been the base for establishing several [[Hindu-oriented organizations]], such as ISKCON.

American-born converts to Sanatan Dharm promoted it by establishing their own institutions like specific monastic orders or sectarian temples. Ranked in order of most influential are James Donald Walters, Richard Slavin, Richard Alpert, David Frawley, Anthony Paul Moo-Young, Robert Hansen, Lawrence Miles, John Edwin Favors, Stephen Cope, Andrew Cohen, Leopold Fischer, Georg Feuerstein, Merle Roberson, and Christopher Isherwood.

{| class="wikitable sortable"
|-
! Person
! Sectarian or Darshan Affiliation
! Organizational Affiliation
! Discipleship
! Establishment
! Other Achievement(s)
! Compilation(s)
|-
|Andrew Cohen
|Neo-Advaita Vedanta
|
|
|EnlightenNext
|
|
|-
|Anthony Paul Moo-Young (Mooji)
|
|
|
|Monte Sahaja
|
|
|-
|Chris Butler ('Jagad Guru Siddhaswarupananda Paramahamsa')
|Vaishnavism (Gaudiya)
|ISKCON
|
|Science of Identity Foundation
|
|
|-
|Christopher Isherwood
|
|
|
|Vedanta Society of Southern California
|
|
|-
|David Frawley
|
|
|
|American Institute of Vedic Studies
|
|
|-
|Georg Feuerstein
|
|
|
|
|
|
|-
|James Donald Walters ('Swami Kriyananda')
|Neo-Vedanta
|
|
|Ananda Sangha
|Spread Kriya Yoga
|
|-
|John Edwin Favors ('Bhakti Tirtha Swami')
|Vaishnavism (Gaudiya)
|ISKCON
|
|iFast
|
|
|-
|Leopold Fischer (Swami Agehananda Bharati)
|
|Dasnami Sampraday
|Yes
|
|
|''The Orche Robe'' (1962), ''The Titanic Tradition'' (1965), ''The Light at the Centre'' (1976)
|-
|Lawrence Miles ('Swami Shyam')
|Shaivism (Nath)
|Dasnami Sampraday
|Yes
|International Nath Order, Shyam Mission
|
|
|-
|Merle Antoinette Roberson
|
|
|
|Gangaji Foundation
|
|''The Diamond in Your Pocket'', ''Hidden Treasure'', ''Freedom and Resolve''
|-
|Richard Alpert ('Ram Dass')
|Vedanta
|
|
|Hanuman Foundation
|
|
|-
|Paul Muller-Ortega
|Shaivism (Kashmir)
|
|
|Blue Throat Yoga
|
|
|-
|Richard Slavin ('Radhanath Swami')
|Vaishnavism
|ISKCON
|
|Govardhan Eco Village
|Established multiple educational and bhakti institutions
|
|-
|Robert Hansen ('Satguru Sivaya Subramuniyaswami')
|Shaivism (Siddhanta)
|
|Yes
|Saiva Siddhanta Church, Himalayan Academy
|
|''Hinduism Today'' magazine
|-
|Stephen Cope
|
|
|Kripalu Centre for Yoga and Health
|Integrated Vedanta/yoga ethics into Western therapeutic spirituality
|
|
|-
|Stephen Guarino ('Satsvarupa Dasa Goswami')
|Vaishnavism (Gaudiya)
|ISKCON
|Yes
|
|
|''Śrīla Prabhupāda-līlāmṛta''[https://vedabase.io/en/library/spl/] (1978-83)
|-
|}

;Guyanas
Guyana, former British Guyana and Suriname, former Dutch Guyana, were the countries of many Hindu immigrants. Both have had Hindu leaders as heads of the government.

==Africa==
Technically [[The spread of Hinduism#Egypt|Egypt]] was the first part of Africa in which the Hinduism spread.

;South Africa
[[image:First Hindus Temple in South Africa.jpg|right|thumb|200px|The first Hindu Temple in South Africa was a very simple design. It was built in 1869 and is now a Protected Site by South African government.]] The first Hindu temple in South Africa was constructed in 1869.

;Ghana
[[image:Hindus in Ghana.jpg|right|thumb|200px|Hindus celebrating [[Ganesha Chaturthi]] in Ghana.<Ref> [http://drishtikone.com/hinduism-growing-in-africa-without-proselytizing/ ''Hinduism growing in Africa without Proselytizing'' by Desh Kapoor] </ref>]]
[[image:Hare Krishnas in Ghana.jpg|right|thumb|200px|Hare Krishnas chanting in Ghana.<Ref> [http://drishtikone.com/hinduism-growing-in-africa-without-proselytizing/ ''Hinduism growing in Africa without Proselytizing'' by Desh Kapoor] </ref>]]

==See also==
*[[List of UNESCO Hindu World Heritage Sites|UNESCO Hindu World Heritage Sites]]
*[[Hindu Temples in Europe]]
*[[Temples]]
*[[Pilgrimages]]
*[[Zoroastrianism and Hinduism]]
*[[Historical racial diversity of Hindus]]
*[[Indus Valley Civilization]]
*[[Hindu response to conversions]]
*[[Hindu-inspired organizations]]
*[[The Hindu Renaissances]]
*[[Buddhist patronage by Hindu kings]]
*[[Sufism with Vaishnavism]]
*[[History of ancient geography]]

==External resources==
*[http://hinduwisdom.info/Pacific.htm Pacific Waves]
*[http://hinduwisdom.info/Seafaring_in_Ancient_India.htm Seafarers]
*[https://www.myindiamyglory.com/2018/06/28/western-alphabet-modelled-after-an-indian-alphabet-3400-plus-years-ago-indologist-wim-borsboom/ “Western Alphabet Modelled after an Indian Alphabet 3400 Plus Years Ago – Indologist Wim Borsboom”]
*[https://www.thesun.co.uk/news/1411522/sorry-nazis-the-swastika-is-11000-years-old-and-indian/ "GET YOUR FACTS REICH Sorry Nazis, the swastika is 11,000 years old and INDIAN" By Jasper Hamill, 8th July 2016, 11:14 am]

==References==
{{reflist}}

[[Category: The spread of Hinduism]]
[[Category: Geography]]
[[Category: Hindu history]]

The Spread of Hinduism

2026-06-08T07:13:28Z

Himanshu Bhatt: /* Americas */ added more details and names

{{Author|Himanshu Bhatt}}
[[image:Submerged Indian coast.jpg|right|thumb|200px|Indian shoreline before submersion from sea levels increasing, which began after end of last ice age in 10000 BCE, devastating the [[Indus Valley Civilization]] and leading to an exodus.]]
[[image:Out of Eurasia diffusion.jpg|right|thumb|200px|Out of Eurasia theory of human dispersion contradicts the mainstream viewpoint known as Out of Africa and has gained ground among geneticists, and further supports Out of India theory and [[History of ancient geography|Hindu myths]] of the sons of Emperor Priyavrata inheriting the eastern world island from their father.]]
[[image:Human migration patterns.jpg|right|thumb|200px|M130 is believed to have originated in India, as well as others, such as M20 and M45.]]
[[image:IVC trade.jpg|right|thumb|200px|Trade of the IVC.]]
<blockquote>
“Hinduism the perennial philosophy that is at the core of all religions.” - Aldous Huxley
</blockquote>
[[Hindu]] teachings were spread not just by Indian Hindus migrating and preaching outside of the Indian Subcontinent, but also by visitors to India who came for understanding [[Hinduism|Hindu spirituality]]. This latter section includes Greek philosophers such as Pythagoras, Orpheus and Plato, who had all returned to Greece and preached the concepts of [[karma]], [[bhakti]], [[gyāna]], reincarnation and [[Mokṣa]]. Iranian philosophers such as Mani also visited India and later preached similar messages as the Greeks who had become Hindu.

Hindu scholars noted for their wisdom had further promoted the religion through becoming advisers to monarchs outside of India. [[Kingdoms]] Kucha<ref>It means Kumarayāna.</ref> and Tukhara<ref>It means Dhitika.</ref> in Central Asia, Mongolia<ref>It means Śakya Pandita.</ref>, Naiman<ref>It means Tatatungya.</ref> in Western Mongolia, Tibet<ref>It means Padmasambhava.</ref> and mainland China<ref> It means [[Bodhidharma]]. </ref>, all chose Indian [[Rulers in Hinduism|Hindu advisers]] who promoted [[Hinduism]] throughout their kingdoms. Soon an era came in which Greek philosophers describe that 'Greater India' came into being with cultural similarities between many regions outside India. Central Asia was known as Serindia, while from Burma to the Strait of Malacca became Indochina and the islands of the Strait of Malacca became Indonesia.

Around 4000-3000 BCE, is when exploration in the Indian Ocean had began, and the international regions to communicate with one another were India, Gulf (i.e., Mesopotamia), and Oman.<ref> P. 15 ''Indian Ocean In Antiquity'' By Julian Reade </ref> The curiosity of places outside of India and knowledge of trading routes had led to the Indian diaspora both from sea and land. Following this the [[Historical racial diversity of Hindus#Integration of Indian Hindu migrants with Europeans|Yamnaya culture of Europe]] that prospered from 3500-2500 BCE, which consisted of mixed peoples from both Indo-Iranian and native European ancestry was established around 3500-3200 BCE. Hindu scholars, including scientists and missionaries, remained explorers and documented the [[History of ancient geography|various geographies of global places]] wherein they traveled.

Of the Indian Hindus in the ancient times that established colonies abroad, noteworthy are the [[Danavas]] of Sind province that, with their navigation expertise, had settled in various places where they had come to be been known as Danuna, Danunites, Danaoi, Danaus, Danaids, Dene, Danai, Danaian, and Dananns. Historians have noted tribes with the demonym 'Sindi' among the Thracians, Colchis, and both ancient and modern Kurds.

With the spread of British colonialism in the modern era, many Indians started regularly traveling and emigrating to other British colonies outside of India. Many others also traveled to other colonies, such as of France and Netherlands. Resulting from this diffusion and establishment of communities abroad, Indian Hindus have gone on to democratically achieve becoming leaders of countries such as Guyana, Suriname, Fiji and Mauritius. From colonialism, Europeans also received the opportunities to travel to India and then [[Hindu-inspired organizations|share spiritual ideas]] with Western nations. As such, the establishment of the [[Theosophical Society]] by Helena Blavatsky and [[Agni]] [[Yoga]] by Nicholas Roerich. The modern age has given a boost to Hinduism through [[Hindu-inspired organizations|organizations]] such as the [[Hare Krishna]]s, [[Ananda Margi]]s, [[Brahma Kumari]]s and others. [[Yoga]] has spread now and is practiced by many non-Hindus for improving and maintaining both physical and mental health.

<blockquote>
“South Asia, which is where Bos Indicus (zebu cattle) originated, was not isolated during this period. People seem to have migrated from the Indus Valley civilization into Central Asia around the same time as the climatic effect that happened around 4,200 years ago. This may have introduced zebu cattle ancestry into Near Eastern cattle populations.” - Iosif Lazaridis, Harvard Medical School geneticist<ref> [https://www.natureasia.com/en/nmiddleeast/article/10.1038/nmiddleeast.2019.100 "Ancient cattle DNA reveals a bullish tale"] By Lara Reid, Published online 12 July 2019 </ref>
</blockquote>

The influence of Hindus and Moksh-based religions to the history of the world is definitely undeniable. Mahatma Gandhi changed the world forever and his message of peaceful non-cooperation to obtain freedom and justice was implemented by other freedom fighters in former colonies, and by notable figures towards national reform as in the cases of Martin Luther King Junior and Aung San Suu Kyi. Time Magazine ranked him as number 54 on the list the most significant figures in all of history[https://ideas.time.com/2013/12/10/whos-biggest-the-100-most-significant-figures-in-history/], on the list of the important 20th century persons while WondersList[https://www.wonderslist.com/10-most-influential-people-of-the-20th-century/#:~:text=1%20Albert%20Einstein.%20Most%20Influential%20People%20of%2020th,9%20Princess%20Diana.%20...%2010%20Alexander%20Fleming.%20] as number 5 for that list, Time as number 9 for one of history’s most important leaders[http://content.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,988159,00.html], BBC as one of the most important philosophers, and other sources like Historyplex[https://historyplex.com/influential-people-in-history] as one of the most important persons overall in all of history.

==Middle East==
[[image:Ancient_Ariana_lands.jpg|right|thumb|200px|Ancient Greek historian Aelianus in ''De natura animalium'' (16.16), also mentions that there were "Indian Arianians" and there is some suggestion that control of Ariana fluctuated between Indian and Arian Arianians.]]
"''Slowly and gradually, it dawned upon them that the language of the ''Gatha'' and Zendavesta has very great kinship with the [[Sanskrta]] language; when the grammar of Panini, Katyayana, and Patanjali was applied then the Gatha and Zendavesta came to be understood by the westerners. The lesson from this amazing fact is clear that once the Iranians of the ''Gatha and Zendavesta'' and the Indo-Aryans of the [[Vedas]] formed one single race, speaking language akin to Samskrta. Indeed this is clear from the city tablets found in Tell-El-Amarna in Egypt and Boghaz Keui in Asia Minor. On the tablets are mentioned Indra, Varuna, Mitra and Nasatya as witnesses of the treaty between the King Subiluliuma of the Hittites, and the Mitanni King Mattiwaza. These tablets date to about 1600 B.C. These tablets clearly indicate that these Vedic gods who were quite familiar in the region about 1600 B.C. and that the people living there then had more or less a common religion''." - Yaqub Masih<ref> P. 21-22 ''A Comparative Study of Religions'' By Y. Masih </ref>

The process of Hinduism spreading in the Middle East is whereby Hindus left India and had traveled to regions within the ancient Neat East and had preached the doctrine and customs. Hindus of Mitanni were Hurrians while those of Anatolia were Hittites, those of Levant the Hurus and those of Egypt, the Hyksos.

{{Cquote|Ketumalavarsha indeed extends from Romakapura to [the] Gandhamadana [mountain].|4=Srimad Bhagavatam}}

===Iranian Plateau===
''See also: [[Zoroastrianism and Hinduism]]''
[[image:Vishnu statue Mashad.jpg|right|thumb|200px|Statue of Vishnu sitting cross-legged while holding conch and lotus (underneath peacock) at mosque in Mashad, Khorasan, Iran.]]
[[image:Agathocles Indo-Bactrian coin.jpg|right|thumb|200px|One of Greco-Bactrian Empire's coins from King Agathocles Dikaios issued around 190-180 BCE, featuring Balarama (left) and Krishna (right) holding [[Dharmachakra]].<Ref> P. 330 ''The Serpent The Eagle The Lion & The Disk'' By Brannon Parke </ref>]]
[[image:Kadphises Kushan coin.jpg|right|thumb|200px|Four of Kushan Empire's coins from King Vima Katphisa issued around 166-230 CE, featuring Shiva with his bull attendant. They read, "[Coin] of the great King Vima Kathphisa, the king of kings, lord of all the world, the Mahavesvara."<ref> P. 370'' Studies in Indian Coins'' By D.C. Sircar </ref>]]
[[image:Lakshmi displayed on coin.jpg|right|thumb|200px|Hunnic Empire's coin of Bactria in Brahmi from 400-500 CE displaying Lakshmi holding a lotus in one hand and a cornucopia in the other.]]
[[image:Hindu Temple Bandar Abbas.jpg|right|thumb|200px|Vaiśnava temple in Bandar Abbas, southern Iran. The temple was built in 1892 particularly for the recent Indian immigrants, many of whom were merchants and soldiers. In 1965 the temple was vacant as Indians emigrated. Whereas temples are usually made by stone, dew the climate of Bandar Abbas, rubble stones, mortar, coral rock, soil material and plaster was used in this temple’s construction.]]

;Movement of Indians into Iran
<blockquote>
"Slowly and gradually, it dawned upon them that the language of the ''Gatha'' and Zendavesta has very great kinship with the Sanskrta language; when the grammar of Panini, Katyayana, and Patanjali was applied then the Gatha and Zendavesta came to be understood by the westerners. The lesson from this amazing fact is clear that once the Iranians of the ''Gatha'' and ''Zendavesta'' and the Indo-Aryans of the Vedas formed one single race, speaking language akin to Samskrta." - Yaqub Masih<ref> P. 21-22 ''A Comparative Study of Religions'' By Y. Masih </ref>
</blockquote>

Ancient Iranian lands had a diversity of spiritual beliefs and the religions included Zoroastrianism, Manicheism, Yazdanism, Mandeanism and others. As the original Indo-Iranian homeland was eastwards in the [[Himalayas]], the nations of those areas spread westwards and found existing non-Indo-European peoples there such as Kasodians in Gilan, Taporians in Mazandaran, Urartians in the Caucus Mountain Range, Turukkus, Kassites and Lolobites in the Zagros Mountain Range and Elamites on the southern shoreline. The Turkic groups were known collectively to the natives as the 'Turani'<ref>They were called '[[Turiya]]' in the Avesta.</ref> and they were [[Danava#Turkic affiliation|associated with Dānu]], just as the Tarukṣas coming into India were too. The non-Indo-Iranians (or non-Aryans) were known to the Aryans as 'Anariakoi' (''non-Aryan people''), and this was the term documented by Greek writers for Hyrcanians<ref> P. 25 ''An Inquiry Into the Ethnography of Afghanistan: Prepared and Presented to ...'' By Henry Walter Bellew </ref> and others. Overtime, the Indo-Iranian cultural significance in the societies of the plateau led to the formation of Indo-Iranian nations that were native to the region (i.e., [[The spread of Hinduism#Mitanni|Hurrians]], Baluchis, Armenians.) A Turani monarch had however opposed the Indo-Iranian influence on the plateau and invaded Balkh.<ref>It is in northern Afghanistan.</ref> After its conquest both its king and the king's close friend Zarathustra were executed by invading Turanis.<ref> P. 62 ''Mute [[Dreams]], Blind Owls, and Dispersed Knowledges: Persian Poesis in the Transnational Circuitry'' By Michael M. J. Fischer </ref>

Sir William Jones notes:
<blockquote>Thus it has been proved by clear evidence and plain reasoning that a powerful monarch was established in Iran long before the Assyrian or Pishadi government. That it was in fact, a '''Hindu monarchy''', though any may choose to call it Cusian, Casdean or Scythian..."<ref> P. 133 ''The works of Sir William Jones: with the life of the author by Lord Teignmouth in Thirteen Volumes Volume 3'' By Sir William Jones </ref> </blockquote>

;Closeness between religions of Iran to Hinduism
Zoroastrianism, which is also known as ''Mazdayasna'' (''Sacrifice to [[Asura|Ahura Mazda]]'') and as ''Vehdin'' (''Good Religion''), resembles Hinduism in many ways, such as in its origin, beliefs (i.e., common [[deities]]) and iconography. Dr. Mills says, "The Avesta is nearer the [[Veda]] than the [[Veda]] to its own epic [[Sanskrit]]." Major gods or yazatas<ref>Yazatas means ''venerable ones''.</ref> included Varuṇa and [[Mitra]]. Zarathustra (Greek: Zoroaster) Spitama was an Athravan priest, a descendant of the Vedic Atharvans. The swastika has been a popular symbol throughout the history of Iran and it has been called by Persians, "The four horses of [[Mitra]]."

Among the followers of Zoroastrianism, while the scriptures do not mention the idea of [[re-incarnation]], it is not denied either<ref> ''Textual Sources for the Study of Zoroastrianism'' edited by Mary Boyce </ref> and some Zoroastrians of India<ref>It is particularly members of the Parsi Theosophy.</ref> believe in reincarnation.<ref> P. 264 The Parsis of India: Preservation of Identity in Bombay City By Jesse S. Palsetia </ref> Some esoteric Parsi mystics such as Beaman adhered to the belief in reincarnation.<ref> P. 178 Parsis in India and the Diaspora edited by John Hinnells, Alan Williams </ref> The belief in karma and re-incarnation are perpetuated in the ''Desatir'', wherein it declares that those who are happy now have done good deeds in a previous life while those who suffer now have done bad deeds in former life.<ref>P. 522 ''The British Critic: A New Review, Volume 20'' </ref> It is therefore discredited as a Mazdaean work.

Of Mandeans, Chevalier Emerys writes, "Modern Johannite Mandean Christians of Iraq, also known as Nazoreans, still believe in the doctrine of reincarnation and also teach that Jesus was the reincarnation of the prophet Melchizedek."<ref>P. 49 Revelation of the Holy Grail By Chevalier Emerys </ref> The Mandeans also believe in reincarnation of the human, if a human does not marry within his or her lifetime.<ref>P. 41 ''Gnostic Ethics and Mandaean [[Origins]]'' By Edwin M. Yamauchi </ref> Islamic Druzism believes in reincarnation, and is named after Persian Batinite missionary named Muhammad bin Ismail Nashtakin ad-Darazi. Muslim Shah Ismail the Persian Sultan was one of the founders of Alevism or the "People of Fire" and this Islamic sect believes in reincarnation. The Islamic sects of Shabak, Bajalan, Sarli, and Kakais are also very closely affiliated with Iranians and has a belief in re-incarnation.

After the Islamization of the Iranian Plateau, some intellectuals resisted and established their own new religions, which contained some hindu ideas and some other themes that they were familiar with. This includes, Yarsanism (Ahl-e Haqq) established in the 14th century by Sultan Sahak as a Yazdan sect and Baha'ism by Bahá'u'lláh in the 19th century. Whereas both traditional Hinduism and [[Buddhism]] were popular in the eastern part of the Iranian Plateau, Mithraism became popular within Zoroastrianism particularly in the western part. From here the popularity of the god Mitra spread to Assyria, Anatola and Europe. The Avesta declares, "This Mitra, the lord of the wide pastures, I have created as worthy of sacrifice, as I, Ahura Mazda, am myself."<ref>P. 1xi ''The Zend-Avesta: The Sîrôzahs, Yasts, and Nyâyis'' edited by James Darmesteter, Lawrence Heyworth Mills </ref> Philosopher Mani of Persia had spent time in India, and after having accepted the ideas of re-incarnation and [[Means to Salvation|the three paths to Mokṣa]], he began preaching of them in Iran. His set of beliefs are called Manicheism.

;Association of regions within Iranian Plateau to India
The Zoroastrian Vendidad reads, "The country of Hind extends from east of the Indus to west of it." This, India in the Vendidad's definition includes Baluchistan and Seistan.

Ancient Persians called the regions stretching from Hormuz to Baluchistan as 'Hind'<ref>It is the original name of India.</ref> because those areas had more in common with India than with the other Iranian cultures located west to them. King Dhrishataketu of Kaikeya Kingdom married Śrutakirtti and had by her Santarddana, and four other sons, known together as the five Kaikeyas. The Kaikeyas were a major dynasty in India and it was on both sides of the Indus River. The Anava Kingdom of Uśinara Sibi, extended from Baluchistan to the Punjab. Even modern times Sibi is a district within Baluchistan.

Further, the Helmand region of Afghanistan was called by Persians as 'White India'. Siestan was also referred by Greek philosophers to as White India. Referring to the peoples of this region, Alexander called them, "the Indians on this side of the [[Indus River|river Indus]]."<ref>P. 128 ''Handbuch der Orientalistik. Abt. 1, Der Nahe und der Mittlere Osten, Bd 8, Religion, Abschnitt 1, Religionsgeschichte des Alten Orients, Lief. 2. H. 2, A history of Zoroastrianism, Vol. 3, Zoroastrianism under Macedonian and Roman rule'' By Mary Boyce; Frantz Grenet</ref>

Overtime, the natives of this region stayed and many became Buddhist in modern-day Afghanistan and the Afghans turned Kandahar into a Buddhist pilgrimage center which was visited by devout Buddhists from China and Indonesia. While Takśaśila was a city in east of the Indian river on the Iranian side, there were other important centres. The two great Indian grammarians [[Panini]] and [[Patanjali]] have mentioned a number of north-western cities like Balkh or Vahika, Kapisa, Pushkalavati, Masakavati, Takśaśila and Sakala. Takśaśila was the greatest and most flourishing city.<ref> P. viii ''A History of Indian Civilization: Ancient and classical traditions'' By Radhakamal Mukerjee, Gurmukh Ram Madan, Viśvaprakāśa Gupta</ref>

;Modern Relations between the Plateau and Hinduism
Hare [[Krishna]]'s founder [[A.C. Bhaktivedanta Swami Prabhupada]] traveled to Tehran in 1976. Since 1977, [[ISKCON]] runs a vegetarian restaurant in Tehran.

===Assyria===
Assyria was known as Asuristan.<Ref> P. 10 ''The [[Sound]] System of Modern Assyrian (Neo-Aramaic)'' By Edward Y. Odisho </ref> The name of Assyria comes from Rigvedic 'Asurya', the original name of the sun-god [[Surya]]. Syrians still to this day, pronounce the name of Syria as '[[Surya]]'. Hence, Assyria's name would have been pronounced as 'Asurya'.

In the 6th century CE, the Lower Euphrates was known as 'India within land' or just 'Hind' (India) in general.<ref> P. 421 ''Gazetteer of the Bombay Presidency: Tha'na (2 pts.) Volume XIII, Part II'' By Government Central Press </ref> Oderic in 1320 CE also speaks of the Lower Euphrates as 'India within land'. Much like how the [[Indus Valley Civilization|Indus River Civilization]] had priest-kings as ruler of certain towns and cities, Assyria too had a priest-prince ruler. Hence, from the Indian Hindu influence, [[Parshurama]] is also believed to have been worshiped in the region. In the ancient Sumerian [[Social Structure|social structure]] as well, there was a leader of the Baramas (i.e., [[Brahmana]]s) named Bur-Sin and the belief by some scholars is that he is Parshurama.

The patriarchal god of the Assyrians was Assur, who is always portrayed on a winged chakkra-sun or sundisk, just as the frahavars<ref>Frahavars means angels.</ref> of Iranian spirituality are shown. The Assyrians, referred to a [[dharmachakra|chakkra]] as a wheel. The cultural and political capital of the Assyrians was Assur, named after the god. Assur was also known as ''Asara Mazas''<ref>For them some scholars believe that they origin from the proto-Indo-Iranian form ''[[Asura]] Mazdas''.</ref><ref> ''History of Civilizations of Central Asia: The development of sedentary and nomadic civilizations: 700 B.C. to A.D. 250'' By Ahmad Hasan Dani </ref> Furthermore, god Enki was also known as Masda and Masenda. God Assur had later been identified within Judeo-Christian Biblical mythology as Ashur, the son of Shem.

It is believed that Europe had borrowed the planetary names for the week's days that the Babylonians used. Babylon was a part of the Assyrian Empire. When Hindus had spread to Assyria, they had brought this system of the week with them.

{| cellspacing="1" style="width:100%;" class="wikitable sortable"
|-
| || Sunday || Monday || Tuesday || Wednesday || Thursday || Friday || Saturday
|-
|Planet
| style="width:12%;"| Sun
| style="width:12%;"| Moon
| style="width:12%;"| Mars
| style="width:12%;"| Mercury
| style="width:12%;"| Jupiter
| style="width:12%;"| Venus
| style="width:12%;"| Saturn
|-
| [[Hindu gods|Hindu deity]]
| [[Ravi]]
| [[Soma]]
| [[Mangala]]
| [[Buddha]]
| [[Guru]]
| [[Shukra]]
| [[Shani]]
|-
|Mazdaen deity<ref> P. 253 ''The Wiley-Blackwell Companion to Zoroastrianism'' By Michael Stausberg, Yuhan Sohrab-Dinshaw Vevaina, [[Anna]] Tessmann </ref><REF> P. 37 ''Persian Architectural Heritage: Architecture, Structure and Conservation'' By Mehrdad Hejazi, Fatemeh Mehdizadeh Saradj </REF>
|Mitra
|
|Vrarayna
|Tiriya
|Ahura Mazda
|Ardvi Anahita [[Sura]]
|Kayvanu
|-
|Assyrian deity<ref> P. 253 ''The Wiley-Blackwell Companion to Zoroastrianism'' By Michael Stausberg, Yuhan Sohrab-Dinshaw Vevaina, [[Anna]] Tessmann </ref>
|
|
|Nergal
|Nabu
|Marduk
|Ishtar
|Kajamanu
|-
| Greco-Roman deity
| style="width:12%;"| Helios-Sol
| style="width:12%;"| Selene-Luna
| style="width:12%;"| Ares-Mars
| style="width:12%;"| Hermes-Mercury
| style="width:12%;"| Zeus-Jupiter
| style="width:12%;"| Aphrodite-Venus
| style="width:12%;"| Cronus-Saturn
|-
|}

The Assyrians had referred to India as ''Melluhha''. This comes from the name Mallhu and Malla, which many kings in India, particularly western India and Baluchistan have been called. There was even Mount Malleus mountain that Sind<ref> ''Studia Orientalia, Volume 64'' </ref> was known for having. Even the coast of Kerala is known as Malankara.

===Mitanni===
[[image:Nefertitti image at Amarna.jpg|right|thumb|200px|Mural of Nefertiti found at Amarna in 1912. She was an Indo-Aryan princess from Mitanni, who married an Egyptian Pharaoh Amenhotep IV (Akhnaton), and reigned ca. 1353-1336 BCE.]]

Today this region is known as Kurdistan. In the ancient times, the inhabitants of Mitanni were known as Hurrians. In the Judeo-Christian Bible, they are known as the Horites.<ref> P. 64 ''The Hebrew Pharaohs of Egypt: The Secret Lineage of the Patriarch Joseph'' By Ahmed Osman </ref> Sanskritic interpretations of Mitanni names render the following:
* Artashumara (artaššumara) - It means that it is as [[Arta]]-smara "who thinks of [[Arta]]/Ṛta".<ref>Mayrhofer II 780</ref>
* Biridashva (biridaša, biriiaša) - It means that it is as Prītāśva "whose horse is dear".<ref>Mayrhofer II 182</ref>
* Priyamazda (priiamazda) - It means that it is as Priyamedha "whose wisdom is dear".<ref>Mayrhofer II 189, II378</ref>
* Citrarata as [[citraratha]] - It means that it is "whose chariot is shining".<ref>Mayrhofer I 553</ref>
* Indaruda/Endaruta - It means that it is as Indrota "helped by Indra".<ref>Mayrhofer I 134</ref>
* Shativaza (šattiaza) - It means that it is as Sātivāja "winning the race price".<ref>Mayrhofer II 540, 696</ref>
* Šubandhu as Subandhu - It means that it is like 'having good relatives".<ref>It is a name in Palestine.</ref><ref>Mayrhofer II 209, 735</ref>
* Tushratta (tišeratta, tušratta, etc.) - It means that it is as taišaratha, Vedic Tveṣaratha "whose chariot is vehement".<ref>Mayrhofer I 686, I 736</ref>

Apart from Queen Nefertiti, Ramesid pharaohs were also of Mitanni descent.<Ref> P. 85 ''Arshile Gorky Adoian'' By Karlen Mooradian </ref>

===Hatti===
The Hittites or Nesili, whose empire was known as 'Hatti' and 'Kadesh', had believed in re-incarnation as attested by their writings. They [[worshiped]] the Devas like [[Indra]], [[Nasatyas]] (Ashvins), [[Mitra]] and [[Varuṇa]]. This is confirmed by the Suppiluliuma-Shattiwaza Treaty between the Hittites and Hurrians. The beleaguered Tusratta was then murdered by his son in a palace coup. Tusratta's other son, Prince Shattiwaza, fled Mitanni and was eventually given sanctuary by the Hittite King Suppiluliuma with whom he concluded a treaty 1380 BCE, which we know as the Suppiluliuma-Shattiwaza Treaty discovered in 1907 CE in Hattusa near present-day Bogazkale (Boğazkale, formerly Bogazköy) in north-central Turkey. In the treaty, the Hittite King Suppiluliuma agreed to assist Shattiwaza to gain the Mitanni throne. The Hittites captured the Mitanni capital Wassukanni after a second attempt and installed Shattiwaza as a vassal king.

The Suppiluliuma-Shattiwaza Treaty is a source of considerable information about the Mitanni. In addition, it gives us some astonishing information about the religious practices of the Mitanni for it invokes the Indo-Iranian pantheon of [[Asuras]] and Devas Mitras(il) (Mitra), Uruvanass(il) (Varuṇa), Indara (Indra) and the Nasatianna (Nasatyas.) In the Judeo-Christian Bible, the Hitties are assimilated to have been descended from Heth, the son of Ham.

===Levant===
The Levant region includes countries of the Mediterranean coast which are located at the southwest Asian area. The Hindus here were an Indo-Aryan speaking population called as the Huru.

===Egypt===
:''See also: [[Danava]]''
<blockquote>
"One of the oldest colonies founded by the Hindus was in Egypt" - G. R. Josyer<ref> P. 104 ''Astrological Magazine, Volume 73, Issues 1-6'' 1984 </ref>
</blockquote>
The Hyksos were an Indo-Aryan dynasty, according to the scholars such as Sam Kerr<ref> P. 15 ''Cyrus the Great - Celestial Sovereign'' By Sam Kerr </ref> and M. Chahin<Ref> P. 28 ''The Kingdom of Armenia: A History'' By M. Chahin </ref>. They had come to Egypt and settled within its Delta region in about 1674-1547 BCE<ref> P. 28 ''The Kingdom of Armenia: A History'' By M. Chahin </ref> and within a few centuries dominated the country. Much cultural exchange happened during the period of their rule.
<blockquote>
“Egypt was colonized from India, and the priests of Egypt were of the same order as the Brahmins of India.” - Godfrey Higgins<ref> p. 121 ''Anacalypsis: An Attempt to Draw Aside the Veil of the Saitic Isis'' (Vol. I) By Godfrey Higgins </ref>
</blockquote>
Excavations in El-Amarna in Egypt have yielded the fact that around the 14th-15th centuries BCE, kings and princes with Vedic-like names were ruling in the region of modern day Syria. Some of the names are Artamanya, Aryavirya, Yashodatta, Suttarna and Dushratta. Thutmose IV had married a daughter of Artatma, the King of the Mitanni Kingdom. A letter addressed by Dushratta, Artatama's grandson, written to Akhnaton, says that it was not until Thutmose asked seven times that King Artatma agreed to his marriage proposal. Amenhotep III married Tiy, daughter of Yuaa<ref>He is a foreigner "from North Syria".</ref> and Tuau. During this time in Egyptian history, the ruling aristocracy of Egypt, were of mixed Egyptian and Mitanni ancestry. According to Akhnaton, Aton was both the male and female. He says to Aton, "Father and Mother of all that You have made." This parallels with the Hindu terms for the sun-god, Savita<ref>He is the male form.</ref> and Savitri<ref>She is the female form.</ref> or the sun and the sun's energy ([[Puruṣa]] and [[Prakṛti]].)

The Hyksos were descendants of the Indian Danavas. They're written of in Egyptian, Hittite, and Hellenic accounts under the names Danuna, Danunites, Danaoi, Danaus, Danaids, Dene, Danai, and Danaian.<ref> P. 218 ''Sea Peoples of the Bronze Age Mediterranean c.1400 BCÂ?1000 BC'' By Raffaele DÂ?Amato, Andrea Salimbeti </ref> In mythology it was Ramses III who exiles them from Egypt, whereby they take refuge in Greece and spread further into Europe from there.

Burials have been uncovered of Indian monkeys, leading archaeologists to believe that they were imported from India.<ref> [https://www.heritagedaily.com/2020/08/ancient-animal-burials-in-egypt-were-monkeys-imported-as-pets-from-india/134834 ANCIENT ANIMAL BURIALS IN EGYPT WERE MONKEYS IMPORTED AS PETS FROM INDIA] (August 25, 2020) By HeritageDaily </ref>

===Arabian Peninsula===
This region was historically known to Indians as Arabaka or Arvasthān.<ref>It means the ''Land of Horses''.</ref> Before the Islamization of the region beginning with [[Islam]]'s prophet Mohammed, peoples here more freely practiced their spirituality. Mohammed's own uncle, Umar-bin-e-Hassham had died for his devotion to [[Śiva]]. Among his writings, one poem of him depicting his faith in Śiva, has been found. It has come to be known as the "Śiva Stuti." The poem reads as follows:

{| class="wikitable sortable"
|-
! English
! Arabic
|-
|
:The man who may spend his life in sin
:and irreligion or waste it in lechery and wrath
:If at least he relent and return to
:righteousness can he be saved?
:If but once he [[bhakti|worship]] Mahadeva with a pure
:heart, he will attain the ultimate in spirituality.
:Oh Lord [[Shiva]] exchange my entire life for but
:a day’s sojourn in India where one attains salvation.
:But one pilgrimage there secures for one all
:merit and company of the truly great.
|
:Kafavomal fikra min ulumin Tab asayru
:Kaluwan amataul Hawa was Tajakhru
:We Tajakhayroba udan Kalalwade-E Liboawa
:Walukayanay jatally, hay Yauma Tab asayru
:Wa Abalolha ajabu armeeman '''Mahadeva'''
:Manojail ilamuddin minhum wa sayattaru
:Wa Sahabi Kay-yam feema-Kamil MINDAY Yauman
:Wa Yakulum no latabahan foeennak Tawjjaru
:Massayaray akhalakan hasanan Kullahum
:Najumum aja-at Summa gabul '''Hindu'''
|-
|}

Umar-bin-e-Hassham had the title of 'Abul Kaham', which in Arabic means ''doctor''.<Ref> P. 705 ''World Vedic heritage: a history of histories : presenting a unique unified field theory of history that from the beginning of time the world practiced Vedic culture and spoke [[Sanskrit]], Volume 1'' By Puruṣottam Nagesh Oak </ref> It is a fact that the Kaaba was worshiped in by non-Muslims before Islam. It is believed by some that before the Kaaba was Islamicized and made a pilgrimage for only Muslims, it was a Śiva temple. Umar-bin-e-Hassham is known to have been a priest at Kaaba. His composition was a part of the ''Sair-ul-Okul'' compiled by Labi-bin-e-Akhtab bin-e Turfa, which contained verses composed by multiple authors.

''The Encyclopedia Islamia'' admits: "''Muhammed's grandfather and uncles were hereditary priests of the Kaaba temple which housed 360 [[idols]]!''" Besides the Arabian Umar-bin-e-Hassham having been a priest at the temple, another point that some people make is that the black stone at the Kaaba is actually a Śivalinga.

[[Kṛṣṇa]] was also worshiped in Arabia and his tale is written in an Islamic Hadith. The text titled, ''The History of Hamadan Dailmi'' (Chapter "Al-Kaaf") declares, “''There was a prophet of God in India who is dark in color and his name was Kahān [Kanha, i.e., Kṛṣṇa].''”<ref> P. 181 ''Green Leaves: Harish S. Booch Memorial Volume'' By Harish S. Booch </ref>

==East Asia==
"''Mother of wisdom...India gave her mythology to her neighbors who went to teach it to the whole world. Mother of law and philosophy, she gave to three-quarters of Asia a god, a religion, a doctrine, an art.''" - Sylvain Lévi, French Scholar & Indologist

===Tibet===
[[image:Tonpa Shenrab.jpg|right|thumb|200px|[[Yungdrung Bon|Bonpa Dharma]] founder [[Tonpa Shenrab Miwoche]], also known as Shenrab Miwo, and Buddha Shenrab.]] Hinduism in Tibet began with the Bon religion of Tonpa Shenrab, who is noted in Bon scriptures to have come from a western land called Olmo Lungring and wandered into Zhang Zhung (western Tibet.) In some Tibetan scriptures, Shenrab's country is also called as sTag-gzig, Shangri-La and Shambhalla. Like several other ṛṣis such as [[Riṣabha]], [[Rāvaṇ]] and [[Śukra|Śukracharya]], Tonpa too meditated at [[Mount Kailāśa]]. 

According to most Bon sources on Guru Shenrab's dating, he arrived in Tibet either around 18,000<ref> ''The bsTan rTsis'' </ref> or 16,000 years ago. According to another Bon tradition, he was a contemporary of the pre-8th century Zhang Zhung king Triwer Sergyi Jyaruchan.<ref>P. 339 ''The Golden Letters: The Three Statements of Garab Dorje, First Dzogchen Master'' By John Myrdhin Reynolds </ref> However, the present day Tibetan history scholar and Dzogchen master Chogyal Namkhai Norbu calculates the probable actual date of his birth as 1917 BCE. 

What brought the prince to the region was his quest to retrieve his 7 blue horses that were stolen by his aggressor Khyab-Pa Lag-Ring and taken to Zhang Zhung. Master Shenrab went forth with his four attendants to find them. During his time in Zhang Zhung, he taught the locals the basic tenants of Bon Dharma. He found the horses and Khyab-Pa became his pupil. They left Tibet to return home and at age 32 Prince Shenrab decided to give up the royal life and take solitude ([[Gyāna|sanyāsa]]) to become a monk. Khyab-Pa had become his leading disciple.

At age 82 he departed the world and attained Mokṣa. Both in his country and among the locals in Zhang Zhung, Buddha Shenrab was successful in stopping ritual [[animal sacrifices]]. Bon preachers continued visiting Tibet for further propagating the religion, and many Tibetan Bonpas visited Olmo Lungring for learning the religion and meeting with Bonpa scholars. There are two types of Bonpas classed by Buddhists, White Bon<ref>They are the ones who also follow Buddhism.</ref> and Black Bon.<ref>They are strictly Bonpas.</ref> 

Apart from Tonpa Shenrab (the teacher), there are 3 other Sugatas, who together are known as Bon's 'Four Transcendent Lords'. They are Satrig Ersang (the great mother goddess), Shenlha Okar (god of light or wisdom), and Sangpo Bumtri (the procreator.) Other recognized Sugatas are Kuntu Kazgpo (who is similar to Buddhism's Adi Buddha), Kunzang Gyalwa Gyatso (a person similar to Avalokitesvara), and Welse Ngampa, Sipai Gyalmo (a 9-headed protector of Bon.)<ref> P. 304 ''[[Annapurna]]: A Trekker's Guide'' By Siân Pritchard-Jones, Bob Gibbons </ref>

===Uyghurstan===
{{Cquote|It is said that Bhadrasva-varṣa extends from the city of Yamakoti up to the Malyavat mountain.|4=Srimad Bhagavatam}}

Known anciently as Turkharistan, and now as East Turkistan or Uyghurstan, Buddhism was originally spread here by many missionaries from India. Later, missionaries within the country spread the [[dharma]]. It is noteworthy that the sun-god was known to the Saka Khotan Kingdom of the Tarim Basin as ''Urmaysde'' which scholars link to the term Ahura Mazda<ref> P. 132 ''The Nativist Prophets of Early Islamic Iran: Rural Revolt and Local Zoroastrianism'' By Patricia Crone</ref>. These Indo-Iranian words started coming over with migrants who were missionaries and merchants from India and Iran.

[[Bhadrasva]]-varṣa is the name for the Tarim Basin or southern Uyghurstan, and for northern Uyghurstan (plus Kazakhstan) it is Uttara-[[Kuru]].

===China===
''See also: [[Daoism and Hinduism]]''
"''India conquered and dominated China culturally for 20 centuries without ever having to send a single soldier across her border''." - Hu Shih, Chinese ambassador to the U.S. (1938-42)[http://www.hinduwisdom.info/India_and_China.htm]

Indian missionaries and monks worked with Chinese spiritual leaders and together preached the message of Moksha.

Bodhidharma is the well-known of the persons that increased the cultural relationships between India and China.

Some Tamil Siddhars too had visited China to discuss and spread spiritual knowledge. The Siddhar saint Bogar, disciple of Kalanginaathar, visited China. It is said that he proceeded there to teach the ways of the Siddhars. There is a legend that Lao Tze is Bogar. Daoxuan said passionately that India, and not China, should be considered the center of the world.

Writing of the Chinese language, Christian Reverend Joseph Edkins writes that Hindus prepared the model of the Chinese first letters during 3rd-6th centuries CE, arranged them under heads of 36 consonants like in Sanskrit, and instructed Chinese people in the way of right pronunciation with regard to the scientific basis of the sound.<ref> P. 248 ''Some Missing Chapters of World History'' By Purushottam Nagesh Oak </ref>

===Japan===
[[image:Saraswati, Vaishravana, and Ganesh statue Hatsukaichi.jpg|left|thumb|200px|From left to right, Benzaiten ([[Saraswati]]), Kangiten ([[Ganesh]]) and Bishamonten ([[Vaishravana]]) in the 1,200 year-old Daishō-in Temple Complex, Hatsukaichi, Japan.]]
[[image:Shivlinga Nayoga.jpg|right|thumb|200px|Shivlinga in the Toganji Temple at Nayoga, Japan.]]

"''India is culturally, Mother of Japan. For centuries it has, in her own characteristic way, been exercising her influence on the thought and culture of Japan.''" - Professor Hajime Nakamura

Atsushi Taguchi<ref>"''The transmission of Indian concepts—Hindu deities adapted into Shinto kami and Buddhist mandalas—exerted significant influence on Japan's religious worldview, contributing to its unique civilizational blend.''" - Atsushi Taguchi, Indologist and cultural historian; ''India-Japan Cultural Relations: From Ancient Times to Modern'' (2018)</ref>, Gen'ichi Yamaguchi<ref>"''Indian Buddhist thought, carrying Hindu philosophical undercurrents, profoundly shaped Japanese aesthetics and social harmony, influencing everything from tea ceremonies to imperial rituals—without which modern Japanese civilization would lack its syncretic depth.''" - Gen'ichi Yamaguchi, Buddhist studies scholar; "The Influence of Indian Buddhism on Japanese Culture" (2012) article–excerpts in ''Journal of Indian Philosophy'' (2015)</ref>Dr. Yoshihiro Kaburagi<ref>"''Since ancient times, Japan has assimilated various foreign cultures, particularly through Buddhism from India, which led to the formation of Japanese civilization.''" - Dr. Yoshihiro Kaburagi, historian and comparative civilization scholar</ref> have also written about the historical influence of Hinduism/India on Japan.
Due to the cultural exchange between India and Japan, mainstream Hindu gods were adopted by Japanese. Ganesh is known as Kangi-ten and as Bināyaka-ten which originates from the Sanskrit name [[Vināyaka]].

==South East Asia==
This whole region has been known in Hindu scriptures as Suvarṇabhumi.<ref>It means ''The Golden Land''.</ref> Hinduism has been the dominant religion amongst several nations for a long time here. Indonesia<ref>It was former Javadwipa.</ref> was dominantly Hindu until Islamization by missionaries and Islamists within the islands. At one point, lands even as far as the Philippines were part of the Chola Empire.<ref> [http://www.sanskritimagazine.com/history/the-tamil-chola-empire/ The Tamil Chola Empire] </ref>

===Burma===
"''They did not practice Theravada Buddhism, rather they observed a form of Mahayana Buddhism much influenced by Vaishnavism and native Naga (serpent) worship.''"<ref>''Essays on the History and Buddhism of Burma'' (2005) By Dr. U Than Tun</ref> - Dr. U Than Tun

Dr. Aye Aye Mar (Indologist), Dr. Khin Maung Nyunt (archaeologist & epigraphist), U Min Naing (cultural historian), and U Aung Thwin (historian) have also written about the historical influence of Hinduism/India on Burma.

In most Hindu scriptures, Burma is known as Brahmadesh. Buddhist scriptures sometimes called it Majjhimadesh. Greek philosopher Pliny had said that on the river called Ava or Pumas or Puman, many nations along it are in general called Bracmanae or Brahmane.<ref> P. 443 ''Asiatick Researches, Or, Transactions of the Society Instituted ..., Volume 14'' </ref> Hence, there is also the [[Brahmaputra]] River near Burma which crosses North-East India.

Several Hindu temples here date back to pre-Buddhistic times. In Burma there is a Dagoba dedicated to Dagon ([[Matsya|Matsya avatār]] of [[Viṣṇu]]) which Burmese claim is over 3000 years old.<ref> P. 37 ''Shambhala'' By Nicholas Roerich </ref>

===Cambodia===
[[image:Angkot War.jpg|right|thumb|200px|[[List of UNESCO Hindu World Heritage Sites#Cambodia|Angkot Wat Temple]], Cambodia.]]
"''From the 5th century, Hinduism established cults in Chenla that integrated with indigenous beliefs, creating a syncretic society... The Preah Thong myth shows how Indian origins were localized to legitimize Khmer rule.''"<ref>Quote in ''Inscriptions du Cambodge'' (Volume on Chenla, 2012, EFEO) By George Cœdès</ref> - Sovath Prak, epigraphist & historian

Chea Socheat, Michael Vickery (historian), Ros Chantrabot (historian & former diplomat), and Serey Sok (archaeologist) have also written about the historical influence of Hinduism/India on Cambodia.

The name Cambodia comes from the founder of the first Khmer Dynasty from India, who was Kambhoja. From him Cambodia is usually called by its natives as either 'Kambuja' or 'Kampuchea'. Its national flag displays the world-famous [[List of UNESCO Hindu World Heritage Sites#Cambodia|Angkor Wat Temple]] within the country. Angkor Wat is the largest spiritual monument in the world. It was built by King Suryavarman II.

An inscription from Anghor Vat runs thus: "''The [[Brahman]] Agastya, born in the land of the Aryans, devoted to the [[worship]] of Siva, having come by his psychic powers to the land of the Cambodians for the purpose of worshipping the Siva-linga known as Bhadresvara, and having worshipped the god for a long time, attained to beatitude.''"

===Indonesia===
[[image:Chola Empire and its tributaries.jpg|right|thumb|200px|The Chola Empire and its tributary lands. Indonesia was once a part of the Greater Chola Empire or 'Choladesh'.]]
"''Indonesia's ancient Hindu legacy, through processes of Indianization, laid the groundwork for tolerant pluralism...The Majapahit Empire (14th century) exemplifies how Hindu dharma fostered unity across ethnic groups, influencing modern Pancasila."''<ref>"Hindu Roots of Indonesian Tolerance", ''Journal of Indonesian Islam'' (2009) By Hilman Latief</ref> - Professor Dr. Hilman Latief, Syarif Hidayatullah State Islamic University

Agus Aris Munandar (archaeologist and historian), I Made Titib (theologian and philosopher), Ida Bagus Putu Jandhy (philosopher and cultural scholar), and Ni Wayan Sukerti (linguist and Indologist) have also written about the historical influence of Hinduism/India on Indonesia.

The largest and most prestigious native Indonesian dynasties were Srivijaya, Mataram, Shailendra, and Majapahit. The Chola Dynasty of India was a great link between both India and Indonesia as the exchange of cultures occurred, leading to closer ties between Indonesians and Indians.

Indonesians believe that [[Agastya|Sage Agastya]] and [[Markandeya|Sage Markandeya]] brought Hinduism to Indonesia. Hence, this shows that sages particularly of the [[Gotra#Pravara gotras|pravara gotra]] lineages from [[Agastya]] and Markandeya had been the first preachers of Hinduism in the islands.

Many Indians had migrated to Indonesia, some of them being Gujaratis. It is said that King Aji Saka, who came to Java in Indonesia in year 1 of the Śaka calender, was believed to be a king of Gujarat by some.<ref name="ReferenceA">P. 67 ''An era of peace'' By Krishna Chandra Sagar</ref> It is also believed that the first Indian settlements in Java Island of Indonesia was established with the coming of Prince Dhruvavijaya of Gujarat with 5,000 traders.<ref name="ReferenceA"/> Some stories propose that a sage named Tritresta was the first to bring Gujarati migrants with him to Java, hence some scholars equate him with Aji Saka.<ref> P. 158 ''Foreign Influence on Ancient India'' By Krishna Chandra Sagar </ref>

===Laos===
"Hindu influencers via Dvaravati Mon traders established elite religious practices in central Laos by the 7th century, paving the way for Theravada...This syncretic layer remains in Lao festivals symbolizing our Indosphere heritage.''"<ref>"From Brahmanism to Buddhism in Lao History", ''Lao Heritage Journal'' (2019) By Khammy Phommaseng</ref> - Khammy Phommaseng

Bounleuam Chaleunsinh (ethnologist), Phothong Phoummachanh (historian & cultural scholar), Sisouk Vongvichit (cultural heritage expert), and Vongkot Thammavongsa (archaeologist) have also written about the historical influence of Hinduism/India on Laos.

===Malaysia===
"''Up to the 14th century, Hindu-Buddhist influences had a major impact on Malaysian culture...The massive cultural impact of India on Malay Peninsula prior to the 14th century was virtually overwhelming, shaping early kingdoms like Langkasura and Kadaram through trade and elite adoption.''"<ref>''Early History of Peninsular Malaysia (2002)'' By Dr. Nik Hassan Shuhaimi Nik Abdul Rahman</ref> - Dr. Nik Hassan Shuhaimi Nik Abdul Rahman, archaeologist and historian

Ahmad Murad Merican (literary historian), Mohd. Taib Osman (cultural anthropologist), Raja Zarina Raja Zain (social anthropologist), and Wan Suhana Wan Sulaiman (Indologist) have also written about the historical influence of Hinduism/India on Malaysia.

* [[Bujang Valley Civilization]]

===Thailand===
"''Thailand is the most crucial place for study of Sanskrit. We started to study Sanskrit long back. Hinduism and Buddhism existed in Thailand and have very strong influences''." - Professor Chirapat Prapandvidya, founder and director of Sanskrit Studies Centre at Silpakorn University in Bangkok, Thailand

Charuwan Chareonla (art historian), Kessara Srinaka (art historian), Piriya Krairiksh (art historian) and Prapod Assavavirulhakarn (Buddhist scholar) have also written about the historical influence of Hinduism/India on Thailand.

In Hindu scriptures, Burma is known as Shyamdesh. Hence the other name of the country is 'Siam'.

===Vietnam===
"''Hinduism, introduced via Indian traders to Funan around the 1st century CE, established the socio-political framework for early Khmer-Cham societies in southern Vietnam...Temples like Óc Eo reflect this, blending Indian [[Rulership in Hinduism|devaraja]] cults with local animism to form hybrid polities.''"<ref>Paper in ''Archaeology of Asia'' (2012) By Tran Ky Phuong </ref> - Tran Ky Phuong

Ngô Đức Thịnh (ethnologist & cultural historian), Phan Huy Lê (historian, former national education department president), Lương Ninh (cultural anthropologist), and Vũ Kim Thắng (epigraphist) have also written about the historical influence of Hinduism/India on Vietnam.

==Oceania==
"''Soon after the establishment of a great Hindu civilisation in Java, and in a lessor degree in the Philippines, about the time of the Christian Era, it is certain that many expeditions of adventurous Hindu-Malay sea-captains in large ocean-going Wangkang and Barangai, "junks" and "big galleys" must have launched out into the Pacific, both by the N.W. route by way of the Moluccas, Caroline Islands and Havaii, as well as by the S.W. route, followed in much more recent times by Abel Tasman.''" - F.W. Christian<ref> P, 77-79 ''The Journal of the Polynesian Society: Volumes 1-22'' By Polynesian Society (N.Z.) </ref>

F.W. Christian had written of similarities between Sanskrit and Polynesian languages, such as Maori and Samoan.<ref> P, 77 ''The Journal of the Polynesian Society: Volumes 1-22'' By Polynesian Society (N.Z.) </ref>
;Australia
Their closest blood links are with the groups in New Guinea, South India and Sri Lanka, representing their path of migration into Australia.<ref> P. 186 ''Native Peoples of the World: An Encylopedia of Groups, Cultures and Contemporary Issues'' By Steven L. Danver</ref>

One academic, Professor Alan Cooper, from the University of Adelaide’s Centre for Ancient DNA, says the Indian influence may well have played a role in the development of the Aboriginal culture – outlined in a paper titled ‘Genome-wide data substantiate Holocene gene flow from India to Australia’.

Professor Cooper says it is impossible to ignore the link with the discovery of the dingo…"''The timing of all those things in the archaeological record, about 4,000 to 5,000 years ago, happens to match the timing estimated for this genetic influx from India.''"

Professor Cooper also points to another development that happened around the time of the Australia-Indian connection – an expansion of one of the Aboriginal language groups. "''This other language seems to have taken over Australia relatively recently – perhaps 5,000 years ago,…And how it did it, how it replaced the other ancient languages, we don’t know…So suddenly, 4,000 to 5,000 years ago is starting to become a fairly tumultuous time in Australian history.''"

;New Zealand
[[image:Tamil Bell found near Whangarei, Northland Region.jpg|left|thumb|200px|Tamil bell found near Whangarei, Northland Region.]]
[[image:Sanskrit writing found near Hokianga Harbour.jpg|right|thumb|200px|Sanskrit writing (digitally highlighted) found near Hokianga Harbour, Northland Region.]]
The oldest Indian settlement in New Zealand comes from the [[Dānavas]] that sailed originally from Patala in Sind. These Indians became known locally in New Zealand as the Tuhoe.

About 150 years ago, a bell was discovered in New Zealand near Whangarei in the Northland Region with Tamil writings on it.<ref> [https://www.cmi.ac.in/gift/Epigraphy/epig_tambaramnewly.htm "Newly discovered Tamil inscriptions from the Tambaram area", ''Madras Christian College Magazine'', v. 42, 1973 Gift Siromoney] </ref> It is believed to have come from a Pallava Dynasty ship which was sailing in the area and had possibly landed on New Zealand. The bell had led Indologist, V. R. Ramachandra Dikshitar to investigate and claims in his book ''The Origin and Spread of the Tamils'' that ancient Tamil sea-farers might have had a knowledge of Australia and Polynesia. There has also been Sanskrit writing discovered on a boulder in Hokianga Harbor. This finding has led to the belief that Hindu monks had arrived in New Zealand before Europeans did.

It is even believed by some historians that among the ancestry of indigenous New Zealanders there is some Indian descent. Joan Leaf through oral tradition of genealogy (''whakapapa'') among the Maori and having consulted with the Maori Wharewananga, traced the lineage of her husband, who is Maori on both sides of his ancestry, back to India.<ref>''Hawaiiki to the Hokianga, 2000 BC''</ref> That the Tuhoe of New Zealand were Dānavas is further evidenced by their oral traditions which recants Dānavas having fought other Indians in the typical wars that Indian epics mention about them.

"''Maori tradition tells us that their ancestors in times long past away, 165 generations ago, they migrated from a hot country named India''." - Eldson Best<ref> "The cause of this exodus was a disastrous war with a dark skinned folk in which great numbers were slain."; ''Tuhoe: The Children of the Mist'' By Eldson Best </ref>

;Rest of Polynesia
[[image:From Indus to Easter Island.jpg|right|thumb|200px|The trajectory from Mohenjo-Daro ([[Indus Valley Civilization]]) to Giza (Egypt) then Machu Pichu (Peru), and to Easter Island is a perfect 30° incline.]]
[[image:IVC and rongorongo scripts.jpg|left|thumb|200px|The scripts of [[Indus Valley Civilization]] and Eastern Island. An image from ''The Indians And The Amerindians'' By Dr. S. Chakravarti.]]

Balaram Chakravarti writes, "The Lapita potteries which seem to be of [[Dānava]] origin seems to lend evidence to the stepping stone of Dānava migration from New-Britain to Fiji with an off-shoot in New-Caledonia."<ref> P. ii ''The Children of Abo Tani in India, Fiji, and Polynesia: An Account of the Migration of the Indian Dānavas and the Nāgas, and Their Contribution to the Efflorescence of Culture in Fiji and Polynesia, Volume 1'' By Balaram Chakravarti </ref>

Easter Island has stories among its natives of long-eared (''Hanau epe'') people having come there, led by Hotu Matu'a (''Great Parent'', a title given to their 'ariki' or ''king''.) The Hanau epe were said to have been from Hiva (''Far away land.'') The reason for their migration was a great flood. The Indus Valley Civilization was devastated and abandoned due to severe flooding. Together they had built the Moai monuments.

Elongated earlobes are a common feature in many depictions of devas, gandharvas, ṛṣis and others. Long and hanging earlobes are known as
''larhba-karṇa''. Even the ''Viṣṇu-koṣa''<ref> P. 311 ''Viṣṇu-koṣa'' By Śaligrama K Ramachandra Rao </ref> mentions it as a feature of Viṣṇu. Dr. B. A. Saletore had published in his book, ''The Wild Tribes in Indian History''<ref> P. 375 ''Indian Culture: Journal of the Indian Research Institute, Volume 2, Issues 1-2'' By I.B. Corporation </ref> about a tribe called the Labhakarṇas. It is not an unknown trait in Indian history and so it is likely that the Dānavas who arrived in Easter Island had elongated ears.

"''It has been suggested Easter Island ''rongorongo'' script arrived from Peru, South America and is related to the Indus River Valley dating back to 2000 BC which is likely since there were Indus River Valley migrations to Peru, South America, by 1500 BC or perhaps as early as 2000 BC. Many Harappan glyphs appear in both Peruvian and Easter Island scripts''." - Jeffrey L. Gross <ref> ''Waipio Valley: A Polynesian Journey from Eden to Eden'' By Jeffrey L. Gross </ref>

==Europe==
''See also: [[Hindu Temples in Europe]]''

At the time that the Indo-Iranians came into Europe, the natives of Europe were Palesgians in the Balkan Peninsula, Basques in Iberian Peninsula, Fins and Sami in Northern Europe and the Magyars to later become Hungarians, Estonians and Kami in Eastern Europe and several other non-Indo-European linguistic families within the Caucasus. With the influence on the Indo-Iranian comers, the Indo-European nations of Europe were born. Some identified groups that had come into Europe were [[Druyus]] (becoming the British Druids and German Druvis), Parthians (Thracians from Parthenope and some Irish from Partholonians) and Medians.

The reason why it was easy for the Indo-European languages to gain popularity among Europe's natives is because the native Europeans were nomads that relied on hunting and gathering, the Indo-Iranians were agarians that brought an agricultural revolution. [[Historical racial diversity of Hindus#Vedic period|DNA samples of the Yamnayas]] (mixed of Indo-Iranians and Europeans) show that they were not lactose intolerant whereas the European natives were. Thus, Indo-Iranians showed Europeans to be able to live sedentary lives opposite to foraging and constantly relocating.

The Sanskrit word ''[[Deva]]'' took on vernacular forms amongst European nations wherein it became ''Theo'' in Greek, ''Dio'' in Latin and Italian, ''Dios'' in Spanish, ''Deos'' in Portuguese, ''Déu'' in Catalan, ''Dieu'' in French, ''Dievs'' in Latvian, ''Dievas'' in Lithuanian, ''Duw'' in Welsh, and the words ''Deity'' and ''[[Divinity]]'' in English. Even the word 'devil' means ''slanderer'' ('il') ''of'' ''god'' ('dev') and its Latin version is 'deofel' wherein 'deo' means ''god'' and 'fel' means ''slanderer''. So ''[[Theology]]'' means the study of "''The study of Theo''" and ''Theism'' is "''The belief in Theo''". Further, the Sanskrit word '[[Asura]]' became ''Æsir'' for Scandinavia's worshipers of the Norse gods.

===Thrace===
[[image:Hekate and Gayatri.jpg|right|thumb|200px|Goddess Hekate's depictions look similar to those of a Hindu goddess.]]
The Thracians called their country 'Aria'<ref> P. 277 ''Encyclopedia britannica''; or, ''A dictionary of [[arts]], sciences, and miscellaneous literature'' by Colin Macfarquhar; George Gleig </ref> which means ''Noble''. It is a word which has much significance in Hinduism, including Buddhism and [[Jainism]]. In Hellenist mythology, Thrace was the offspring of Parthenope, the daughter of Olympian god Ares. The 'Parth' in the name Parthenope indicates Parthian and hence an Indo-Iranian origin. Goddess Hecate was portrayed as a multi-headed and multi-handed deity.

There were several tribes among Thracians. Originally there was one but as they expanded control of other territories in the Balkans, other nations became Thracianized. Hesychius notes that the Sindi tribe of Thracians was from India.<ref> P. 107 ''Asiatic Researches; Or, Transactions Of The Society, Instituted ..., Volume 10'' </ref> Sir W. Drummond was also of the same viewpoint. George Faber wrote that Thracians came from a frontier of India.<ref> P. 293 ''The Origin of Pagan Idolatry: Ascertained from Historical ..., Volume 2'' By George Stanley Faber </ref>

The Thracians inhabited this region even before the earliest Greeks<ref>They are Achaeans or Mycenaeans.</ref> made their way south to the present Greece.<ref> P. 37 ''Chronicles, Volume 21'' By Rockford Institute </ref> Thracians even preceded Greeks to important islands in the northern, central, eastern and eastern Aegean. This includes Thasos, Samothrace, Imbros, Lemnos, Euboea, Naxos, Lesbos and Chios.<ref> ''The Rise Of The Greeks'' By Michael Grant </ref>

The Sindi Colchi country, located in the Taman Peninsula, was known as Sindike and Sindikos, and its largest city was named Sinda. Greek writer Strabo referred to these Sindi as 'Sindoi'. Ancient Greek Pliny called it 'Scythia Sindica', Ptolemy as 'Indo-Scythia', and both Socrates and Stephanus as 'India'. Because the Thracians were also in the Aegean Sea, they were in Lemnos island. There was an ethnicity here named 'Sindians', whom Homer in his ''Iliad'' and ''Odyssey'' wrote, "spoke a strange language" and the Scholiast Thucydides wrote the Thracians are derived from India.<ref>''Iliad'' I.594; ''Odyssey'' VIII.294; P. 516 ''The History of India: As Told by Its Own Historians. The Muhammadan Period, Volume 1'' By Sir Henry Miers Elliot </ref>

"''We can firmly say that the Bulgarians had entered their present areas from Hindistan (India) in the most ancient times...and their migration took place much earlier than the division of the Aryan tribe in Hindistan.''" - Paisii Hilendarski<ref> vol. 4.369; P. 299 ''Myths and boundaries in southern-eastern Europe'' By Pal Kolsto</ref>

Francis Wilford claimed “that so early as B.C. 189, or before it, Hindus of both sexes were not uncommon in Greece: that they were settled in Colchis, and that the Sindi of Thrace came originally from India.”

===Greece===
[[image:Krishna_mosaic _Corinth.jpg|right|thumb|200px|Greek mosaic of Kṛṣṇa in his iconic cross-legged pose playing the flute by cows, from 2nd century CE, now found at Corinth, Greece.]]
[[image:Swastika_coin_Corinth.jpg|right|thumb|200px|Coin with Swastika issued at Corinth, Greece.]]
;Early Indo-Europeans in Greece
“''The whole of this state of society, civil and military, must strike anyone as eminently Asiatic; much of it specifically Indian. Such it undoubtedly is. . . these evidences were but the attendant tokens of an Indian colonization with its corresponding religion and language. . . the whole of Greece, from the era of the supposed godships of Poseidon and Zeus, down to the close of the Trojan war was Indian in language, sentiment and religion, as well as the arts of peace and war.''” - Edward G Pococke

The natives of Greece were Palesgians. From the academic influence of the Indo-Iranians in the region, the ancient Greek and Latin languages were established from which all the other Indo-European languages of Europe were created. This can be seen in the wars between the Olympian gods and the Titans. Scholar Ignatius Donnelly believes the conflict between the Olympians and Titans represented a war between the Olympians and Titans.<ref> P. 320 ''Atlantis: The Antediluvian World'' By Ignatius Donnelly </ref> Lewis Spence also mentions that the conflict between the Olympians and the Titans was of Aryans with non-Aryans with the Titans being projected as the latter.<ref> P. 59 ''The Magic [[Arts]] in Celtic Britain'' By Lewis Spence </ref>

;Philosophical contribution to Greece
"''We find that it (India) was visited for the purpose of acquiring knowledge by Pythagoras, Anaxarches, Pyrrho and others who afterwards became eminent philosophers in Greece.''" - Dr. William Enfield<Ref> P. 41 ''Bharātīya [[Vidyā]], Volume 51'' By [[Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan]]</ref>

Overtime, a link was established between Greece and India, wherein Greek scholars would visit India and learn from Hindu clergy. Count Bjornstjerna says that Greek philosophy was indebted almost wholly to the Hindu philosophy for its cardinal doctrines.<ref> P. 974 ''Indian Law Quarterly Review, Volume 5'' By Arora Law [[House]] </ref> From this cultural phenomena, Pythagorus founded Pythagorism, Orpheus founded Orphism and Plato founded Platoism. Orphism from 6th century BCE believed in reincarnation<Ref> P. xviii ''The Orphic Hymns'' By Apostolos N Athanassakis and Benjamin M Wolkow </ref>, a Supreme God.<Ref> P. xiv: 'The Orphic Hymns' By Apostolos N Athanassakis and Benjamin M Wolkow. </ref> Pythagorism from 5th century BCE believed in reincarnation<Ref> P. 2 ''Pythagoras and the Pythagoreans: A Brief History'' By Charles H. Kahn </ref>, a Supreme God<Ref> P. 97 ''Pythagoras and the Pythagoreans: A Brief History'' By Charles H. Kahn </ref>, promoted asceticism<Ref> P. 9 ''Pythagoras and the Pythagoreans: A Brief History'' By Charles H. Kahn </ref> and vegetarianism.<Ref> P. 9 ''Pythagoras and the Pythagoreans: A Brief History'' By Charles H. Kahn </ref> Platonism from 5th century BCE believed in reincarnation<ref> P. 377 ''The Middle Platonists, 80 B.C. to A.D. 220'' By John M. Dillon </ref> and a Supreme God.<ref> P. 199 ''The Middle Platonists, 80 B.C. to A.D. 220'' By John M. Dillon </ref> Although Orphism, Pythagorism, and Platoism spirituality are all Hindu, Western scholars note that non-Hindu spiritualties of Greek thought also demonstrate Hindu influence such as Stoicism<ref> ,'Experiencing World History'' By Paul Vauthier Adams, Erick Detlef Langer, Lily Hwa, Peter N. Stearns, Merry E. Wiesner-Hanks </ref> which advocated asceticism. These schools were in start opposition to the Cyrenaicism (Greek Hedonistic school), and was opposed to Stoicism in its metaphysics.

"''The Hindus were, in this respect, the teachers and not the learners.''" - Henry Colebrooke <ref> P. 974 ''Indian Law Quarterly Review, Volume 5'' By Arora Law [[House]] </ref>

When Greek scholars had spoken of philosophies of wisdom, they regarded amongst the highest as Orphism, Pythagoreanism and Platonism. Early Christian sects not only regarded Pythagorus as a prophet of God, but drew on Orphic, Pythagorean and Platonic, as well as Neo-Platonic Mystery schools.<ref> P. 77 ''Jesus: The Explosive Story of the 30 Lost Years and the Ancient Mystery'' By Tricia McCannon </ref> Plaethon not only stated that he preferred Indian Brahmans and Magi amongst the non-Greeks, but that "inspired men" like Pythagorus, Plato and other philosophers belonging to their school, notably Parmenides, Timaeus, Plutarch, Plotinus, Porphyry and Iamblichus were great people.<ref> P. 39 Hermes in the Academy: Ten Years' Study of Western Esotericism at the ... edited by Wouter J. Hanegraaff, Joyce Pijnenburg </ref>

The Grecianized version of 'Brahman' is ''Brachman'' and ''Bragmanni''. The ancient Greeks mention them in many instances when discussing spirituality, [[Hindu philosophies|philosophy]], [[astrology]], geopolitics and other steams of study. In about 270-303 CE, makes distinguishing statements among the gymnosophists wherein he describes differences amongst them.<ref> P. 133 ''The Bhilsa Topes; Or, Buddhist Monuments of Central India, Etc'' By Sir Alexander Cunningham </ref> Purchas had written that all the things observed by Nsturall Philosophers in Greece had been handled before, partly by the Brachmancs amongst the Indians.<ref> P. 2705 ''The Century Dictionary: An Encyclopedic Lexicon of the English Language, Volume 4'' edited by William Dwight Whitney, Benjamin Eli Smith </ref> A type of non combustible cloth made from stone was also said to have been used by the Brachmancs.<ref> P. 686 ''The Gentleman's Magazine and Historical Review, Volume 202'' By Sylvania Urban </ref> It later became used by some in Europe.

There were also Hindu monks that had visited Greece for the purpose of discussing philosophy. Zarmanochegas is the most known of these. In Greece, he had self-immolated himself to protest Alexander's invasion of India. His tomb in Greece reads, "Here lies Zarmanochegas an Indian, a native of Bargose, having immortalized himself according to the custom of his country."[http://www.ibiblio.org/britishraj/Jackson9/chapter01.html] Other Hindu sages that were in the company of Emperor Elagabalus also were written about.<ref> P. 6 ''Neoplatonic Saints: The Lives of Plotinus and Proclus by Their Students'' By Mark Edwards </ref>

;Worship of similar deities between Hindus and Hellenists
"''While Dionysus (Siva) is worshipped in the mountain, Heracles (Krsna) is worshipped on the plain, especially by the Surasenoi (Surasena), an Indian people who possess two towns, Methora (Mathura) and Kleisobora (Krsnapura)''" - Megastheses<ref> Arrian, Ind., VIII, 4; P. 393 ''History of Indian Buddhism: From the Origins to the Saka Era'' By Etienne Lamotte </ref>, Greek historian and ethnographer, 4th century BCE

The gods worshiped by Hellenists were similar to that of Hindus. Whereas Indra is called Vetethragna in the Avesta, and Vahagn by the Armenians, he's also known as Artagnes-Herakles in Commagene.<ref>P. 132 ''Opuscula Atheniensia, Volumes 2-3; Volumes 7-10; Volume 12; Volumes 14-15; Volume 17; Volume 27; Volume 37'' C.W.K. Gleerup., Nov 1, 1988 </ref> Many of the soldiers in Alexander of Macedonia's army readily became Hindu. "Close to 10,000 Greeks, who came in the wake of Alexander the Great, were Krishna's devotees. There is an inscription by Heliodorus, the Greek ambassador at Takshila , which reads Deva, deva, Vasudeva. Krishna is my god and I have installed this Garuda Pillar at Bes Nagar (now in Bihar)," says researcher T K V Rajan.[http://m.timesofindia.com/city/chennai/New-finds-take-archaeologists-closer-to-Krishna/articleshow/3898205.cms] Further, Hydaspes is written by Nonnus in his Dionysiaca as a son of the sea-god Thaumas and cloud-goddess Elektra. He was the brother of Iris the rainbow-goddess and half-brother of Harpies.[http://news.statetimes.in/the-journey-of-vitasta-river/]

;Other contribution of customs
"''Cremation was brought by barbarians from the East [India] to the Mediterranean basin about 2500–2000 BC, where previously the practice was unknown.''" - William Howels<ref> P. 43 ''Honoring God to the Very, Very, Very End!'' </ref>

[[Jyotiṣa|Astrology]] was also a science that Hindus spread with them in Greece. Philostratus tells how Iarbas the Brachman or Brahman gave Apolloneus of Tyans a set of rings for days of the week to maintain good health.<ref> Page 147 ''The Archaeological Journal - Volume 33'' By The Royal Anthropological Institute of Great Britain and Ireland </ref>

Apart from the Greeks having visited India for learning Hinduism and its ideals and customs, Indians had colonized Greece as the first Indo-Iranians in the country. They were the Danauna (also known as Aavaoi), who descend from King Danaus. This king has founded the city Argos, and from his descend figures like the Danai, who are Argives mentioned by Homer.<ref> P. 306 ''The Century Cyclopedia of Names: A Pronouncing and Etymological Dictionary of Names in Geography, Biography, Mythology, History, Ethnology, Art, Archaeology, Fiction, Etc., Etc., Etc'' By Benjamin Eli Smith </ref> They were also known as Achaians, who are mentioned separately from the people of Greece, the Hellenes, themselves because they were a foreign nationality.

===Austria, Germany & Netherlands===
"''The runes were brought to the Germans by the Brahmins of ancient India...The priestly caste of the Teutons was identical with the Brahmin caste''." - Guido von List<ref>P. 67 ''Das Geheimnis der Runen'' (1908) By Guido von List</ref>
Guido von List the Austrian wrote that the Germanic peoples were taught by Brahmans from India. He said the German priesthood descended from Indian Brahmans.<ref>"''The German priesthood descends from Indian Brahmins''." - ''Die Religion der Ario-Germanen'' (1910) By Guido von List</ref><ref>"''The Aryan Germans received their religion and social order from the Brahmins who migrated from India''."- P. 112 ''Die Religion der Ario'-Germanen'' By Guido von List </ref>

===France===
Fabre d'Olivet the Frenchman wrote that Gauls (Celtic peoples) were originally a colony of Brahmans from India.
"''The Gauls were a colony of Brahmins''." - Fabre d'Olivet<ref>''The Gauls were a colony of Indian Brahmins''''." - P. 45 ''La Langue Hebaique Restituee'' Vol. II (1815) By Fabre d'Olivet </ref>
François-Marie Arouet wrote the the Gauls and their Druids were taught by Indian Brahmans.
"''The Gauls had their Druids, who were Brahmins come from India''." - François-Marie Arouet<ref>Chapter 6 ''Philosophie de I'Histoire'' (1765) By François-Marie Arouet </ref>

===British Isles===
[[image:Brigid.jpg|right|thumb|200px|Goddess Brigid by artist Miranda Gray. The triple goddess’ depictions normally look similar to those of a Hindu goddess.]]
"''I fear we must class the descent of the Afghans from the Jews with that of the Romans, and the British from the Trojans, and that of the Irish from the Milesians or Brahmins.''" - Mountstuart Elphinstone<ref> [P. 278 "Asiatic Journal and Monthly Register for British and Foreign India, China and Australasia
Volume 28''] 1829 </ref>
Many Irish have written of an Indian influence on ancient Ireland including Mrs. Dorothy Chaplin and Madam Wilde.<ref>P. 33 ''Text Book of Indian Culture'' By Chaman Lal </ref> The Druids were the chief priests of the isles and their religion is known as Druidism. Godfrey Higgins wrote a book supporting that the Druids had come from India, titled ''The Celtic Druids, Or, An Attempt to Shew that the Druids Were the Priests of Oriental Colonies who Emigrated from India, and Were the Introducers of the First Or Cadmean System of Letters, and the Builders of Stonehenge, of Carnac, and of Other Cyclopean Works in Asia and Europe.'' They were a priestly hereditary group and are said to have been descended of the Brahman Druyus. The Druids had propitiated Danu because Druyu, their patriarch, was her great-great grandson as the son of [[Gagarin|King Yayati]] and [[Sarmishṭha|Queen Sarmishṭha]], who was a Danava (descendant of Danu.)

Being of Indian descent, Druids would have been Indo-European speakers and they likely would have been the first speakers of the language family in the British Isles. They had also worshiped the Thracian Hecate. One group of Indo-Iranians, according to Irish legends that emigrated were the Partholonians from Parthia.<ref> P. 7 ''The Book of Finglas'' By Seán Ó Broin; Other groups were Nemedians from Black Sea, Milesians are descendants of Milead (from his 3 sons Ir, Heremon, Heber, sent westward in search of Island of Destiny) from Iberia, Gailiuns, Liogarne and later arrivals to Moynalta were described as big, blond, fair-haired men of Teutonic origin, who came to Moynalta about the time of Alexander the Great. </ref> Druids were Partholonians because according to a legend, a person named Parthalon landed in Ireland three-hundred years after a mythic deluge and had brought with him three Druids named Fios, Folus and Fochmare.<ref>P. 229 ''Paradise Rediscovered: The Roots of Civilization, Volume 1'' By Michael A. Cahill </ref> They had come to Ireland from Midgonia.<ref>It is in Middle Greece.</ref>

"''The very name Druid is composed of two Celtic word roots which have parallels in Sanskrit. Indeed, the root vid for knowledge also emerges in the Sanskrit word Veda, demonstrates the similarity. The Celtic root dru which means 'immersion' also appears in the Sanskrit. So a Druid was the one 'immersed in knowledge.'''" - Peter Beresford-Ellis<ref> [http://druidry.org/druid-way/other-paths/druidry-dharma Druidism and the ancient Religions of India] </ref>

In history, the Druids were later pushed into Ireland and Scotland. "In Britain, the Kelts pushed the Albans into northern Ireland and northern Scotland.”<ref> P. 28 ''Footprints of the Welsh Indians and Sailors of the Past'' By William L. Traxel </ref> Druidism still survives today in the isles and revivalist efforts have been put forth by its followers.

"''The island [Britain] has long been pre-disposed of it's [[[Christianity]]] through the doctrines of the Druids and Buddhists who already inculcated the doctrine of the Godhead.''" - Christian cleric Origen, 3rd century CE

It is notable that there is a Druid named Arias, which even further strengthens the relationship between the Druids and Brahmans as Aria/Arya meant ''noble'' and was used in the ethical and spiritual sense even by the [[Buddha]] who referred to his creed as the [[Arya]] Astanga [[Dharma]] (''Noble Eight-fold Religion.'') Peter Berresford Ellis writes, "Moreover, we learn that in these four cities were 'four Druids who taught the Children of [[Danu]] skill and knowledge and perfect wisdom'. Morias dwelt in Falias; Urias 'of the noble nature' lived in Gorias; Arias the poet resided in Finias and Senias had his abode in Murias."<ref> P. 124 ''The Druids'' By Peter Berresford Ellis </ref>

The Druids were especially the priests of the Tuatha De Danann. D'Arbois translates ''Tuatha De Danann'' as "people of the god whose mother is called Danu."
Goddess Danu written of in Celtic spirituality is the same Danu from the [[Ṛgveda]]. The Danavas, upon leaving India, moved westwards to Iran (i.e., Parthia), then more westwards, which led them to arrive in Egypt. In Egypt, these Danavas are recorded in legend to have been banished from the country where in legend, King Ramses exiled his brother Danaus. From the exile, Danaus moved to Middle Greece and eventually to Ireland. George A. Christopoulos had also connected the Danaans and Danawois to the Danawos mentioned in the Avesta.

Englishmen Francis Wilford<ref>"''Britain was colonised by Brahmins from India...the Druids preserved Brahminical learning''." - ''On Egypt and Other Countries Adjacent to the Nile'' By Francis Wilford and Asiatic Researches (1798) </ref>, Thomas Maurice<ref>"'The Druids of Britain were Brahmins...the Celtic religion is nothing but a corrupted form of the Brahminical system brought from India''." - ''Indian Antiquities'' (Vol. VI) By Thomas Maurice (1793-1800)</ref>, and William Stukeley<ref>"''The Druids...were of the same patriarchal religion as Abraham and the Brahmins of India''." - ''Stonehenge'' (1740) and ''Abury'' (1743) By William Stukeley</ref> wrote of Brahmans in the Isles. Wilford said Brahmans colonized the isles and that Druids taught Vedic doctrines, Maurice that the Druids were Brahmans, and Stukeley that the Druids were Brahmans from the East.

Irishmen Charles Vallancey<ref>"''The Irish Druids were Brahmins...the ancient Irish are descendants of Hindoo colonists''." - ''Collectanea de Rebus Hibernicus'' (1770-1804) By Charles Vallancey</ref> and John Toland<ref>"''</ref> wrote of the Hindu connection too. Vallancey that the Irish Druids and their language were of Brahmans and Toland that the Irish Druids were Indian philosophers.

===Scandinavia===
[[image:Buddha, Helgö.jpg|right|thumb|200px|Statue of [[Buddha]] dated from 5th Century CE<Ref> [http://www.lionsroar.com/the-buddha-statue-found-in-an-ancient-viking-hoard/ How did a Buddha statue land in Viking hands? BY SAM LITTLEFAIR| MARCH 24, 2016] </ref> found on a Viking tombstone in Helgö, Sweden.]]

The Norse gods referred to god as 'Æsir'. The name of thunder-god Thor comes from 'Thortian' of the Zoroastrian ''Vendiad'' and the name derives it's form from the Vedic [[Trita]], who was known as Trita in the Avesta and then later as Traitana, then 'Thraetaona' and finally as 'Thortian' to the Zoroastrians. In Sweden's Helgö, a small Buddha statuette from North India dating from 6th century AD; was found in Viking's grave.<Ref> [http://irisharchaeology.ie/2013/12/the-helgo-treasure-a-viking-age-buddha/ "The Helgo Treasure: A Viking Age Buddha" by Colm]</ref>

===Eastern Europe===
The names of [[deities]] of Eastern Europe indicate a strong Hindu influence.
;Azerbaijan
Currently the Fire Temple of Baku is a site revered for its historic uniqueness which was established by Hindu priests from India in the 19th century. It was nominated by the Azerbaijani government for being recognized as a UNESCO Hindu Site. Currently there is an [[ISKCON]] temple in Baku[http://centers.iskcondesiretree.com/baku/], the country's capital city.

;Poland
Śivā is the name of a female deity in Poland, just as Śivā is the name of Kali Mātā of Hinduism, the wife of Śiva. Further, in Poland, "''Vogt in his lectures of Man assumes the Polish to be descended from Hindu sources..."<ref> P. 386 ''The Races of Europe: A Sociological Study (Lowell Institute Lectures)'''' By William Zebina Ripley </ref>

;Lithuania
{| class="wikitable sortable"
Table of gods worshiped in pre-Christian Lithuania:
|-
! Deity
! Vedic equivalent
! About god
|-
!Praamžius Dievas
|Prajapati
|The supreme or leader of the gods.
|-
! Dievas Senelis ("''Good Old Man''")
| Yama
|He is a teacher of people and judge of their morality. He looks like an old traveling beggar. Dievas Senelis is proficient at magic and medicine. Epithet of Dievas.
|-
!Perkūnas
|Prajanya
|Thunder, a son of Dievas ("dievaitis.")
|-
!Saulė
|Surya
|The Sun Goddess.
|-
!Ašvieniai
|Ashvins
|The divine twins who pulled the chariot of the Sun.
|-
|}

There is a Lithuanian folk song reminiscent of a Vedic tale.<Ref> P. 323 ''The Religion of the Ṛgveda'' By Hervey De Witt Griswold </reF>[https://gazetteers.maharashtra.gov.in/cultural.maharashtra.gov.in/english/gazetteer/Thana%20District/appendix.html]

;Russia
"''I also feel the great sympathy with modern Hinduism of [[Rama]] Krishna and Girikananda...''"<ref> P. 40 ''Christianity Today, Volume 11'' By Carl Ferdinand Howard Henry </ref> 
"''The mystico-religious elements in Indian culture didn't interest me much...The moral teachings of early Buddhism, the personality of the Buddha, the great ascetic life of Mahatma Gandhi, who blended ancient philosophies so harmoniously with modern conditions, fascinated me far more.''"<ref> ''Only One Year: A Memoir'' By Svetlana Alliluyeva </ref> - Svetlana Alliluyeva, ex-atheist daughter of Joseph Stalin

In Russia's Volga region during excavation, a 7th century AD Varāha statue was found in Staraya Maina village within the Ulyanovsk region.<Ref> [http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/world/rest-of-world/Ancient-Viṣṇu-idol-found-in-Russian-town/articleshow/1046928.cms "Ancient Viṣṇu idol found in Russian town"] </ref> This ancient area was highly populated city 1,700 years ago. Ulyanovsk State University's archaeology department Dr. Alexander Kozhevin's team had made the discovery after having excavated the area. A famous Russian historian had written that thousands of years before the 'Kiev-Rus' culture, from which Russian nation originated, there was a 'Vedic-Rus' which was characterized by an international Vedic culture.<ref> ''India’s Emerging Partnerships in Eurasia: Strategies of New Regionalism'' By Dr. Nivedita Das Kundu </ref> During the 14th century CE Indian gold coins were found in the Volga region near the village of Tenishevo indicating a flourishing trade between India and Russia.

==Americas==
Before reaching [[Editing The Spread of Hinduism#Oceania|Polynesia]], the Davanas passed through South America. Surprisingly, it seems they may have left a mark on the indigenous there because, like in Easter Island, the native language Aymara resembles an Indian language. In this case it is Sanskrit, which is bares similarities to the Aymara tongue spoken in Bolivian Andes mountain. Writers, such as the 19th century Vicente de Ballivián y Roxas, 20th century F.W. Christian<ref> P, 77 ''The Journal of the Polynesian Society
Volumes 1-22'' By Polynesian Society (N.Z.) </ref>, and 21st century ‎Geoffrey V. Davis, as well as others have written about this.

;USA
“''I didn't have a dorm room, so I slept on the floor in friends' rooms. I returned coke bottles for the 5¢ deposits to buy food with. And I would walk the 7 miles across town every Sunday night to get one good meal a week at the Hare Krishna temple. I loved it.''” - Steve Jobs, Stanford University conference in 2005<ref> [https://iskconnews.org/steve-jobs-and-the-krishna-connection,2907/ ''Steve Jobs and the Krishna Connection'' By Venkata Bhatta dasa (Vineet Chander) for ISKCON News on Oct. 7, 2011] </ref>

The USA has been the base for establishing several [[Hindu-oriented organizations]], such as ISKCON.

American-born converts to Sanatan Dharm promoted it by establishing their own institutions like specific monastic orders or sectarian temples. Ranked in order of most influential are James Donald Walters, Richard Slavin, Richard Alpert, David Frawley, Anthony Paul Moo-Young, Robert Hansen, Lawrence Miles, John Edwin Favors, Stephen Cope, Andrew Cohen, Leopold Fischer, Georg Feuerstein, Merle Roberson, and Christopher Isherwood.

{| class="wikitable sortable"
|-
! Person
! Sectarian Affiliation
! Organizational Affiliation
! Discipleship
! Establishment
! Other Achievement(s)
! Compilation(s)
|-
|Andrew Cohen
|Neo-Advaita Vedanta
|
|
|EnlightenNext
|
|
|-
|Anthony Paul Moo-Young (Mooji)
|
|
|
|Monte Sahaja
|
|
|-
|Chris Butler ('Jagad Guru Siddhaswarupananda Paramahamsa')
|Vaishnavism (Gaudiya)
|ISKCON
|
|Science of Identity Foundation
|
|
|-
|Christopher Isherwood
|
|
|
|
|
|
|-
|David Frawley
|
|
|
|American Institute of Vedic Studies
|
|
|-
|Georg Feuerstein
|
|
|
|
|
|
|-
|James Donald Walters ('Swami Kriyananda')
|Neo-Vedanta
|
|
|Ananda Sangha
|Spread Kriya Yoga
|
|-
|John Edwin Favors ('Bhakti Tirtha Swami')
|Vaishnavism (Gaudiya)
|ISKCON
|
|iFast
|
|
|-
|Leopold Fischer (Swami Agehananda Bharati)
|
|Dasnami Sampraday
|Yes
|
|
|''The Orche Robe'' (1962), ''The Titanic Tradition'' (1965), ''The Light at the Centre'' (1976)
|-
|Lawrence Miles
|Shaivism (Nath)
|Dasnami Sampraday
|Yes
|International Nath Order
|
|
|-
|Merle Antoinette Roberson
|
|
|
|Gangaji Foundation
|
|''The Diamond in Your Pocket'', ''Hidden Treasure'', ''Freedom and Resolve''
|-
|Richard Alpert ('Ram Dass')
|Vedanta
|
|
|Hanuman Foundation
|
|
|-
|Paul Muller-Ortega
|Shaivism (Kashmir)
|
|
|Blue Throat Yoga
|
|
|-
|Richard Slavin ('Radhanath Swami')
|Vaishnavism
|ISKCON
|
|Govardhan Eco Village
|Established multiple educational and bhakti institutions
|
|-
|Robert Hansen ('Satguru Sivaya Subramuniyaswami')
|Shaivism (Siddhanta)
|
|Yes
|Saiva Siddhanta Church, Himalayan Academy
|
|''Hinduism Today'' magazine
|-
|Stephen Cope
|
|
|Kripalu Centre for Yoga and Health
|Integrated Vedanta/yoga ethics into Western therapeutic spirituality
|
|
|-
|Stephen Guarino ('Satsvarupa Dasa Goswami')
|Vaishnavism (Gaudiya)
|ISKCON
|Yes
|
|
|''Śrīla Prabhupāda-līlāmṛta''[https://vedabase.io/en/library/spl/] (1978-83)
|-
|}

;Guyanas
Guyana, former British Guyana and Suriname, former Dutch Guyana, were the countries of many Hindu immigrants. Both have had Hindu leaders as heads of the government.

==Africa==
Technically [[The spread of Hinduism#Egypt|Egypt]] was the first part of Africa in which the Hinduism spread.

;South Africa
[[image:First Hindus Temple in South Africa.jpg|right|thumb|200px|The first Hindu Temple in South Africa was a very simple design. It was built in 1869 and is now a Protected Site by South African government.]] The first Hindu temple in South Africa was constructed in 1869.

;Ghana
[[image:Hindus in Ghana.jpg|right|thumb|200px|Hindus celebrating [[Ganesha Chaturthi]] in Ghana.<Ref> [http://drishtikone.com/hinduism-growing-in-africa-without-proselytizing/ ''Hinduism growing in Africa without Proselytizing'' by Desh Kapoor] </ref>]]
[[image:Hare Krishnas in Ghana.jpg|right|thumb|200px|Hare Krishnas chanting in Ghana.<Ref> [http://drishtikone.com/hinduism-growing-in-africa-without-proselytizing/ ''Hinduism growing in Africa without Proselytizing'' by Desh Kapoor] </ref>]]

==See also==
*[[List of UNESCO Hindu World Heritage Sites|UNESCO Hindu World Heritage Sites]]
*[[Hindu Temples in Europe]]
*[[Temples]]
*[[Pilgrimages]]
*[[Zoroastrianism and Hinduism]]
*[[Historical racial diversity of Hindus]]
*[[Indus Valley Civilization]]
*[[Hindu response to conversions]]
*[[Hindu-inspired organizations]]
*[[The Hindu Renaissances]]
*[[Buddhist patronage by Hindu kings]]
*[[Sufism with Vaishnavism]]
*[[History of ancient geography]]

==External resources==
*[http://hinduwisdom.info/Pacific.htm Pacific Waves]
*[http://hinduwisdom.info/Seafaring_in_Ancient_India.htm Seafarers]
*[https://www.myindiamyglory.com/2018/06/28/western-alphabet-modelled-after-an-indian-alphabet-3400-plus-years-ago-indologist-wim-borsboom/ “Western Alphabet Modelled after an Indian Alphabet 3400 Plus Years Ago – Indologist Wim Borsboom”]
*[https://www.thesun.co.uk/news/1411522/sorry-nazis-the-swastika-is-11000-years-old-and-indian/ "GET YOUR FACTS REICH Sorry Nazis, the swastika is 11,000 years old and INDIAN" By Jasper Hamill, 8th July 2016, 11:14 am]

==References==
{{reflist}}

[[Category: The spread of Hinduism]]
[[Category: Geography]]
[[Category: Hindu history]]

The Spread of Hinduism

2026-06-08T06:53:01Z

Himanshu Bhatt: /* Americas */ added names of promoters of Hinduism in West

{{Author|Himanshu Bhatt}}
[[image:Submerged Indian coast.jpg|right|thumb|200px|Indian shoreline before submersion from sea levels increasing, which began after end of last ice age in 10000 BCE, devastating the [[Indus Valley Civilization]] and leading to an exodus.]]
[[image:Out of Eurasia diffusion.jpg|right|thumb|200px|Out of Eurasia theory of human dispersion contradicts the mainstream viewpoint known as Out of Africa and has gained ground among geneticists, and further supports Out of India theory and [[History of ancient geography|Hindu myths]] of the sons of Emperor Priyavrata inheriting the eastern world island from their father.]]
[[image:Human migration patterns.jpg|right|thumb|200px|M130 is believed to have originated in India, as well as others, such as M20 and M45.]]
[[image:IVC trade.jpg|right|thumb|200px|Trade of the IVC.]]
<blockquote>
“Hinduism the perennial philosophy that is at the core of all religions.” - Aldous Huxley
</blockquote>
[[Hindu]] teachings were spread not just by Indian Hindus migrating and preaching outside of the Indian Subcontinent, but also by visitors to India who came for understanding [[Hinduism|Hindu spirituality]]. This latter section includes Greek philosophers such as Pythagoras, Orpheus and Plato, who had all returned to Greece and preached the concepts of [[karma]], [[bhakti]], [[gyāna]], reincarnation and [[Mokṣa]]. Iranian philosophers such as Mani also visited India and later preached similar messages as the Greeks who had become Hindu.

Hindu scholars noted for their wisdom had further promoted the religion through becoming advisers to monarchs outside of India. [[Kingdoms]] Kucha<ref>It means Kumarayāna.</ref> and Tukhara<ref>It means Dhitika.</ref> in Central Asia, Mongolia<ref>It means Śakya Pandita.</ref>, Naiman<ref>It means Tatatungya.</ref> in Western Mongolia, Tibet<ref>It means Padmasambhava.</ref> and mainland China<ref> It means [[Bodhidharma]]. </ref>, all chose Indian [[Rulers in Hinduism|Hindu advisers]] who promoted [[Hinduism]] throughout their kingdoms. Soon an era came in which Greek philosophers describe that 'Greater India' came into being with cultural similarities between many regions outside India. Central Asia was known as Serindia, while from Burma to the Strait of Malacca became Indochina and the islands of the Strait of Malacca became Indonesia.

Around 4000-3000 BCE, is when exploration in the Indian Ocean had began, and the international regions to communicate with one another were India, Gulf (i.e., Mesopotamia), and Oman.<ref> P. 15 ''Indian Ocean In Antiquity'' By Julian Reade </ref> The curiosity of places outside of India and knowledge of trading routes had led to the Indian diaspora both from sea and land. Following this the [[Historical racial diversity of Hindus#Integration of Indian Hindu migrants with Europeans|Yamnaya culture of Europe]] that prospered from 3500-2500 BCE, which consisted of mixed peoples from both Indo-Iranian and native European ancestry was established around 3500-3200 BCE. Hindu scholars, including scientists and missionaries, remained explorers and documented the [[History of ancient geography|various geographies of global places]] wherein they traveled.

Of the Indian Hindus in the ancient times that established colonies abroad, noteworthy are the [[Danavas]] of Sind province that, with their navigation expertise, had settled in various places where they had come to be been known as Danuna, Danunites, Danaoi, Danaus, Danaids, Dene, Danai, Danaian, and Dananns. Historians have noted tribes with the demonym 'Sindi' among the Thracians, Colchis, and both ancient and modern Kurds.

With the spread of British colonialism in the modern era, many Indians started regularly traveling and emigrating to other British colonies outside of India. Many others also traveled to other colonies, such as of France and Netherlands. Resulting from this diffusion and establishment of communities abroad, Indian Hindus have gone on to democratically achieve becoming leaders of countries such as Guyana, Suriname, Fiji and Mauritius. From colonialism, Europeans also received the opportunities to travel to India and then [[Hindu-inspired organizations|share spiritual ideas]] with Western nations. As such, the establishment of the [[Theosophical Society]] by Helena Blavatsky and [[Agni]] [[Yoga]] by Nicholas Roerich. The modern age has given a boost to Hinduism through [[Hindu-inspired organizations|organizations]] such as the [[Hare Krishna]]s, [[Ananda Margi]]s, [[Brahma Kumari]]s and others. [[Yoga]] has spread now and is practiced by many non-Hindus for improving and maintaining both physical and mental health.

<blockquote>
“South Asia, which is where Bos Indicus (zebu cattle) originated, was not isolated during this period. People seem to have migrated from the Indus Valley civilization into Central Asia around the same time as the climatic effect that happened around 4,200 years ago. This may have introduced zebu cattle ancestry into Near Eastern cattle populations.” - Iosif Lazaridis, Harvard Medical School geneticist<ref> [https://www.natureasia.com/en/nmiddleeast/article/10.1038/nmiddleeast.2019.100 "Ancient cattle DNA reveals a bullish tale"] By Lara Reid, Published online 12 July 2019 </ref>
</blockquote>

The influence of Hindus and Moksh-based religions to the history of the world is definitely undeniable. Mahatma Gandhi changed the world forever and his message of peaceful non-cooperation to obtain freedom and justice was implemented by other freedom fighters in former colonies, and by notable figures towards national reform as in the cases of Martin Luther King Junior and Aung San Suu Kyi. Time Magazine ranked him as number 54 on the list the most significant figures in all of history[https://ideas.time.com/2013/12/10/whos-biggest-the-100-most-significant-figures-in-history/], on the list of the important 20th century persons while WondersList[https://www.wonderslist.com/10-most-influential-people-of-the-20th-century/#:~:text=1%20Albert%20Einstein.%20Most%20Influential%20People%20of%2020th,9%20Princess%20Diana.%20...%2010%20Alexander%20Fleming.%20] as number 5 for that list, Time as number 9 for one of history’s most important leaders[http://content.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,988159,00.html], BBC as one of the most important philosophers, and other sources like Historyplex[https://historyplex.com/influential-people-in-history] as one of the most important persons overall in all of history.

==Middle East==
[[image:Ancient_Ariana_lands.jpg|right|thumb|200px|Ancient Greek historian Aelianus in ''De natura animalium'' (16.16), also mentions that there were "Indian Arianians" and there is some suggestion that control of Ariana fluctuated between Indian and Arian Arianians.]]
"''Slowly and gradually, it dawned upon them that the language of the ''Gatha'' and Zendavesta has very great kinship with the [[Sanskrta]] language; when the grammar of Panini, Katyayana, and Patanjali was applied then the Gatha and Zendavesta came to be understood by the westerners. The lesson from this amazing fact is clear that once the Iranians of the ''Gatha and Zendavesta'' and the Indo-Aryans of the [[Vedas]] formed one single race, speaking language akin to Samskrta. Indeed this is clear from the city tablets found in Tell-El-Amarna in Egypt and Boghaz Keui in Asia Minor. On the tablets are mentioned Indra, Varuna, Mitra and Nasatya as witnesses of the treaty between the King Subiluliuma of the Hittites, and the Mitanni King Mattiwaza. These tablets date to about 1600 B.C. These tablets clearly indicate that these Vedic gods who were quite familiar in the region about 1600 B.C. and that the people living there then had more or less a common religion''." - Yaqub Masih<ref> P. 21-22 ''A Comparative Study of Religions'' By Y. Masih </ref>

The process of Hinduism spreading in the Middle East is whereby Hindus left India and had traveled to regions within the ancient Neat East and had preached the doctrine and customs. Hindus of Mitanni were Hurrians while those of Anatolia were Hittites, those of Levant the Hurus and those of Egypt, the Hyksos.

{{Cquote|Ketumalavarsha indeed extends from Romakapura to [the] Gandhamadana [mountain].|4=Srimad Bhagavatam}}

===Iranian Plateau===
''See also: [[Zoroastrianism and Hinduism]]''
[[image:Vishnu statue Mashad.jpg|right|thumb|200px|Statue of Vishnu sitting cross-legged while holding conch and lotus (underneath peacock) at mosque in Mashad, Khorasan, Iran.]]
[[image:Agathocles Indo-Bactrian coin.jpg|right|thumb|200px|One of Greco-Bactrian Empire's coins from King Agathocles Dikaios issued around 190-180 BCE, featuring Balarama (left) and Krishna (right) holding [[Dharmachakra]].<Ref> P. 330 ''The Serpent The Eagle The Lion & The Disk'' By Brannon Parke </ref>]]
[[image:Kadphises Kushan coin.jpg|right|thumb|200px|Four of Kushan Empire's coins from King Vima Katphisa issued around 166-230 CE, featuring Shiva with his bull attendant. They read, "[Coin] of the great King Vima Kathphisa, the king of kings, lord of all the world, the Mahavesvara."<ref> P. 370'' Studies in Indian Coins'' By D.C. Sircar </ref>]]
[[image:Lakshmi displayed on coin.jpg|right|thumb|200px|Hunnic Empire's coin of Bactria in Brahmi from 400-500 CE displaying Lakshmi holding a lotus in one hand and a cornucopia in the other.]]
[[image:Hindu Temple Bandar Abbas.jpg|right|thumb|200px|Vaiśnava temple in Bandar Abbas, southern Iran. The temple was built in 1892 particularly for the recent Indian immigrants, many of whom were merchants and soldiers. In 1965 the temple was vacant as Indians emigrated. Whereas temples are usually made by stone, dew the climate of Bandar Abbas, rubble stones, mortar, coral rock, soil material and plaster was used in this temple’s construction.]]

;Movement of Indians into Iran
<blockquote>
"Slowly and gradually, it dawned upon them that the language of the ''Gatha'' and Zendavesta has very great kinship with the Sanskrta language; when the grammar of Panini, Katyayana, and Patanjali was applied then the Gatha and Zendavesta came to be understood by the westerners. The lesson from this amazing fact is clear that once the Iranians of the ''Gatha'' and ''Zendavesta'' and the Indo-Aryans of the Vedas formed one single race, speaking language akin to Samskrta." - Yaqub Masih<ref> P. 21-22 ''A Comparative Study of Religions'' By Y. Masih </ref>
</blockquote>

Ancient Iranian lands had a diversity of spiritual beliefs and the religions included Zoroastrianism, Manicheism, Yazdanism, Mandeanism and others. As the original Indo-Iranian homeland was eastwards in the [[Himalayas]], the nations of those areas spread westwards and found existing non-Indo-European peoples there such as Kasodians in Gilan, Taporians in Mazandaran, Urartians in the Caucus Mountain Range, Turukkus, Kassites and Lolobites in the Zagros Mountain Range and Elamites on the southern shoreline. The Turkic groups were known collectively to the natives as the 'Turani'<ref>They were called '[[Turiya]]' in the Avesta.</ref> and they were [[Danava#Turkic affiliation|associated with Dānu]], just as the Tarukṣas coming into India were too. The non-Indo-Iranians (or non-Aryans) were known to the Aryans as 'Anariakoi' (''non-Aryan people''), and this was the term documented by Greek writers for Hyrcanians<ref> P. 25 ''An Inquiry Into the Ethnography of Afghanistan: Prepared and Presented to ...'' By Henry Walter Bellew </ref> and others. Overtime, the Indo-Iranian cultural significance in the societies of the plateau led to the formation of Indo-Iranian nations that were native to the region (i.e., [[The spread of Hinduism#Mitanni|Hurrians]], Baluchis, Armenians.) A Turani monarch had however opposed the Indo-Iranian influence on the plateau and invaded Balkh.<ref>It is in northern Afghanistan.</ref> After its conquest both its king and the king's close friend Zarathustra were executed by invading Turanis.<ref> P. 62 ''Mute [[Dreams]], Blind Owls, and Dispersed Knowledges: Persian Poesis in the Transnational Circuitry'' By Michael M. J. Fischer </ref>

Sir William Jones notes:
<blockquote>Thus it has been proved by clear evidence and plain reasoning that a powerful monarch was established in Iran long before the Assyrian or Pishadi government. That it was in fact, a '''Hindu monarchy''', though any may choose to call it Cusian, Casdean or Scythian..."<ref> P. 133 ''The works of Sir William Jones: with the life of the author by Lord Teignmouth in Thirteen Volumes Volume 3'' By Sir William Jones </ref> </blockquote>

;Closeness between religions of Iran to Hinduism
Zoroastrianism, which is also known as ''Mazdayasna'' (''Sacrifice to [[Asura|Ahura Mazda]]'') and as ''Vehdin'' (''Good Religion''), resembles Hinduism in many ways, such as in its origin, beliefs (i.e., common [[deities]]) and iconography. Dr. Mills says, "The Avesta is nearer the [[Veda]] than the [[Veda]] to its own epic [[Sanskrit]]." Major gods or yazatas<ref>Yazatas means ''venerable ones''.</ref> included Varuṇa and [[Mitra]]. Zarathustra (Greek: Zoroaster) Spitama was an Athravan priest, a descendant of the Vedic Atharvans. The swastika has been a popular symbol throughout the history of Iran and it has been called by Persians, "The four horses of [[Mitra]]."

Among the followers of Zoroastrianism, while the scriptures do not mention the idea of [[re-incarnation]], it is not denied either<ref> ''Textual Sources for the Study of Zoroastrianism'' edited by Mary Boyce </ref> and some Zoroastrians of India<ref>It is particularly members of the Parsi Theosophy.</ref> believe in reincarnation.<ref> P. 264 The Parsis of India: Preservation of Identity in Bombay City By Jesse S. Palsetia </ref> Some esoteric Parsi mystics such as Beaman adhered to the belief in reincarnation.<ref> P. 178 Parsis in India and the Diaspora edited by John Hinnells, Alan Williams </ref> The belief in karma and re-incarnation are perpetuated in the ''Desatir'', wherein it declares that those who are happy now have done good deeds in a previous life while those who suffer now have done bad deeds in former life.<ref>P. 522 ''The British Critic: A New Review, Volume 20'' </ref> It is therefore discredited as a Mazdaean work.

Of Mandeans, Chevalier Emerys writes, "Modern Johannite Mandean Christians of Iraq, also known as Nazoreans, still believe in the doctrine of reincarnation and also teach that Jesus was the reincarnation of the prophet Melchizedek."<ref>P. 49 Revelation of the Holy Grail By Chevalier Emerys </ref> The Mandeans also believe in reincarnation of the human, if a human does not marry within his or her lifetime.<ref>P. 41 ''Gnostic Ethics and Mandaean [[Origins]]'' By Edwin M. Yamauchi </ref> Islamic Druzism believes in reincarnation, and is named after Persian Batinite missionary named Muhammad bin Ismail Nashtakin ad-Darazi. Muslim Shah Ismail the Persian Sultan was one of the founders of Alevism or the "People of Fire" and this Islamic sect believes in reincarnation. The Islamic sects of Shabak, Bajalan, Sarli, and Kakais are also very closely affiliated with Iranians and has a belief in re-incarnation.

After the Islamization of the Iranian Plateau, some intellectuals resisted and established their own new religions, which contained some hindu ideas and some other themes that they were familiar with. This includes, Yarsanism (Ahl-e Haqq) established in the 14th century by Sultan Sahak as a Yazdan sect and Baha'ism by Bahá'u'lláh in the 19th century. Whereas both traditional Hinduism and [[Buddhism]] were popular in the eastern part of the Iranian Plateau, Mithraism became popular within Zoroastrianism particularly in the western part. From here the popularity of the god Mitra spread to Assyria, Anatola and Europe. The Avesta declares, "This Mitra, the lord of the wide pastures, I have created as worthy of sacrifice, as I, Ahura Mazda, am myself."<ref>P. 1xi ''The Zend-Avesta: The Sîrôzahs, Yasts, and Nyâyis'' edited by James Darmesteter, Lawrence Heyworth Mills </ref> Philosopher Mani of Persia had spent time in India, and after having accepted the ideas of re-incarnation and [[Means to Salvation|the three paths to Mokṣa]], he began preaching of them in Iran. His set of beliefs are called Manicheism.

;Association of regions within Iranian Plateau to India
The Zoroastrian Vendidad reads, "The country of Hind extends from east of the Indus to west of it." This, India in the Vendidad's definition includes Baluchistan and Seistan.

Ancient Persians called the regions stretching from Hormuz to Baluchistan as 'Hind'<ref>It is the original name of India.</ref> because those areas had more in common with India than with the other Iranian cultures located west to them. King Dhrishataketu of Kaikeya Kingdom married Śrutakirtti and had by her Santarddana, and four other sons, known together as the five Kaikeyas. The Kaikeyas were a major dynasty in India and it was on both sides of the Indus River. The Anava Kingdom of Uśinara Sibi, extended from Baluchistan to the Punjab. Even modern times Sibi is a district within Baluchistan.

Further, the Helmand region of Afghanistan was called by Persians as 'White India'. Siestan was also referred by Greek philosophers to as White India. Referring to the peoples of this region, Alexander called them, "the Indians on this side of the [[Indus River|river Indus]]."<ref>P. 128 ''Handbuch der Orientalistik. Abt. 1, Der Nahe und der Mittlere Osten, Bd 8, Religion, Abschnitt 1, Religionsgeschichte des Alten Orients, Lief. 2. H. 2, A history of Zoroastrianism, Vol. 3, Zoroastrianism under Macedonian and Roman rule'' By Mary Boyce; Frantz Grenet</ref>

Overtime, the natives of this region stayed and many became Buddhist in modern-day Afghanistan and the Afghans turned Kandahar into a Buddhist pilgrimage center which was visited by devout Buddhists from China and Indonesia. While Takśaśila was a city in east of the Indian river on the Iranian side, there were other important centres. The two great Indian grammarians [[Panini]] and [[Patanjali]] have mentioned a number of north-western cities like Balkh or Vahika, Kapisa, Pushkalavati, Masakavati, Takśaśila and Sakala. Takśaśila was the greatest and most flourishing city.<ref> P. viii ''A History of Indian Civilization: Ancient and classical traditions'' By Radhakamal Mukerjee, Gurmukh Ram Madan, Viśvaprakāśa Gupta</ref>

;Modern Relations between the Plateau and Hinduism
Hare [[Krishna]]'s founder [[A.C. Bhaktivedanta Swami Prabhupada]] traveled to Tehran in 1976. Since 1977, [[ISKCON]] runs a vegetarian restaurant in Tehran.

===Assyria===
Assyria was known as Asuristan.<Ref> P. 10 ''The [[Sound]] System of Modern Assyrian (Neo-Aramaic)'' By Edward Y. Odisho </ref> The name of Assyria comes from Rigvedic 'Asurya', the original name of the sun-god [[Surya]]. Syrians still to this day, pronounce the name of Syria as '[[Surya]]'. Hence, Assyria's name would have been pronounced as 'Asurya'.

In the 6th century CE, the Lower Euphrates was known as 'India within land' or just 'Hind' (India) in general.<ref> P. 421 ''Gazetteer of the Bombay Presidency: Tha'na (2 pts.) Volume XIII, Part II'' By Government Central Press </ref> Oderic in 1320 CE also speaks of the Lower Euphrates as 'India within land'. Much like how the [[Indus Valley Civilization|Indus River Civilization]] had priest-kings as ruler of certain towns and cities, Assyria too had a priest-prince ruler. Hence, from the Indian Hindu influence, [[Parshurama]] is also believed to have been worshiped in the region. In the ancient Sumerian [[Social Structure|social structure]] as well, there was a leader of the Baramas (i.e., [[Brahmana]]s) named Bur-Sin and the belief by some scholars is that he is Parshurama.

The patriarchal god of the Assyrians was Assur, who is always portrayed on a winged chakkra-sun or sundisk, just as the frahavars<ref>Frahavars means angels.</ref> of Iranian spirituality are shown. The Assyrians, referred to a [[dharmachakra|chakkra]] as a wheel. The cultural and political capital of the Assyrians was Assur, named after the god. Assur was also known as ''Asara Mazas''<ref>For them some scholars believe that they origin from the proto-Indo-Iranian form ''[[Asura]] Mazdas''.</ref><ref> ''History of Civilizations of Central Asia: The development of sedentary and nomadic civilizations: 700 B.C. to A.D. 250'' By Ahmad Hasan Dani </ref> Furthermore, god Enki was also known as Masda and Masenda. God Assur had later been identified within Judeo-Christian Biblical mythology as Ashur, the son of Shem.

It is believed that Europe had borrowed the planetary names for the week's days that the Babylonians used. Babylon was a part of the Assyrian Empire. When Hindus had spread to Assyria, they had brought this system of the week with them.

{| cellspacing="1" style="width:100%;" class="wikitable sortable"
|-
| || Sunday || Monday || Tuesday || Wednesday || Thursday || Friday || Saturday
|-
|Planet
| style="width:12%;"| Sun
| style="width:12%;"| Moon
| style="width:12%;"| Mars
| style="width:12%;"| Mercury
| style="width:12%;"| Jupiter
| style="width:12%;"| Venus
| style="width:12%;"| Saturn
|-
| [[Hindu gods|Hindu deity]]
| [[Ravi]]
| [[Soma]]
| [[Mangala]]
| [[Buddha]]
| [[Guru]]
| [[Shukra]]
| [[Shani]]
|-
|Mazdaen deity<ref> P. 253 ''The Wiley-Blackwell Companion to Zoroastrianism'' By Michael Stausberg, Yuhan Sohrab-Dinshaw Vevaina, [[Anna]] Tessmann </ref><REF> P. 37 ''Persian Architectural Heritage: Architecture, Structure and Conservation'' By Mehrdad Hejazi, Fatemeh Mehdizadeh Saradj </REF>
|Mitra
|
|Vrarayna
|Tiriya
|Ahura Mazda
|Ardvi Anahita [[Sura]]
|Kayvanu
|-
|Assyrian deity<ref> P. 253 ''The Wiley-Blackwell Companion to Zoroastrianism'' By Michael Stausberg, Yuhan Sohrab-Dinshaw Vevaina, [[Anna]] Tessmann </ref>
|
|
|Nergal
|Nabu
|Marduk
|Ishtar
|Kajamanu
|-
| Greco-Roman deity
| style="width:12%;"| Helios-Sol
| style="width:12%;"| Selene-Luna
| style="width:12%;"| Ares-Mars
| style="width:12%;"| Hermes-Mercury
| style="width:12%;"| Zeus-Jupiter
| style="width:12%;"| Aphrodite-Venus
| style="width:12%;"| Cronus-Saturn
|-
|}

The Assyrians had referred to India as ''Melluhha''. This comes from the name Mallhu and Malla, which many kings in India, particularly western India and Baluchistan have been called. There was even Mount Malleus mountain that Sind<ref> ''Studia Orientalia, Volume 64'' </ref> was known for having. Even the coast of Kerala is known as Malankara.

===Mitanni===
[[image:Nefertitti image at Amarna.jpg|right|thumb|200px|Mural of Nefertiti found at Amarna in 1912. She was an Indo-Aryan princess from Mitanni, who married an Egyptian Pharaoh Amenhotep IV (Akhnaton), and reigned ca. 1353-1336 BCE.]]

Today this region is known as Kurdistan. In the ancient times, the inhabitants of Mitanni were known as Hurrians. In the Judeo-Christian Bible, they are known as the Horites.<ref> P. 64 ''The Hebrew Pharaohs of Egypt: The Secret Lineage of the Patriarch Joseph'' By Ahmed Osman </ref> Sanskritic interpretations of Mitanni names render the following:
* Artashumara (artaššumara) - It means that it is as [[Arta]]-smara "who thinks of [[Arta]]/Ṛta".<ref>Mayrhofer II 780</ref>
* Biridashva (biridaša, biriiaša) - It means that it is as Prītāśva "whose horse is dear".<ref>Mayrhofer II 182</ref>
* Priyamazda (priiamazda) - It means that it is as Priyamedha "whose wisdom is dear".<ref>Mayrhofer II 189, II378</ref>
* Citrarata as [[citraratha]] - It means that it is "whose chariot is shining".<ref>Mayrhofer I 553</ref>
* Indaruda/Endaruta - It means that it is as Indrota "helped by Indra".<ref>Mayrhofer I 134</ref>
* Shativaza (šattiaza) - It means that it is as Sātivāja "winning the race price".<ref>Mayrhofer II 540, 696</ref>
* Šubandhu as Subandhu - It means that it is like 'having good relatives".<ref>It is a name in Palestine.</ref><ref>Mayrhofer II 209, 735</ref>
* Tushratta (tišeratta, tušratta, etc.) - It means that it is as taišaratha, Vedic Tveṣaratha "whose chariot is vehement".<ref>Mayrhofer I 686, I 736</ref>

Apart from Queen Nefertiti, Ramesid pharaohs were also of Mitanni descent.<Ref> P. 85 ''Arshile Gorky Adoian'' By Karlen Mooradian </ref>

===Hatti===
The Hittites or Nesili, whose empire was known as 'Hatti' and 'Kadesh', had believed in re-incarnation as attested by their writings. They [[worshiped]] the Devas like [[Indra]], [[Nasatyas]] (Ashvins), [[Mitra]] and [[Varuṇa]]. This is confirmed by the Suppiluliuma-Shattiwaza Treaty between the Hittites and Hurrians. The beleaguered Tusratta was then murdered by his son in a palace coup. Tusratta's other son, Prince Shattiwaza, fled Mitanni and was eventually given sanctuary by the Hittite King Suppiluliuma with whom he concluded a treaty 1380 BCE, which we know as the Suppiluliuma-Shattiwaza Treaty discovered in 1907 CE in Hattusa near present-day Bogazkale (Boğazkale, formerly Bogazköy) in north-central Turkey. In the treaty, the Hittite King Suppiluliuma agreed to assist Shattiwaza to gain the Mitanni throne. The Hittites captured the Mitanni capital Wassukanni after a second attempt and installed Shattiwaza as a vassal king.

The Suppiluliuma-Shattiwaza Treaty is a source of considerable information about the Mitanni. In addition, it gives us some astonishing information about the religious practices of the Mitanni for it invokes the Indo-Iranian pantheon of [[Asuras]] and Devas Mitras(il) (Mitra), Uruvanass(il) (Varuṇa), Indara (Indra) and the Nasatianna (Nasatyas.) In the Judeo-Christian Bible, the Hitties are assimilated to have been descended from Heth, the son of Ham.

===Levant===
The Levant region includes countries of the Mediterranean coast which are located at the southwest Asian area. The Hindus here were an Indo-Aryan speaking population called as the Huru.

===Egypt===
:''See also: [[Danava]]''
<blockquote>
"One of the oldest colonies founded by the Hindus was in Egypt" - G. R. Josyer<ref> P. 104 ''Astrological Magazine, Volume 73, Issues 1-6'' 1984 </ref>
</blockquote>
The Hyksos were an Indo-Aryan dynasty, according to the scholars such as Sam Kerr<ref> P. 15 ''Cyrus the Great - Celestial Sovereign'' By Sam Kerr </ref> and M. Chahin<Ref> P. 28 ''The Kingdom of Armenia: A History'' By M. Chahin </ref>. They had come to Egypt and settled within its Delta region in about 1674-1547 BCE<ref> P. 28 ''The Kingdom of Armenia: A History'' By M. Chahin </ref> and within a few centuries dominated the country. Much cultural exchange happened during the period of their rule.
<blockquote>
“Egypt was colonized from India, and the priests of Egypt were of the same order as the Brahmins of India.” - Godfrey Higgins<ref> p. 121 ''Anacalypsis: An Attempt to Draw Aside the Veil of the Saitic Isis'' (Vol. I) By Godfrey Higgins </ref>
</blockquote>
Excavations in El-Amarna in Egypt have yielded the fact that around the 14th-15th centuries BCE, kings and princes with Vedic-like names were ruling in the region of modern day Syria. Some of the names are Artamanya, Aryavirya, Yashodatta, Suttarna and Dushratta. Thutmose IV had married a daughter of Artatma, the King of the Mitanni Kingdom. A letter addressed by Dushratta, Artatama's grandson, written to Akhnaton, says that it was not until Thutmose asked seven times that King Artatma agreed to his marriage proposal. Amenhotep III married Tiy, daughter of Yuaa<ref>He is a foreigner "from North Syria".</ref> and Tuau. During this time in Egyptian history, the ruling aristocracy of Egypt, were of mixed Egyptian and Mitanni ancestry. According to Akhnaton, Aton was both the male and female. He says to Aton, "Father and Mother of all that You have made." This parallels with the Hindu terms for the sun-god, Savita<ref>He is the male form.</ref> and Savitri<ref>She is the female form.</ref> or the sun and the sun's energy ([[Puruṣa]] and [[Prakṛti]].)

The Hyksos were descendants of the Indian Danavas. They're written of in Egyptian, Hittite, and Hellenic accounts under the names Danuna, Danunites, Danaoi, Danaus, Danaids, Dene, Danai, and Danaian.<ref> P. 218 ''Sea Peoples of the Bronze Age Mediterranean c.1400 BCÂ?1000 BC'' By Raffaele DÂ?Amato, Andrea Salimbeti </ref> In mythology it was Ramses III who exiles them from Egypt, whereby they take refuge in Greece and spread further into Europe from there.

Burials have been uncovered of Indian monkeys, leading archaeologists to believe that they were imported from India.<ref> [https://www.heritagedaily.com/2020/08/ancient-animal-burials-in-egypt-were-monkeys-imported-as-pets-from-india/134834 ANCIENT ANIMAL BURIALS IN EGYPT WERE MONKEYS IMPORTED AS PETS FROM INDIA] (August 25, 2020) By HeritageDaily </ref>

===Arabian Peninsula===
This region was historically known to Indians as Arabaka or Arvasthān.<ref>It means the ''Land of Horses''.</ref> Before the Islamization of the region beginning with [[Islam]]'s prophet Mohammed, peoples here more freely practiced their spirituality. Mohammed's own uncle, Umar-bin-e-Hassham had died for his devotion to [[Śiva]]. Among his writings, one poem of him depicting his faith in Śiva, has been found. It has come to be known as the "Śiva Stuti." The poem reads as follows:

{| class="wikitable sortable"
|-
! English
! Arabic
|-
|
:The man who may spend his life in sin
:and irreligion or waste it in lechery and wrath
:If at least he relent and return to
:righteousness can he be saved?
:If but once he [[bhakti|worship]] Mahadeva with a pure
:heart, he will attain the ultimate in spirituality.
:Oh Lord [[Shiva]] exchange my entire life for but
:a day’s sojourn in India where one attains salvation.
:But one pilgrimage there secures for one all
:merit and company of the truly great.
|
:Kafavomal fikra min ulumin Tab asayru
:Kaluwan amataul Hawa was Tajakhru
:We Tajakhayroba udan Kalalwade-E Liboawa
:Walukayanay jatally, hay Yauma Tab asayru
:Wa Abalolha ajabu armeeman '''Mahadeva'''
:Manojail ilamuddin minhum wa sayattaru
:Wa Sahabi Kay-yam feema-Kamil MINDAY Yauman
:Wa Yakulum no latabahan foeennak Tawjjaru
:Massayaray akhalakan hasanan Kullahum
:Najumum aja-at Summa gabul '''Hindu'''
|-
|}

Umar-bin-e-Hassham had the title of 'Abul Kaham', which in Arabic means ''doctor''.<Ref> P. 705 ''World Vedic heritage: a history of histories : presenting a unique unified field theory of history that from the beginning of time the world practiced Vedic culture and spoke [[Sanskrit]], Volume 1'' By Puruṣottam Nagesh Oak </ref> It is a fact that the Kaaba was worshiped in by non-Muslims before Islam. It is believed by some that before the Kaaba was Islamicized and made a pilgrimage for only Muslims, it was a Śiva temple. Umar-bin-e-Hassham is known to have been a priest at Kaaba. His composition was a part of the ''Sair-ul-Okul'' compiled by Labi-bin-e-Akhtab bin-e Turfa, which contained verses composed by multiple authors.

''The Encyclopedia Islamia'' admits: "''Muhammed's grandfather and uncles were hereditary priests of the Kaaba temple which housed 360 [[idols]]!''" Besides the Arabian Umar-bin-e-Hassham having been a priest at the temple, another point that some people make is that the black stone at the Kaaba is actually a Śivalinga.

[[Kṛṣṇa]] was also worshiped in Arabia and his tale is written in an Islamic Hadith. The text titled, ''The History of Hamadan Dailmi'' (Chapter "Al-Kaaf") declares, “''There was a prophet of God in India who is dark in color and his name was Kahān [Kanha, i.e., Kṛṣṇa].''”<ref> P. 181 ''Green Leaves: Harish S. Booch Memorial Volume'' By Harish S. Booch </ref>

==East Asia==
"''Mother of wisdom...India gave her mythology to her neighbors who went to teach it to the whole world. Mother of law and philosophy, she gave to three-quarters of Asia a god, a religion, a doctrine, an art.''" - Sylvain Lévi, French Scholar & Indologist

===Tibet===
[[image:Tonpa Shenrab.jpg|right|thumb|200px|[[Yungdrung Bon|Bonpa Dharma]] founder [[Tonpa Shenrab Miwoche]], also known as Shenrab Miwo, and Buddha Shenrab.]] Hinduism in Tibet began with the Bon religion of Tonpa Shenrab, who is noted in Bon scriptures to have come from a western land called Olmo Lungring and wandered into Zhang Zhung (western Tibet.) In some Tibetan scriptures, Shenrab's country is also called as sTag-gzig, Shangri-La and Shambhalla. Like several other ṛṣis such as [[Riṣabha]], [[Rāvaṇ]] and [[Śukra|Śukracharya]], Tonpa too meditated at [[Mount Kailāśa]]. 

According to most Bon sources on Guru Shenrab's dating, he arrived in Tibet either around 18,000<ref> ''The bsTan rTsis'' </ref> or 16,000 years ago. According to another Bon tradition, he was a contemporary of the pre-8th century Zhang Zhung king Triwer Sergyi Jyaruchan.<ref>P. 339 ''The Golden Letters: The Three Statements of Garab Dorje, First Dzogchen Master'' By John Myrdhin Reynolds </ref> However, the present day Tibetan history scholar and Dzogchen master Chogyal Namkhai Norbu calculates the probable actual date of his birth as 1917 BCE. 

What brought the prince to the region was his quest to retrieve his 7 blue horses that were stolen by his aggressor Khyab-Pa Lag-Ring and taken to Zhang Zhung. Master Shenrab went forth with his four attendants to find them. During his time in Zhang Zhung, he taught the locals the basic tenants of Bon Dharma. He found the horses and Khyab-Pa became his pupil. They left Tibet to return home and at age 32 Prince Shenrab decided to give up the royal life and take solitude ([[Gyāna|sanyāsa]]) to become a monk. Khyab-Pa had become his leading disciple.

At age 82 he departed the world and attained Mokṣa. Both in his country and among the locals in Zhang Zhung, Buddha Shenrab was successful in stopping ritual [[animal sacrifices]]. Bon preachers continued visiting Tibet for further propagating the religion, and many Tibetan Bonpas visited Olmo Lungring for learning the religion and meeting with Bonpa scholars. There are two types of Bonpas classed by Buddhists, White Bon<ref>They are the ones who also follow Buddhism.</ref> and Black Bon.<ref>They are strictly Bonpas.</ref> 

Apart from Tonpa Shenrab (the teacher), there are 3 other Sugatas, who together are known as Bon's 'Four Transcendent Lords'. They are Satrig Ersang (the great mother goddess), Shenlha Okar (god of light or wisdom), and Sangpo Bumtri (the procreator.) Other recognized Sugatas are Kuntu Kazgpo (who is similar to Buddhism's Adi Buddha), Kunzang Gyalwa Gyatso (a person similar to Avalokitesvara), and Welse Ngampa, Sipai Gyalmo (a 9-headed protector of Bon.)<ref> P. 304 ''[[Annapurna]]: A Trekker's Guide'' By Siân Pritchard-Jones, Bob Gibbons </ref>

===Uyghurstan===
{{Cquote|It is said that Bhadrasva-varṣa extends from the city of Yamakoti up to the Malyavat mountain.|4=Srimad Bhagavatam}}

Known anciently as Turkharistan, and now as East Turkistan or Uyghurstan, Buddhism was originally spread here by many missionaries from India. Later, missionaries within the country spread the [[dharma]]. It is noteworthy that the sun-god was known to the Saka Khotan Kingdom of the Tarim Basin as ''Urmaysde'' which scholars link to the term Ahura Mazda<ref> P. 132 ''The Nativist Prophets of Early Islamic Iran: Rural Revolt and Local Zoroastrianism'' By Patricia Crone</ref>. These Indo-Iranian words started coming over with migrants who were missionaries and merchants from India and Iran.

[[Bhadrasva]]-varṣa is the name for the Tarim Basin or southern Uyghurstan, and for northern Uyghurstan (plus Kazakhstan) it is Uttara-[[Kuru]].

===China===
''See also: [[Daoism and Hinduism]]''
"''India conquered and dominated China culturally for 20 centuries without ever having to send a single soldier across her border''." - Hu Shih, Chinese ambassador to the U.S. (1938-42)[http://www.hinduwisdom.info/India_and_China.htm]

Indian missionaries and monks worked with Chinese spiritual leaders and together preached the message of Moksha.

Bodhidharma is the well-known of the persons that increased the cultural relationships between India and China.

Some Tamil Siddhars too had visited China to discuss and spread spiritual knowledge. The Siddhar saint Bogar, disciple of Kalanginaathar, visited China. It is said that he proceeded there to teach the ways of the Siddhars. There is a legend that Lao Tze is Bogar. Daoxuan said passionately that India, and not China, should be considered the center of the world.

Writing of the Chinese language, Christian Reverend Joseph Edkins writes that Hindus prepared the model of the Chinese first letters during 3rd-6th centuries CE, arranged them under heads of 36 consonants like in Sanskrit, and instructed Chinese people in the way of right pronunciation with regard to the scientific basis of the sound.<ref> P. 248 ''Some Missing Chapters of World History'' By Purushottam Nagesh Oak </ref>

===Japan===
[[image:Saraswati, Vaishravana, and Ganesh statue Hatsukaichi.jpg|left|thumb|200px|From left to right, Benzaiten ([[Saraswati]]), Kangiten ([[Ganesh]]) and Bishamonten ([[Vaishravana]]) in the 1,200 year-old Daishō-in Temple Complex, Hatsukaichi, Japan.]]
[[image:Shivlinga Nayoga.jpg|right|thumb|200px|Shivlinga in the Toganji Temple at Nayoga, Japan.]]

"''India is culturally, Mother of Japan. For centuries it has, in her own characteristic way, been exercising her influence on the thought and culture of Japan.''" - Professor Hajime Nakamura

Atsushi Taguchi<ref>"''The transmission of Indian concepts—Hindu deities adapted into Shinto kami and Buddhist mandalas—exerted significant influence on Japan's religious worldview, contributing to its unique civilizational blend.''" - Atsushi Taguchi, Indologist and cultural historian; ''India-Japan Cultural Relations: From Ancient Times to Modern'' (2018)</ref>, Gen'ichi Yamaguchi<ref>"''Indian Buddhist thought, carrying Hindu philosophical undercurrents, profoundly shaped Japanese aesthetics and social harmony, influencing everything from tea ceremonies to imperial rituals—without which modern Japanese civilization would lack its syncretic depth.''" - Gen'ichi Yamaguchi, Buddhist studies scholar; "The Influence of Indian Buddhism on Japanese Culture" (2012) article–excerpts in ''Journal of Indian Philosophy'' (2015)</ref>Dr. Yoshihiro Kaburagi<ref>"''Since ancient times, Japan has assimilated various foreign cultures, particularly through Buddhism from India, which led to the formation of Japanese civilization.''" - Dr. Yoshihiro Kaburagi, historian and comparative civilization scholar</ref> have also written about the historical influence of Hinduism/India on Japan.
Due to the cultural exchange between India and Japan, mainstream Hindu gods were adopted by Japanese. Ganesh is known as Kangi-ten and as Bināyaka-ten which originates from the Sanskrit name [[Vināyaka]].

==South East Asia==
This whole region has been known in Hindu scriptures as Suvarṇabhumi.<ref>It means ''The Golden Land''.</ref> Hinduism has been the dominant religion amongst several nations for a long time here. Indonesia<ref>It was former Javadwipa.</ref> was dominantly Hindu until Islamization by missionaries and Islamists within the islands. At one point, lands even as far as the Philippines were part of the Chola Empire.<ref> [http://www.sanskritimagazine.com/history/the-tamil-chola-empire/ The Tamil Chola Empire] </ref>

===Burma===
"''They did not practice Theravada Buddhism, rather they observed a form of Mahayana Buddhism much influenced by Vaishnavism and native Naga (serpent) worship.''"<ref>''Essays on the History and Buddhism of Burma'' (2005) By Dr. U Than Tun</ref> - Dr. U Than Tun

Dr. Aye Aye Mar (Indologist), Dr. Khin Maung Nyunt (archaeologist & epigraphist), U Min Naing (cultural historian), and U Aung Thwin (historian) have also written about the historical influence of Hinduism/India on Burma.

In most Hindu scriptures, Burma is known as Brahmadesh. Buddhist scriptures sometimes called it Majjhimadesh. Greek philosopher Pliny had said that on the river called Ava or Pumas or Puman, many nations along it are in general called Bracmanae or Brahmane.<ref> P. 443 ''Asiatick Researches, Or, Transactions of the Society Instituted ..., Volume 14'' </ref> Hence, there is also the [[Brahmaputra]] River near Burma which crosses North-East India.

Several Hindu temples here date back to pre-Buddhistic times. In Burma there is a Dagoba dedicated to Dagon ([[Matsya|Matsya avatār]] of [[Viṣṇu]]) which Burmese claim is over 3000 years old.<ref> P. 37 ''Shambhala'' By Nicholas Roerich </ref>

===Cambodia===
[[image:Angkot War.jpg|right|thumb|200px|[[List of UNESCO Hindu World Heritage Sites#Cambodia|Angkot Wat Temple]], Cambodia.]]
"''From the 5th century, Hinduism established cults in Chenla that integrated with indigenous beliefs, creating a syncretic society... The Preah Thong myth shows how Indian origins were localized to legitimize Khmer rule.''"<ref>Quote in ''Inscriptions du Cambodge'' (Volume on Chenla, 2012, EFEO) By George Cœdès</ref> - Sovath Prak, epigraphist & historian

Chea Socheat, Michael Vickery (historian), Ros Chantrabot (historian & former diplomat), and Serey Sok (archaeologist) have also written about the historical influence of Hinduism/India on Cambodia.

The name Cambodia comes from the founder of the first Khmer Dynasty from India, who was Kambhoja. From him Cambodia is usually called by its natives as either 'Kambuja' or 'Kampuchea'. Its national flag displays the world-famous [[List of UNESCO Hindu World Heritage Sites#Cambodia|Angkor Wat Temple]] within the country. Angkor Wat is the largest spiritual monument in the world. It was built by King Suryavarman II.

An inscription from Anghor Vat runs thus: "''The [[Brahman]] Agastya, born in the land of the Aryans, devoted to the [[worship]] of Siva, having come by his psychic powers to the land of the Cambodians for the purpose of worshipping the Siva-linga known as Bhadresvara, and having worshipped the god for a long time, attained to beatitude.''"

===Indonesia===
[[image:Chola Empire and its tributaries.jpg|right|thumb|200px|The Chola Empire and its tributary lands. Indonesia was once a part of the Greater Chola Empire or 'Choladesh'.]]
"''Indonesia's ancient Hindu legacy, through processes of Indianization, laid the groundwork for tolerant pluralism...The Majapahit Empire (14th century) exemplifies how Hindu dharma fostered unity across ethnic groups, influencing modern Pancasila."''<ref>"Hindu Roots of Indonesian Tolerance", ''Journal of Indonesian Islam'' (2009) By Hilman Latief</ref> - Professor Dr. Hilman Latief, Syarif Hidayatullah State Islamic University

Agus Aris Munandar (archaeologist and historian), I Made Titib (theologian and philosopher), Ida Bagus Putu Jandhy (philosopher and cultural scholar), and Ni Wayan Sukerti (linguist and Indologist) have also written about the historical influence of Hinduism/India on Indonesia.

The largest and most prestigious native Indonesian dynasties were Srivijaya, Mataram, Shailendra, and Majapahit. The Chola Dynasty of India was a great link between both India and Indonesia as the exchange of cultures occurred, leading to closer ties between Indonesians and Indians.

Indonesians believe that [[Agastya|Sage Agastya]] and [[Markandeya|Sage Markandeya]] brought Hinduism to Indonesia. Hence, this shows that sages particularly of the [[Gotra#Pravara gotras|pravara gotra]] lineages from [[Agastya]] and Markandeya had been the first preachers of Hinduism in the islands.

Many Indians had migrated to Indonesia, some of them being Gujaratis. It is said that King Aji Saka, who came to Java in Indonesia in year 1 of the Śaka calender, was believed to be a king of Gujarat by some.<ref name="ReferenceA">P. 67 ''An era of peace'' By Krishna Chandra Sagar</ref> It is also believed that the first Indian settlements in Java Island of Indonesia was established with the coming of Prince Dhruvavijaya of Gujarat with 5,000 traders.<ref name="ReferenceA"/> Some stories propose that a sage named Tritresta was the first to bring Gujarati migrants with him to Java, hence some scholars equate him with Aji Saka.<ref> P. 158 ''Foreign Influence on Ancient India'' By Krishna Chandra Sagar </ref>

===Laos===
"Hindu influencers via Dvaravati Mon traders established elite religious practices in central Laos by the 7th century, paving the way for Theravada...This syncretic layer remains in Lao festivals symbolizing our Indosphere heritage.''"<ref>"From Brahmanism to Buddhism in Lao History", ''Lao Heritage Journal'' (2019) By Khammy Phommaseng</ref> - Khammy Phommaseng

Bounleuam Chaleunsinh (ethnologist), Phothong Phoummachanh (historian & cultural scholar), Sisouk Vongvichit (cultural heritage expert), and Vongkot Thammavongsa (archaeologist) have also written about the historical influence of Hinduism/India on Laos.

===Malaysia===
"''Up to the 14th century, Hindu-Buddhist influences had a major impact on Malaysian culture...The massive cultural impact of India on Malay Peninsula prior to the 14th century was virtually overwhelming, shaping early kingdoms like Langkasura and Kadaram through trade and elite adoption.''"<ref>''Early History of Peninsular Malaysia (2002)'' By Dr. Nik Hassan Shuhaimi Nik Abdul Rahman</ref> - Dr. Nik Hassan Shuhaimi Nik Abdul Rahman, archaeologist and historian

Ahmad Murad Merican (literary historian), Mohd. Taib Osman (cultural anthropologist), Raja Zarina Raja Zain (social anthropologist), and Wan Suhana Wan Sulaiman (Indologist) have also written about the historical influence of Hinduism/India on Malaysia.

* [[Bujang Valley Civilization]]

===Thailand===
"''Thailand is the most crucial place for study of Sanskrit. We started to study Sanskrit long back. Hinduism and Buddhism existed in Thailand and have very strong influences''." - Professor Chirapat Prapandvidya, founder and director of Sanskrit Studies Centre at Silpakorn University in Bangkok, Thailand

Charuwan Chareonla (art historian), Kessara Srinaka (art historian), Piriya Krairiksh (art historian) and Prapod Assavavirulhakarn (Buddhist scholar) have also written about the historical influence of Hinduism/India on Thailand.

In Hindu scriptures, Burma is known as Shyamdesh. Hence the other name of the country is 'Siam'.

===Vietnam===
"''Hinduism, introduced via Indian traders to Funan around the 1st century CE, established the socio-political framework for early Khmer-Cham societies in southern Vietnam...Temples like Óc Eo reflect this, blending Indian [[Rulership in Hinduism|devaraja]] cults with local animism to form hybrid polities.''"<ref>Paper in ''Archaeology of Asia'' (2012) By Tran Ky Phuong </ref> - Tran Ky Phuong

Ngô Đức Thịnh (ethnologist & cultural historian), Phan Huy Lê (historian, former national education department president), Lương Ninh (cultural anthropologist), and Vũ Kim Thắng (epigraphist) have also written about the historical influence of Hinduism/India on Vietnam.

==Oceania==
"''Soon after the establishment of a great Hindu civilisation in Java, and in a lessor degree in the Philippines, about the time of the Christian Era, it is certain that many expeditions of adventurous Hindu-Malay sea-captains in large ocean-going Wangkang and Barangai, "junks" and "big galleys" must have launched out into the Pacific, both by the N.W. route by way of the Moluccas, Caroline Islands and Havaii, as well as by the S.W. route, followed in much more recent times by Abel Tasman.''" - F.W. Christian<ref> P, 77-79 ''The Journal of the Polynesian Society: Volumes 1-22'' By Polynesian Society (N.Z.) </ref>

F.W. Christian had written of similarities between Sanskrit and Polynesian languages, such as Maori and Samoan.<ref> P, 77 ''The Journal of the Polynesian Society: Volumes 1-22'' By Polynesian Society (N.Z.) </ref>
;Australia
Their closest blood links are with the groups in New Guinea, South India and Sri Lanka, representing their path of migration into Australia.<ref> P. 186 ''Native Peoples of the World: An Encylopedia of Groups, Cultures and Contemporary Issues'' By Steven L. Danver</ref>

One academic, Professor Alan Cooper, from the University of Adelaide’s Centre for Ancient DNA, says the Indian influence may well have played a role in the development of the Aboriginal culture – outlined in a paper titled ‘Genome-wide data substantiate Holocene gene flow from India to Australia’.

Professor Cooper says it is impossible to ignore the link with the discovery of the dingo…"''The timing of all those things in the archaeological record, about 4,000 to 5,000 years ago, happens to match the timing estimated for this genetic influx from India.''"

Professor Cooper also points to another development that happened around the time of the Australia-Indian connection – an expansion of one of the Aboriginal language groups. "''This other language seems to have taken over Australia relatively recently – perhaps 5,000 years ago,…And how it did it, how it replaced the other ancient languages, we don’t know…So suddenly, 4,000 to 5,000 years ago is starting to become a fairly tumultuous time in Australian history.''"

;New Zealand
[[image:Tamil Bell found near Whangarei, Northland Region.jpg|left|thumb|200px|Tamil bell found near Whangarei, Northland Region.]]
[[image:Sanskrit writing found near Hokianga Harbour.jpg|right|thumb|200px|Sanskrit writing (digitally highlighted) found near Hokianga Harbour, Northland Region.]]
The oldest Indian settlement in New Zealand comes from the [[Dānavas]] that sailed originally from Patala in Sind. These Indians became known locally in New Zealand as the Tuhoe.

About 150 years ago, a bell was discovered in New Zealand near Whangarei in the Northland Region with Tamil writings on it.<ref> [https://www.cmi.ac.in/gift/Epigraphy/epig_tambaramnewly.htm "Newly discovered Tamil inscriptions from the Tambaram area", ''Madras Christian College Magazine'', v. 42, 1973 Gift Siromoney] </ref> It is believed to have come from a Pallava Dynasty ship which was sailing in the area and had possibly landed on New Zealand. The bell had led Indologist, V. R. Ramachandra Dikshitar to investigate and claims in his book ''The Origin and Spread of the Tamils'' that ancient Tamil sea-farers might have had a knowledge of Australia and Polynesia. There has also been Sanskrit writing discovered on a boulder in Hokianga Harbor. This finding has led to the belief that Hindu monks had arrived in New Zealand before Europeans did.

It is even believed by some historians that among the ancestry of indigenous New Zealanders there is some Indian descent. Joan Leaf through oral tradition of genealogy (''whakapapa'') among the Maori and having consulted with the Maori Wharewananga, traced the lineage of her husband, who is Maori on both sides of his ancestry, back to India.<ref>''Hawaiiki to the Hokianga, 2000 BC''</ref> That the Tuhoe of New Zealand were Dānavas is further evidenced by their oral traditions which recants Dānavas having fought other Indians in the typical wars that Indian epics mention about them.

"''Maori tradition tells us that their ancestors in times long past away, 165 generations ago, they migrated from a hot country named India''." - Eldson Best<ref> "The cause of this exodus was a disastrous war with a dark skinned folk in which great numbers were slain."; ''Tuhoe: The Children of the Mist'' By Eldson Best </ref>

;Rest of Polynesia
[[image:From Indus to Easter Island.jpg|right|thumb|200px|The trajectory from Mohenjo-Daro ([[Indus Valley Civilization]]) to Giza (Egypt) then Machu Pichu (Peru), and to Easter Island is a perfect 30° incline.]]
[[image:IVC and rongorongo scripts.jpg|left|thumb|200px|The scripts of [[Indus Valley Civilization]] and Eastern Island. An image from ''The Indians And The Amerindians'' By Dr. S. Chakravarti.]]

Balaram Chakravarti writes, "The Lapita potteries which seem to be of [[Dānava]] origin seems to lend evidence to the stepping stone of Dānava migration from New-Britain to Fiji with an off-shoot in New-Caledonia."<ref> P. ii ''The Children of Abo Tani in India, Fiji, and Polynesia: An Account of the Migration of the Indian Dānavas and the Nāgas, and Their Contribution to the Efflorescence of Culture in Fiji and Polynesia, Volume 1'' By Balaram Chakravarti </ref>

Easter Island has stories among its natives of long-eared (''Hanau epe'') people having come there, led by Hotu Matu'a (''Great Parent'', a title given to their 'ariki' or ''king''.) The Hanau epe were said to have been from Hiva (''Far away land.'') The reason for their migration was a great flood. The Indus Valley Civilization was devastated and abandoned due to severe flooding. Together they had built the Moai monuments.

Elongated earlobes are a common feature in many depictions of devas, gandharvas, ṛṣis and others. Long and hanging earlobes are known as
''larhba-karṇa''. Even the ''Viṣṇu-koṣa''<ref> P. 311 ''Viṣṇu-koṣa'' By Śaligrama K Ramachandra Rao </ref> mentions it as a feature of Viṣṇu. Dr. B. A. Saletore had published in his book, ''The Wild Tribes in Indian History''<ref> P. 375 ''Indian Culture: Journal of the Indian Research Institute, Volume 2, Issues 1-2'' By I.B. Corporation </ref> about a tribe called the Labhakarṇas. It is not an unknown trait in Indian history and so it is likely that the Dānavas who arrived in Easter Island had elongated ears.

"''It has been suggested Easter Island ''rongorongo'' script arrived from Peru, South America and is related to the Indus River Valley dating back to 2000 BC which is likely since there were Indus River Valley migrations to Peru, South America, by 1500 BC or perhaps as early as 2000 BC. Many Harappan glyphs appear in both Peruvian and Easter Island scripts''." - Jeffrey L. Gross <ref> ''Waipio Valley: A Polynesian Journey from Eden to Eden'' By Jeffrey L. Gross </ref>

==Europe==
''See also: [[Hindu Temples in Europe]]''

At the time that the Indo-Iranians came into Europe, the natives of Europe were Palesgians in the Balkan Peninsula, Basques in Iberian Peninsula, Fins and Sami in Northern Europe and the Magyars to later become Hungarians, Estonians and Kami in Eastern Europe and several other non-Indo-European linguistic families within the Caucasus. With the influence on the Indo-Iranian comers, the Indo-European nations of Europe were born. Some identified groups that had come into Europe were [[Druyus]] (becoming the British Druids and German Druvis), Parthians (Thracians from Parthenope and some Irish from Partholonians) and Medians.

The reason why it was easy for the Indo-European languages to gain popularity among Europe's natives is because the native Europeans were nomads that relied on hunting and gathering, the Indo-Iranians were agarians that brought an agricultural revolution. [[Historical racial diversity of Hindus#Vedic period|DNA samples of the Yamnayas]] (mixed of Indo-Iranians and Europeans) show that they were not lactose intolerant whereas the European natives were. Thus, Indo-Iranians showed Europeans to be able to live sedentary lives opposite to foraging and constantly relocating.

The Sanskrit word ''[[Deva]]'' took on vernacular forms amongst European nations wherein it became ''Theo'' in Greek, ''Dio'' in Latin and Italian, ''Dios'' in Spanish, ''Deos'' in Portuguese, ''Déu'' in Catalan, ''Dieu'' in French, ''Dievs'' in Latvian, ''Dievas'' in Lithuanian, ''Duw'' in Welsh, and the words ''Deity'' and ''[[Divinity]]'' in English. Even the word 'devil' means ''slanderer'' ('il') ''of'' ''god'' ('dev') and its Latin version is 'deofel' wherein 'deo' means ''god'' and 'fel' means ''slanderer''. So ''[[Theology]]'' means the study of "''The study of Theo''" and ''Theism'' is "''The belief in Theo''". Further, the Sanskrit word '[[Asura]]' became ''Æsir'' for Scandinavia's worshipers of the Norse gods.

===Thrace===
[[image:Hekate and Gayatri.jpg|right|thumb|200px|Goddess Hekate's depictions look similar to those of a Hindu goddess.]]
The Thracians called their country 'Aria'<ref> P. 277 ''Encyclopedia britannica''; or, ''A dictionary of [[arts]], sciences, and miscellaneous literature'' by Colin Macfarquhar; George Gleig </ref> which means ''Noble''. It is a word which has much significance in Hinduism, including Buddhism and [[Jainism]]. In Hellenist mythology, Thrace was the offspring of Parthenope, the daughter of Olympian god Ares. The 'Parth' in the name Parthenope indicates Parthian and hence an Indo-Iranian origin. Goddess Hecate was portrayed as a multi-headed and multi-handed deity.

There were several tribes among Thracians. Originally there was one but as they expanded control of other territories in the Balkans, other nations became Thracianized. Hesychius notes that the Sindi tribe of Thracians was from India.<ref> P. 107 ''Asiatic Researches; Or, Transactions Of The Society, Instituted ..., Volume 10'' </ref> Sir W. Drummond was also of the same viewpoint. George Faber wrote that Thracians came from a frontier of India.<ref> P. 293 ''The Origin of Pagan Idolatry: Ascertained from Historical ..., Volume 2'' By George Stanley Faber </ref>

The Thracians inhabited this region even before the earliest Greeks<ref>They are Achaeans or Mycenaeans.</ref> made their way south to the present Greece.<ref> P. 37 ''Chronicles, Volume 21'' By Rockford Institute </ref> Thracians even preceded Greeks to important islands in the northern, central, eastern and eastern Aegean. This includes Thasos, Samothrace, Imbros, Lemnos, Euboea, Naxos, Lesbos and Chios.<ref> ''The Rise Of The Greeks'' By Michael Grant </ref>

The Sindi Colchi country, located in the Taman Peninsula, was known as Sindike and Sindikos, and its largest city was named Sinda. Greek writer Strabo referred to these Sindi as 'Sindoi'. Ancient Greek Pliny called it 'Scythia Sindica', Ptolemy as 'Indo-Scythia', and both Socrates and Stephanus as 'India'. Because the Thracians were also in the Aegean Sea, they were in Lemnos island. There was an ethnicity here named 'Sindians', whom Homer in his ''Iliad'' and ''Odyssey'' wrote, "spoke a strange language" and the Scholiast Thucydides wrote the Thracians are derived from India.<ref>''Iliad'' I.594; ''Odyssey'' VIII.294; P. 516 ''The History of India: As Told by Its Own Historians. The Muhammadan Period, Volume 1'' By Sir Henry Miers Elliot </ref>

"''We can firmly say that the Bulgarians had entered their present areas from Hindistan (India) in the most ancient times...and their migration took place much earlier than the division of the Aryan tribe in Hindistan.''" - Paisii Hilendarski<ref> vol. 4.369; P. 299 ''Myths and boundaries in southern-eastern Europe'' By Pal Kolsto</ref>

Francis Wilford claimed “that so early as B.C. 189, or before it, Hindus of both sexes were not uncommon in Greece: that they were settled in Colchis, and that the Sindi of Thrace came originally from India.”

===Greece===
[[image:Krishna_mosaic _Corinth.jpg|right|thumb|200px|Greek mosaic of Kṛṣṇa in his iconic cross-legged pose playing the flute by cows, from 2nd century CE, now found at Corinth, Greece.]]
[[image:Swastika_coin_Corinth.jpg|right|thumb|200px|Coin with Swastika issued at Corinth, Greece.]]
;Early Indo-Europeans in Greece
“''The whole of this state of society, civil and military, must strike anyone as eminently Asiatic; much of it specifically Indian. Such it undoubtedly is. . . these evidences were but the attendant tokens of an Indian colonization with its corresponding religion and language. . . the whole of Greece, from the era of the supposed godships of Poseidon and Zeus, down to the close of the Trojan war was Indian in language, sentiment and religion, as well as the arts of peace and war.''” - Edward G Pococke

The natives of Greece were Palesgians. From the academic influence of the Indo-Iranians in the region, the ancient Greek and Latin languages were established from which all the other Indo-European languages of Europe were created. This can be seen in the wars between the Olympian gods and the Titans. Scholar Ignatius Donnelly believes the conflict between the Olympians and Titans represented a war between the Olympians and Titans.<ref> P. 320 ''Atlantis: The Antediluvian World'' By Ignatius Donnelly </ref> Lewis Spence also mentions that the conflict between the Olympians and the Titans was of Aryans with non-Aryans with the Titans being projected as the latter.<ref> P. 59 ''The Magic [[Arts]] in Celtic Britain'' By Lewis Spence </ref>

;Philosophical contribution to Greece
"''We find that it (India) was visited for the purpose of acquiring knowledge by Pythagoras, Anaxarches, Pyrrho and others who afterwards became eminent philosophers in Greece.''" - Dr. William Enfield<Ref> P. 41 ''Bharātīya [[Vidyā]], Volume 51'' By [[Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan]]</ref>

Overtime, a link was established between Greece and India, wherein Greek scholars would visit India and learn from Hindu clergy. Count Bjornstjerna says that Greek philosophy was indebted almost wholly to the Hindu philosophy for its cardinal doctrines.<ref> P. 974 ''Indian Law Quarterly Review, Volume 5'' By Arora Law [[House]] </ref> From this cultural phenomena, Pythagorus founded Pythagorism, Orpheus founded Orphism and Plato founded Platoism. Orphism from 6th century BCE believed in reincarnation<Ref> P. xviii ''The Orphic Hymns'' By Apostolos N Athanassakis and Benjamin M Wolkow </ref>, a Supreme God.<Ref> P. xiv: 'The Orphic Hymns' By Apostolos N Athanassakis and Benjamin M Wolkow. </ref> Pythagorism from 5th century BCE believed in reincarnation<Ref> P. 2 ''Pythagoras and the Pythagoreans: A Brief History'' By Charles H. Kahn </ref>, a Supreme God<Ref> P. 97 ''Pythagoras and the Pythagoreans: A Brief History'' By Charles H. Kahn </ref>, promoted asceticism<Ref> P. 9 ''Pythagoras and the Pythagoreans: A Brief History'' By Charles H. Kahn </ref> and vegetarianism.<Ref> P. 9 ''Pythagoras and the Pythagoreans: A Brief History'' By Charles H. Kahn </ref> Platonism from 5th century BCE believed in reincarnation<ref> P. 377 ''The Middle Platonists, 80 B.C. to A.D. 220'' By John M. Dillon </ref> and a Supreme God.<ref> P. 199 ''The Middle Platonists, 80 B.C. to A.D. 220'' By John M. Dillon </ref> Although Orphism, Pythagorism, and Platoism spirituality are all Hindu, Western scholars note that non-Hindu spiritualties of Greek thought also demonstrate Hindu influence such as Stoicism<ref> ,'Experiencing World History'' By Paul Vauthier Adams, Erick Detlef Langer, Lily Hwa, Peter N. Stearns, Merry E. Wiesner-Hanks </ref> which advocated asceticism. These schools were in start opposition to the Cyrenaicism (Greek Hedonistic school), and was opposed to Stoicism in its metaphysics.

"''The Hindus were, in this respect, the teachers and not the learners.''" - Henry Colebrooke <ref> P. 974 ''Indian Law Quarterly Review, Volume 5'' By Arora Law [[House]] </ref>

When Greek scholars had spoken of philosophies of wisdom, they regarded amongst the highest as Orphism, Pythagoreanism and Platonism. Early Christian sects not only regarded Pythagorus as a prophet of God, but drew on Orphic, Pythagorean and Platonic, as well as Neo-Platonic Mystery schools.<ref> P. 77 ''Jesus: The Explosive Story of the 30 Lost Years and the Ancient Mystery'' By Tricia McCannon </ref> Plaethon not only stated that he preferred Indian Brahmans and Magi amongst the non-Greeks, but that "inspired men" like Pythagorus, Plato and other philosophers belonging to their school, notably Parmenides, Timaeus, Plutarch, Plotinus, Porphyry and Iamblichus were great people.<ref> P. 39 Hermes in the Academy: Ten Years' Study of Western Esotericism at the ... edited by Wouter J. Hanegraaff, Joyce Pijnenburg </ref>

The Grecianized version of 'Brahman' is ''Brachman'' and ''Bragmanni''. The ancient Greeks mention them in many instances when discussing spirituality, [[Hindu philosophies|philosophy]], [[astrology]], geopolitics and other steams of study. In about 270-303 CE, makes distinguishing statements among the gymnosophists wherein he describes differences amongst them.<ref> P. 133 ''The Bhilsa Topes; Or, Buddhist Monuments of Central India, Etc'' By Sir Alexander Cunningham </ref> Purchas had written that all the things observed by Nsturall Philosophers in Greece had been handled before, partly by the Brachmancs amongst the Indians.<ref> P. 2705 ''The Century Dictionary: An Encyclopedic Lexicon of the English Language, Volume 4'' edited by William Dwight Whitney, Benjamin Eli Smith </ref> A type of non combustible cloth made from stone was also said to have been used by the Brachmancs.<ref> P. 686 ''The Gentleman's Magazine and Historical Review, Volume 202'' By Sylvania Urban </ref> It later became used by some in Europe.

There were also Hindu monks that had visited Greece for the purpose of discussing philosophy. Zarmanochegas is the most known of these. In Greece, he had self-immolated himself to protest Alexander's invasion of India. His tomb in Greece reads, "Here lies Zarmanochegas an Indian, a native of Bargose, having immortalized himself according to the custom of his country."[http://www.ibiblio.org/britishraj/Jackson9/chapter01.html] Other Hindu sages that were in the company of Emperor Elagabalus also were written about.<ref> P. 6 ''Neoplatonic Saints: The Lives of Plotinus and Proclus by Their Students'' By Mark Edwards </ref>

;Worship of similar deities between Hindus and Hellenists
"''While Dionysus (Siva) is worshipped in the mountain, Heracles (Krsna) is worshipped on the plain, especially by the Surasenoi (Surasena), an Indian people who possess two towns, Methora (Mathura) and Kleisobora (Krsnapura)''" - Megastheses<ref> Arrian, Ind., VIII, 4; P. 393 ''History of Indian Buddhism: From the Origins to the Saka Era'' By Etienne Lamotte </ref>, Greek historian and ethnographer, 4th century BCE

The gods worshiped by Hellenists were similar to that of Hindus. Whereas Indra is called Vetethragna in the Avesta, and Vahagn by the Armenians, he's also known as Artagnes-Herakles in Commagene.<ref>P. 132 ''Opuscula Atheniensia, Volumes 2-3; Volumes 7-10; Volume 12; Volumes 14-15; Volume 17; Volume 27; Volume 37'' C.W.K. Gleerup., Nov 1, 1988 </ref> Many of the soldiers in Alexander of Macedonia's army readily became Hindu. "Close to 10,000 Greeks, who came in the wake of Alexander the Great, were Krishna's devotees. There is an inscription by Heliodorus, the Greek ambassador at Takshila , which reads Deva, deva, Vasudeva. Krishna is my god and I have installed this Garuda Pillar at Bes Nagar (now in Bihar)," says researcher T K V Rajan.[http://m.timesofindia.com/city/chennai/New-finds-take-archaeologists-closer-to-Krishna/articleshow/3898205.cms] Further, Hydaspes is written by Nonnus in his Dionysiaca as a son of the sea-god Thaumas and cloud-goddess Elektra. He was the brother of Iris the rainbow-goddess and half-brother of Harpies.[http://news.statetimes.in/the-journey-of-vitasta-river/]

;Other contribution of customs
"''Cremation was brought by barbarians from the East [India] to the Mediterranean basin about 2500–2000 BC, where previously the practice was unknown.''" - William Howels<ref> P. 43 ''Honoring God to the Very, Very, Very End!'' </ref>

[[Jyotiṣa|Astrology]] was also a science that Hindus spread with them in Greece. Philostratus tells how Iarbas the Brachman or Brahman gave Apolloneus of Tyans a set of rings for days of the week to maintain good health.<ref> Page 147 ''The Archaeological Journal - Volume 33'' By The Royal Anthropological Institute of Great Britain and Ireland </ref>

Apart from the Greeks having visited India for learning Hinduism and its ideals and customs, Indians had colonized Greece as the first Indo-Iranians in the country. They were the Danauna (also known as Aavaoi), who descend from King Danaus. This king has founded the city Argos, and from his descend figures like the Danai, who are Argives mentioned by Homer.<ref> P. 306 ''The Century Cyclopedia of Names: A Pronouncing and Etymological Dictionary of Names in Geography, Biography, Mythology, History, Ethnology, Art, Archaeology, Fiction, Etc., Etc., Etc'' By Benjamin Eli Smith </ref> They were also known as Achaians, who are mentioned separately from the people of Greece, the Hellenes, themselves because they were a foreign nationality.

===Austria, Germany & Netherlands===
"''The runes were brought to the Germans by the Brahmins of ancient India...The priestly caste of the Teutons was identical with the Brahmin caste''." - Guido von List<ref>P. 67 ''Das Geheimnis der Runen'' (1908) By Guido von List</ref>
Guido von List the Austrian wrote that the Germanic peoples were taught by Brahmans from India. He said the German priesthood descended from Indian Brahmans.<ref>"''The German priesthood descends from Indian Brahmins''." - ''Die Religion der Ario-Germanen'' (1910) By Guido von List</ref><ref>"''The Aryan Germans received their religion and social order from the Brahmins who migrated from India''."- P. 112 ''Die Religion der Ario'-Germanen'' By Guido von List </ref>

===France===
Fabre d'Olivet the Frenchman wrote that Gauls (Celtic peoples) were originally a colony of Brahmans from India.
"''The Gauls were a colony of Brahmins''." - Fabre d'Olivet<ref>''The Gauls were a colony of Indian Brahmins''''." - P. 45 ''La Langue Hebaique Restituee'' Vol. II (1815) By Fabre d'Olivet </ref>
François-Marie Arouet wrote the the Gauls and their Druids were taught by Indian Brahmans.
"''The Gauls had their Druids, who were Brahmins come from India''." - François-Marie Arouet<ref>Chapter 6 ''Philosophie de I'Histoire'' (1765) By François-Marie Arouet </ref>

===British Isles===
[[image:Brigid.jpg|right|thumb|200px|Goddess Brigid by artist Miranda Gray. The triple goddess’ depictions normally look similar to those of a Hindu goddess.]]
"''I fear we must class the descent of the Afghans from the Jews with that of the Romans, and the British from the Trojans, and that of the Irish from the Milesians or Brahmins.''" - Mountstuart Elphinstone<ref> [P. 278 "Asiatic Journal and Monthly Register for British and Foreign India, China and Australasia
Volume 28''] 1829 </ref>
Many Irish have written of an Indian influence on ancient Ireland including Mrs. Dorothy Chaplin and Madam Wilde.<ref>P. 33 ''Text Book of Indian Culture'' By Chaman Lal </ref> The Druids were the chief priests of the isles and their religion is known as Druidism. Godfrey Higgins wrote a book supporting that the Druids had come from India, titled ''The Celtic Druids, Or, An Attempt to Shew that the Druids Were the Priests of Oriental Colonies who Emigrated from India, and Were the Introducers of the First Or Cadmean System of Letters, and the Builders of Stonehenge, of Carnac, and of Other Cyclopean Works in Asia and Europe.'' They were a priestly hereditary group and are said to have been descended of the Brahman Druyus. The Druids had propitiated Danu because Druyu, their patriarch, was her great-great grandson as the son of [[Gagarin|King Yayati]] and [[Sarmishṭha|Queen Sarmishṭha]], who was a Danava (descendant of Danu.)

Being of Indian descent, Druids would have been Indo-European speakers and they likely would have been the first speakers of the language family in the British Isles. They had also worshiped the Thracian Hecate. One group of Indo-Iranians, according to Irish legends that emigrated were the Partholonians from Parthia.<ref> P. 7 ''The Book of Finglas'' By Seán Ó Broin; Other groups were Nemedians from Black Sea, Milesians are descendants of Milead (from his 3 sons Ir, Heremon, Heber, sent westward in search of Island of Destiny) from Iberia, Gailiuns, Liogarne and later arrivals to Moynalta were described as big, blond, fair-haired men of Teutonic origin, who came to Moynalta about the time of Alexander the Great. </ref> Druids were Partholonians because according to a legend, a person named Parthalon landed in Ireland three-hundred years after a mythic deluge and had brought with him three Druids named Fios, Folus and Fochmare.<ref>P. 229 ''Paradise Rediscovered: The Roots of Civilization, Volume 1'' By Michael A. Cahill </ref> They had come to Ireland from Midgonia.<ref>It is in Middle Greece.</ref>

"''The very name Druid is composed of two Celtic word roots which have parallels in Sanskrit. Indeed, the root vid for knowledge also emerges in the Sanskrit word Veda, demonstrates the similarity. The Celtic root dru which means 'immersion' also appears in the Sanskrit. So a Druid was the one 'immersed in knowledge.'''" - Peter Beresford-Ellis<ref> [http://druidry.org/druid-way/other-paths/druidry-dharma Druidism and the ancient Religions of India] </ref>

In history, the Druids were later pushed into Ireland and Scotland. "In Britain, the Kelts pushed the Albans into northern Ireland and northern Scotland.”<ref> P. 28 ''Footprints of the Welsh Indians and Sailors of the Past'' By William L. Traxel </ref> Druidism still survives today in the isles and revivalist efforts have been put forth by its followers.

"''The island [Britain] has long been pre-disposed of it's [[[Christianity]]] through the doctrines of the Druids and Buddhists who already inculcated the doctrine of the Godhead.''" - Christian cleric Origen, 3rd century CE

It is notable that there is a Druid named Arias, which even further strengthens the relationship between the Druids and Brahmans as Aria/Arya meant ''noble'' and was used in the ethical and spiritual sense even by the [[Buddha]] who referred to his creed as the [[Arya]] Astanga [[Dharma]] (''Noble Eight-fold Religion.'') Peter Berresford Ellis writes, "Moreover, we learn that in these four cities were 'four Druids who taught the Children of [[Danu]] skill and knowledge and perfect wisdom'. Morias dwelt in Falias; Urias 'of the noble nature' lived in Gorias; Arias the poet resided in Finias and Senias had his abode in Murias."<ref> P. 124 ''The Druids'' By Peter Berresford Ellis </ref>

The Druids were especially the priests of the Tuatha De Danann. D'Arbois translates ''Tuatha De Danann'' as "people of the god whose mother is called Danu."
Goddess Danu written of in Celtic spirituality is the same Danu from the [[Ṛgveda]]. The Danavas, upon leaving India, moved westwards to Iran (i.e., Parthia), then more westwards, which led them to arrive in Egypt. In Egypt, these Danavas are recorded in legend to have been banished from the country where in legend, King Ramses exiled his brother Danaus. From the exile, Danaus moved to Middle Greece and eventually to Ireland. George A. Christopoulos had also connected the Danaans and Danawois to the Danawos mentioned in the Avesta.

Englishmen Francis Wilford<ref>"''Britain was colonised by Brahmins from India...the Druids preserved Brahminical learning''." - ''On Egypt and Other Countries Adjacent to the Nile'' By Francis Wilford and Asiatic Researches (1798) </ref>, Thomas Maurice<ref>"'The Druids of Britain were Brahmins...the Celtic religion is nothing but a corrupted form of the Brahminical system brought from India''." - ''Indian Antiquities'' (Vol. VI) By Thomas Maurice (1793-1800)</ref>, and William Stukeley<ref>"''The Druids...were of the same patriarchal religion as Abraham and the Brahmins of India''." - ''Stonehenge'' (1740) and ''Abury'' (1743) By William Stukeley</ref> wrote of Brahmans in the Isles. Wilford said Brahmans colonized the isles and that Druids taught Vedic doctrines, Maurice that the Druids were Brahmans, and Stukeley that the Druids were Brahmans from the East.

Irishmen Charles Vallancey<ref>"''The Irish Druids were Brahmins...the ancient Irish are descendants of Hindoo colonists''." - ''Collectanea de Rebus Hibernicus'' (1770-1804) By Charles Vallancey</ref> and John Toland<ref>"''</ref> wrote of the Hindu connection too. Vallancey that the Irish Druids and their language were of Brahmans and Toland that the Irish Druids were Indian philosophers.

===Scandinavia===
[[image:Buddha, Helgö.jpg|right|thumb|200px|Statue of [[Buddha]] dated from 5th Century CE<Ref> [http://www.lionsroar.com/the-buddha-statue-found-in-an-ancient-viking-hoard/ How did a Buddha statue land in Viking hands? BY SAM LITTLEFAIR| MARCH 24, 2016] </ref> found on a Viking tombstone in Helgö, Sweden.]]

The Norse gods referred to god as 'Æsir'. The name of thunder-god Thor comes from 'Thortian' of the Zoroastrian ''Vendiad'' and the name derives it's form from the Vedic [[Trita]], who was known as Trita in the Avesta and then later as Traitana, then 'Thraetaona' and finally as 'Thortian' to the Zoroastrians. In Sweden's Helgö, a small Buddha statuette from North India dating from 6th century AD; was found in Viking's grave.<Ref> [http://irisharchaeology.ie/2013/12/the-helgo-treasure-a-viking-age-buddha/ "The Helgo Treasure: A Viking Age Buddha" by Colm]</ref>

===Eastern Europe===
The names of [[deities]] of Eastern Europe indicate a strong Hindu influence.
;Azerbaijan
Currently the Fire Temple of Baku is a site revered for its historic uniqueness which was established by Hindu priests from India in the 19th century. It was nominated by the Azerbaijani government for being recognized as a UNESCO Hindu Site. Currently there is an [[ISKCON]] temple in Baku[http://centers.iskcondesiretree.com/baku/], the country's capital city.

;Poland
Śivā is the name of a female deity in Poland, just as Śivā is the name of Kali Mātā of Hinduism, the wife of Śiva. Further, in Poland, "''Vogt in his lectures of Man assumes the Polish to be descended from Hindu sources..."<ref> P. 386 ''The Races of Europe: A Sociological Study (Lowell Institute Lectures)'''' By William Zebina Ripley </ref>

;Lithuania
{| class="wikitable sortable"
Table of gods worshiped in pre-Christian Lithuania:
|-
! Deity
! Vedic equivalent
! About god
|-
!Praamžius Dievas
|Prajapati
|The supreme or leader of the gods.
|-
! Dievas Senelis ("''Good Old Man''")
| Yama
|He is a teacher of people and judge of their morality. He looks like an old traveling beggar. Dievas Senelis is proficient at magic and medicine. Epithet of Dievas.
|-
!Perkūnas
|Prajanya
|Thunder, a son of Dievas ("dievaitis.")
|-
!Saulė
|Surya
|The Sun Goddess.
|-
!Ašvieniai
|Ashvins
|The divine twins who pulled the chariot of the Sun.
|-
|}

There is a Lithuanian folk song reminiscent of a Vedic tale.<Ref> P. 323 ''The Religion of the Ṛgveda'' By Hervey De Witt Griswold </reF>[https://gazetteers.maharashtra.gov.in/cultural.maharashtra.gov.in/english/gazetteer/Thana%20District/appendix.html]

;Russia
"''I also feel the great sympathy with modern Hinduism of [[Rama]] Krishna and Girikananda...''"<ref> P. 40 ''Christianity Today, Volume 11'' By Carl Ferdinand Howard Henry </ref> 
"''The mystico-religious elements in Indian culture didn't interest me much...The moral teachings of early Buddhism, the personality of the Buddha, the great ascetic life of Mahatma Gandhi, who blended ancient philosophies so harmoniously with modern conditions, fascinated me far more.''"<ref> ''Only One Year: A Memoir'' By Svetlana Alliluyeva </ref> - Svetlana Alliluyeva, ex-atheist daughter of Joseph Stalin

In Russia's Volga region during excavation, a 7th century AD Varāha statue was found in Staraya Maina village within the Ulyanovsk region.<Ref> [http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/world/rest-of-world/Ancient-Viṣṇu-idol-found-in-Russian-town/articleshow/1046928.cms "Ancient Viṣṇu idol found in Russian town"] </ref> This ancient area was highly populated city 1,700 years ago. Ulyanovsk State University's archaeology department Dr. Alexander Kozhevin's team had made the discovery after having excavated the area. A famous Russian historian had written that thousands of years before the 'Kiev-Rus' culture, from which Russian nation originated, there was a 'Vedic-Rus' which was characterized by an international Vedic culture.<ref> ''India’s Emerging Partnerships in Eurasia: Strategies of New Regionalism'' By Dr. Nivedita Das Kundu </ref> During the 14th century CE Indian gold coins were found in the Volga region near the village of Tenishevo indicating a flourishing trade between India and Russia.

==Americas==
Before reaching [[Editing The Spread of Hinduism#Oceania|Polynesia]], the Davanas passed through South America. Surprisingly, it seems they may have left a mark on the indigenous there because, like in Easter Island, the native language Aymara resembles an Indian language. In this case it is Sanskrit, which is bares similarities to the Aymara tongue spoken in Bolivian Andes mountain. Writers, such as the 19th century Vicente de Ballivián y Roxas, 20th century F.W. Christian<ref> P, 77 ''The Journal of the Polynesian Society
Volumes 1-22'' By Polynesian Society (N.Z.) </ref>, and 21st century ‎Geoffrey V. Davis, as well as others have written about this.

;USA
“''I didn't have a dorm room, so I slept on the floor in friends' rooms. I returned coke bottles for the 5¢ deposits to buy food with. And I would walk the 7 miles across town every Sunday night to get one good meal a week at the Hare Krishna temple. I loved it.''” - Steve Jobs, Stanford University conference in 2005<ref> [https://iskconnews.org/steve-jobs-and-the-krishna-connection,2907/ ''Steve Jobs and the Krishna Connection'' By Venkata Bhatta dasa (Vineet Chander) for ISKCON News on Oct. 7, 2011] </ref>

The USA has been the base for establishing several [[Hindu-oriented organizations]], such as ISKCON.

American-born converts to Sanatan Dharm promoted it by establishing their own institutions like specific monastic orders or sectarian temples. Ranked in order of most influential are James Donald Walters, Richard Slavin, Richard Alpert, David Frawley, Anthony Paul Moo-Young, Robert Hansen, Lawrence Miles, John Edwin Favors, Stephen Cope, Andrew Cohen, Leopold Fischer, Georg Feuerstein, Merle Roberson, and Christopher Isherwood.

{| class="wikitable sortable"
|-
! Person
! Sectarian Affiliation
! Organizational Affiliation
! Discipleship
! Establishment
! Other Achievement(s)
! Compilation(s)
|-
|Andrew Cohen
|Neo-Advaita Vedanta
|
|
|EnlightenNext
|
|
|-
|Anthony Paul Moo-Young (Mooji)
|
|
|
|Monte Sahaja
|
|
|
|-
|Christopher Isherwood
|
|
|
|
|
|
|-
|David Frawley
|
|
|
|American Institute of Vedic Studies
|
|
|-
|Georg Feuerstein
|
|
|
|
|
|
|-
|James Donald Walters ('Swami Kriyananda')
|Neo-Vedanta
|
|Ananda Sangha
|Spread Kriya Yoga
|
|
|-
|John Edwin Favors
|
|
|
|
|
|
|-
|Lawrence Miles
|Shaivism (Nath)
|Dasnami
|
|International Nath Order
|
|
|-
|Merle Antoinette Roberson
|
|
|
|Gangaji Foundation
|
|''The Diamond in Your Pocket'', ''Hidden Treasure'', ''Freedom and Resolve''
|-
|Richard Alpert ('Ram Dass')
|Vedanta
|
|
|Hanuman Foundation
|
|
|-
|Paul Muller-Ortega
|Shaivism (Kashmir)
|
|
|Blue Throat Yoga
|
|
|-
|Richard Slavin ('Radhanath Swami')
|Vaishnavism
|ISKCON
|
|Govardhan Eco Village
|Established multiple educational and bhakti institutions
|
|-
|Robert Hansen ('Satguru Sivaya Subramuniyaswami')
|Shaivism (Siddhanta)
|Saiva Siddhanta Church, Himalayan Academy
|
|
|
|''Hinduism Today'' magazine
|-
|Stephen Cope
|
|
|
|
|
|
|-
|}

;Guyanas
Guyana, former British Guyana and Suriname, former Dutch Guyana, were the countries of many Hindu immigrants. Both have had Hindu leaders as heads of the government.

==Africa==
Technically [[The spread of Hinduism#Egypt|Egypt]] was the first part of Africa in which the Hinduism spread.

;South Africa
[[image:First Hindus Temple in South Africa.jpg|right|thumb|200px|The first Hindu Temple in South Africa was a very simple design. It was built in 1869 and is now a Protected Site by South African government.]] The first Hindu temple in South Africa was constructed in 1869.

;Ghana
[[image:Hindus in Ghana.jpg|right|thumb|200px|Hindus celebrating [[Ganesha Chaturthi]] in Ghana.<Ref> [http://drishtikone.com/hinduism-growing-in-africa-without-proselytizing/ ''Hinduism growing in Africa without Proselytizing'' by Desh Kapoor] </ref>]]
[[image:Hare Krishnas in Ghana.jpg|right|thumb|200px|Hare Krishnas chanting in Ghana.<Ref> [http://drishtikone.com/hinduism-growing-in-africa-without-proselytizing/ ''Hinduism growing in Africa without Proselytizing'' by Desh Kapoor] </ref>]]

==See also==
*[[List of UNESCO Hindu World Heritage Sites|UNESCO Hindu World Heritage Sites]]
*[[Hindu Temples in Europe]]
*[[Temples]]
*[[Pilgrimages]]
*[[Zoroastrianism and Hinduism]]
*[[Historical racial diversity of Hindus]]
*[[Indus Valley Civilization]]
*[[Hindu response to conversions]]
*[[Hindu-inspired organizations]]
*[[The Hindu Renaissances]]
*[[Buddhist patronage by Hindu kings]]
*[[Sufism with Vaishnavism]]
*[[History of ancient geography]]

==External resources==
*[http://hinduwisdom.info/Pacific.htm Pacific Waves]
*[http://hinduwisdom.info/Seafaring_in_Ancient_India.htm Seafarers]
*[https://www.myindiamyglory.com/2018/06/28/western-alphabet-modelled-after-an-indian-alphabet-3400-plus-years-ago-indologist-wim-borsboom/ “Western Alphabet Modelled after an Indian Alphabet 3400 Plus Years Ago – Indologist Wim Borsboom”]
*[https://www.thesun.co.uk/news/1411522/sorry-nazis-the-swastika-is-11000-years-old-and-indian/ "GET YOUR FACTS REICH Sorry Nazis, the swastika is 11,000 years old and INDIAN" By Jasper Hamill, 8th July 2016, 11:14 am]

==References==
{{reflist}}

[[Category: The spread of Hinduism]]
[[Category: Geography]]
[[Category: Hindu history]]

Shatata-Unnati

2026-06-07T17:39:00Z

Himanshu Bhatt: /* Shahu's royal authority to implement reforms */

{{Author|Himanshu Bhatt}}
'Shatata-Unnati' is ''continual change'', 'abhyas' means improvement, 'kram-parivartanam' is ''incremental reformation'', while 'shodhanam' is ''refinement''. All of these terms are descriptive of Hindu society throughout the ages.

Continual social betterment has been one of the defining characteristics of Hindu society. All major cultures have had evils in their histories, including Hindu societies, but the shining examples to enforce positive changes and adaptability to a changing world are the Hinduism, Christianity, and Judaism.

In an era wherein colonial norms meant imprisonment or executions for speaking out against imperial rule, Mahatma Gandhi challenged the ideas of forcing nations to be subservient, fighting oppression by violence, and purging one's own nation of evils (i.e., inequality and superstition.) Today, much of the world still looks to Gandhi's perseverance to bring positive change into society.

Transformation of India's political systems made India into the world's largest democracy, and for accomplishing that, [[Indian Freedom Fighters#INC's Hindu activist roots|Hindu doctrines were rationalize to promote democracy]]. Even in India's political spectrum, Hindu principles were used to make liberalism and communism resonate with people, like Ram Rajya being a communist utopia. Some of the Communist Party of India's [[Indian Freedom Fighters#CPI's Hindu activist roots|founders were idealogues for both communism and Hinduism]], such as Swami Kumaranand, Swami Satyabhakt, and Swami Sahajanand Saraswati, as well as Keezhedathu Damodaran, Radhamohan Gokulji, and Rahul Sankrityayan.

==Comparison in societal reformation (India and Europe)==
:''See also: [[Contribution of Hindu Diaspora]]''
Whereas even in modern times, in most European Christian societies, witch-hunts and slavery were the norm, in Indian Hindu societies, widow-burning was the norm among certain communities (usually northwestern) and caste prejudice was prevalent. Both the Christian and Hindu communities worked to extinguish these and other evils.

Historical societal injustices have been acknowledged and reconciled. Even today, the lasting legacy of important Hindu reformers is visible wherein quotas employment and educational quotas are implemented for social upward mobility to ensure poorer castes and women do not fall behind.

During the colonial era, as human rights improved in Western societies as results from agricultural/economic advancements, Western writers of non-Christian societies took a chauvinistic, parochialist, and Eurocentric approach towards Hindu societies, claiming that they:
#Would never improve in human rights, morality, or rationality
#Are permanently stagnant
#Cannot produce modern or political economic institutions

Critics of the colonial era were proven wrong in these concrete ways:
#Large-scale societal reforms led by Hindu activists themselves improved Hindu societies — i.e., promoting window remarriage and caste integration while also creating quotas for females and historically-disadvantaged castes
#Rapid expansion of education and intellectual mobility — i.e., growth of global Hindu academic presence
#Global economic and corporate leadership — i.e., entrepreneurship and CEOs of major multinational companies like Adobe, Google, and Microsoft
#Democratic political evolution — i.e., maintaining electoral democracies like Hindu-majority nations, providing peaceful transfers of power, and granting significant autonomy to judiciary, press, and civil societies
#Religious and philosophical continuity + adaptation
#Ritual practice has diversified massively by religion and class — i.e., clerics ([[Rta and Spiritual Authority|priests]] and [[ascetics|monks]]) are from many backgrounds
#Reinterpretation of scriptures became internationally influential — i.e., Aldous Huxley loved the perennialism of Upanishads, Erwin Schrödinger the idea of aikatmyam, and Henry David Thoreau that of Ishavasyam
#Non-Hindus from outside of the Indian Subcontinent have converted to Sanatan Dharm and have promoted the religion — James Donald Walters who founded Ananda Sangha, Richard Alpert who founded Hanuman Foundation, John Edwin Favors who founded iFast[https://ifastdc.com/][https://ifastglobal.com/], and Robert Hansen who founded Saiva Siddhanta Church[https://www.himalayanacademy.com/]
#Hindu-based intellectual practices have popularized globally — i.e., [[Ayurveda|Ayurvedic medicine]], divination, political activism, [[Animal rights#Influence upon Westerners|animal rights]], [[Animal_rights#Vegetarianism|vegetarianism]], and [[yoga]]

==Hindu-led social betterment==
What is extraordinary in the case of India is that it was the religious institutions ([[Organizations|Hindu organizations]] and [[Hindu Post-Secondary Institutes|schools]]) that made revolutionary changes, not normally secular or non-Hindu ones. Practicing Hindus saw that superstitious and chauvinistic practices had become institutionalized (caste system and misogyny) within Hindu society, so they formed associations to help, uplift, educate the destitute. They would even go steps further to privilege the marginalized through reservations.

Even women who were more exploratory and not members of specific religions engaged with Hinduism positively. The best example might be Annette Beveridge, an Englishwoman who was the daughter of a Unitarian Christian herself became affiliated with Keshub Chandra Sen in England. She was drawn to his lectures and this fascination with his philosophy inspired her to begin life in India, where she even established<ref>Its expenses were financed by Ananda Mohan Bose and Durga Mohan Das, Dwarkanath Ganguly was its headmaster, and others Brahmos involved with the school were Sibnath Sastri and Monomohun Ghose.</ref> the Hindu Mahila Vidyalaya (''Hindu Women's School''.) Her husband Henry Beveridge was an orientalist (westerners intrigued with Asian cultures) working in India, meaning they were not Westerners critical of Hindu identity. Mrs. Emily Phear was an honorary teacher, and she too was involved in Brahmo Samaji circles for societal development. (Her husband Sir John Budd Phear helped Brahmo Samaj legally.) A non-Hindu that likewise began a girls school (Hindu Female School[https://www.bethunecollegiateschool.com/]) with Brahmos and other Hindus was John Bethune, whose accomplices were Dakshinaranjan Mukherjee, Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar, Ramgopal Ghosh, and Madanmohan Tarkalanka (the last even taught at the school without pay.) Others foreign women in India that engaged positively with Hindu activist organizations were Mary Carpenter[https://southasianbritain.org/people/mary-carpenter/] and Sophia Dobson Collet with Brahmo Samaj, Alma B.R.A. with Arya Samaj, and Mary Hobson with Prarthana Samaj[https://puneprarthanasamaj.org/].

Hindu women that set women's rights activism into motion were Arya Samaj's Lajwanti Sood and Satyavati Devi, and Brahmo Samaj's Kadambini Ganguly and Sarala Devi Chaudhurani. Swarnakumari Devi was both an Arya Samaji and a Brahmo Samaji.

===Female upliftment===
:''See also: [[Indian Freedom Fighters]] 
;Theosophical Society wing
[[image:Paris Women's Congress.jpg|right|thumb|200px|Dr. Reddy and 3 Indian women at the Paris Women's Congress (1926.)]]
The top 3 champions who politically improved Indian women's rights in the modern era were foreigners — Dr. Annie Besant, Dorothy Jinarajadasa, and Margaret Cousins. They did not tell Indian women to leave Hinduism but rather they themselves became Hindu in practice and Indian in habit. They then sought to restore the Vedic-era of womanhood wherein women had authority (i.e., to become clerics, scholars, and leaders.) Emma Mitchell (American) and Francesca Arundale (English) greatly contributed to building of Hindu educational institutions (i.e., Central Hindu College.)

Dr. Muthulakshmi Reddy is a big name in female rights, and she was influenced by Dr. Besant in her college years (1907-1912) and was guided by Dr. Besant in both her social reform and political work. She worked with Dr. Besant and others to establish the Women's Indian Association (1917.) After Dr. Besant's death, she took over the presidency of the WIA. Gandhi was another major mentor but Reddy never formally joined the INC but sometimes protested colonial injustices (i.e., Gandhi's arrest.)

;Ramakrishna Mission wing
[[image:Nivedita & Vivekanand.jpg|right|thumb|200px|Nivedita with Vivekanand.]]
[[Niveditā, Sister|Sister Nivedita (Margaret Noble)]], a convert from Ireland became a disciple of [[Swami Vivekananda|Swami Vivekanand]] and joined Aurobindo's Dawn Society and had also founded and ran girls' schools in Kolkata (i.e., Ramakrishna Sarada Mission Sister Nivedita Girls' School[https://www.sisterniveditagirlsschool.org/home.html] in Baghbazar) to educate girls who had little to no access to education (i.e., poorest of the poor.) She advocated for women's intellectual and moral development, influenced by Vivekanand's vision of strong Indian womanhood. Her work included lectures, fundraising (India, England, and U.S.), and writings that promoted gender equality in access to knowledge and opportunities. She had worked with Dr. Annie Besant at times. Likewise, Sister Christine, disciple of Vivekanand, is another example of a Westerner who utilized the Ramakrishna Mission and Vivekanand's circles as vehicles for improving female rights in India.

;INC wing
:''See also: [[Indian Freedom Fighters#INC's Hindu activist roots|INC's Hindu activist roots]] 
[[image:Nellie Sen Gupta.jpg|right|thumb|100px|N.S. Gupta.]]
Nellie Sen Gupta[https://www.thedailystar.net/in-focus/news/deshpriya-jatindra-mohan-nellie-sengupta-2036981] (nee Edith Ellen Gray) had married freedom fighter Jatindra Mohan Sen Gupta, and both joined the INC — she also founded Deepali Sangha, a women's organization aimed at promoting social and political awareness, leadership, training, and empowerment among women. Her husband passed away but she was advised to stay in the-then East Pakistan to take care of Hindu rights, which she did. Umadevi (born Wanda Dynowska), a Polish convert to Sanatan Dharm too championed women's rights in India and translated ''[[Bhagavad Gita]]'', ''[[Mahabharata]]'', ''[[Ramayana]]'', and other [[Hindu Scriptures|Hindu and Bauddh literature]] into Polish. Mira Behn (born Madeleine Slade), the daughter of a British Royal Navy admiral, gave up her affluent lifestyle to become Gandhi's servant in India.
[[image:Sarla Behn Chipko Movement.jpg|right|thumb|200px|Sarla Behn's Chipko act[https://www.adda247.com/school/chipko-movement/].]]
Sarla Behn[https://growbilliontrees.com/blogs/knowledge/sarla-behn-tree-nurturing-nature-and-empowering-communities-for-a-sustainable-future?srsltid=AfmBOoq4h0d0skQBNr4w4zOvISuhYz02_EXtPvD3pUoQYjTlcvNHEbQ-#fullcontent] (born Catherine Mary Heilman) from England setup the Lakshmi Ashram Kausani in 1946 within Uttarakhand to uplift women, after having lived in the Sevagram Ashram[https://gandhiashramsevagram.org/] in Maharashtra. The organization educated rural hill girls academically, trained women of self-reliance and industrial skills (i.e., khadi weaving), taught personal care (i.e., literacy, hygiene, anti-liquor campaigns), and promoted [[Environmentalism|ecological awareness]] (Chipko Movement.) It also worked with the INC to encourage nationalist fervour. Lakshmi Ashram individual units were known as Mahila Mandals. This ashram attracted foreign residents intrigued with Sanatan Dharm even after independence, like David Hopkins, who relocated to there in the 1990's.
[[image:Durgabai Deshmukh.jpg|right|thumb|100px|Dr. D.D.]]
Dr. Durgabai Deshmukh, pupil of Gandhi and freedom fighter in the colonial era, established the Central Social Welfare Board (1953.) She later became president of the All India Women's Conference (1931.) Taraben Premchand is an important mention, as she was an important member of this organization, as well as the Jain Mahila Parishad[https://www.dbjainsabha.com], Jyoti Sangh[https://jyotisangh.org/about-us/] (local women's advancement group in Gujarat), and Shraddhanand Ashram[https://shraddhanandmahilashram.org/].

Madeleine Rolland was Women's International League for Peace and Freedom's[https://www.wilpf.org/] French section and never settled in India. However, upon engaging with Hindu culture in the 1920's, she translated Ananda Coomaraswamy's ''[[Nataraja Dasakam|The Dance of Shiva]]'' into French, introducing Hinduism to the-then residents of France. She also translated Rabindranath Tagore's writings of Sanatan themes and universal humanism, helping popularize them in Europe. She welcomed Gandhi on his visit to Marseille, France. [[image:Kanuparti Varalakshmamma.jpg|right|thumb|100px|'Sarada'.]]
Kanuparti Varalakshmamma (alias 'Sarada'), a devout Gandhian, used Hindu themes like providing ethical refences (i.e., Savitri, Sita) to depict women's morality, dignity, and conduct. She often engaged with the idea of a grihalakshmi (idea woman of the household.) She also founded the Stree Hitaishini Mandali for uplifting women. She used ''Andhra Patrika'', a newspaper created by a promoter of the ''Bhagavad Gita'', Kasinathuni Nageswara Rao, to preach her ideas.
[[image:Vijaya Lakshmi Pandit.jpg|right|thumb|100px|'Vijaya Lakshmi Pandit'.]]
It is also noteworthy that the 1st female head of government in the world was a [[Bauddh Dharm|Bauddh]] (Sirimavo Bandaranaike of Sri Lanka, non-INC member), and 2nd was a Hindu (Indira Gandhi, INC member.) Also Vijaya Lakshmi Pandit[https://news.un.org/en/story/2024/03/1147327] (born Swaroop Rani Nehru) played a significant role in global representation of women, particularly in the United Nations. She was the first woman to serve as the President of the UN General Assembly (1953-1954), a position she held to advocate for decolonization and the independence of countries in Asia and Africa. Hansa Mehta[https://india.un.org/en/311450-hansa-mehta%E2%80%99s-life-story-continues-inspire] had an impact on the UN's constitution wording wherein "''all human beings''" instead of "all men" in the Universal Declaration of Human Rights. (She was also one of only 2 women delegates working alongside Eleanor Roosevelt in the UN Human Rights Commission 1946-48.)
[[image:Nilla Cram Cook.jpg|right|thumb|100px|'Nilla Nagini Devi'.]]
Nilla Cram Cook, an American who settled at Gandhi's ashrams, had [[Conversion|converted to Hinduism]] in the 1930's but identified with the '[[Samyag Darshan#Samadarshan|sarva dharma sambhava]]' ideal, so considered herself a [[Bhakta|devotee]] of not only [[Krishna]] but of Jesus too, and so she later also translated the Quran and engaged with Islamic practices in a syncretic way with her Hindu and Christian customs. Her final literary work was ''The Way of the Swam: Poems of Kashmir'' (1958), which was mostly focused around the [[Saiva|Shaiv]] mystic poetess Lal Ded[https://hindupost.in/society-culture/lal-ded-her-life-and-works/#][https://homegrown.co.in/homegrown-voices/the-poetry-of-lal-ded-mysticism-resistance-the-female-voice-in-14th-century-kashmir] and others from Kashmir syncretic Sanatan-[[Bauddh Dharm|Bauddh]]-[[Sufism with Vaishnavism|Sufi]] tradition. She dedicated the book to Pandit. She didn't work on women's upliftment directly but did participate with Gandhi's Harijan Sevak Sangh. She had also written about Sarojini Naidu.

;Other associations
[[image:Maharani Chimnabai Gaekwad II.jpg|right|thumb|100px|Maharani Chimnabai.]]
[[image:Sethu Parvathi Bayi.jpg|right|thumb|100px|Junior Queen Bayi.]]
The National Council of Women in India[https://www.ncwi.in/], founded 1925, was also a monumental organization to make progress for women — it mainly focused on female literacy, vocational training, public participation, and legal reform. It was primarily the initiative of Lady Meherbai Tata, a Mazdaean icon, and its first president was Maharani Chimnabai Gaekwad II, born Gajrabai Ghatge, a princess of Dewas (M.P.) She supported societal progress of women that did not compromise on Hindu identity (i.e., traditional customs like wearing sari and sindhoor or like celebrating Raksha Bandhan), which is how she framed her ''The Position of Women in Indian Life'' book. She financed schools for girls, as well as Hindu charities and temples. The Gaekwad family also funded libraries and women's institutions and social reform initiatives. She discussed the eradication or the purdah, child marriage, women's restrictions (i.e., obtaining education and employment), and other obstacles towards advancement. Following her presidentship, Sethu Parvathi Bayi took over. She was from the royal family of Travancore (Kerala), and her family was deeply connected to the Padmanabhaswamy Temple[https://spst.in/][https://www.padmanabhaswamytemple.com/]. She financed Hindu institutions as well. It is notable that Sucharu Deo, daughter of Brahmo leader K.C. Sen was a prominent member and she had also helped build the Maharani Girls' High School[https://school.banglarshiksha.gov.in/ws/website/index/19013701705] in Darjeeling (W.B.) together with her sister (Suniti) and Hemlata Sarkar, daughter of Brahmo leader Sibnath Sastri.

From Hindu-based institutions like sociopolitical organizations and schools came a number of philanthropic associations.
;Most influential persons for women's upliftment
{| class="wikitable sortable"
|-
! Area of Contribution
! Meaning
! Steps Taken
! Activists
! Organizations
! Founder's Affiliation(s)
|-
|Political rights and visibility
|1. Women appearing in public political spaces 2. Women being recognized as leaders (not just participants) 3. Changing social norms about women's public roles 4. Symbolic representation
|Helped institutionalize women's leadership through bodies like Women's Indian Association
|Dr. Annie Besant (women's political rights + organizational leadership), Kamaladevi Chattopadhyay (political participation, economic empowerment, cooperatives), Margaret Cousins[https://www.womensmuseumofireland.ie/exhibits/margaret-elizabeth-cousins] (Suffarage, WIA), Sarojini Naidu (mass mobilization of women in politics)
|
|
|-
|Modern institutional equality
|
|Helped institutionalize institutional equality through contributing policy influence (Hansa Mehta) and constitutional rights (Dr. Durgabai Deshmukh)
|Dr. Durgabai Deshmukh (welfare systems), Hansa Mehta
|
|
|-
|Foundational legal reform
|
|
|Raja Ram Mohan Roy (abolition of sati), Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar (widow remarriage)
|
|
|-
|Education
|
|
|Raja Ram Mohan Roy, Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar
|
|
|-
|}

===Hindu influence internationally===
Even outside of India during the 20th century, women's rights were not perfect, and so many women incorporated Hindu symbolism (i.e., worship) and concepts towards promoting societies where women would have equal rights.
[[image:M.J. Gage.jpg|right|thumb|200px|Matilda Joslyn Gage.]]
[[image: Charlotte Despard.jpg|right|thumb|200px|Charlotte Despard, an Anglo-Irish suffragist who supported Indian independence.]]
As [[Worship of God as Mother|worship of God as a female or mother]] has been common in Sanatan Dharm since its foundation, that made validating female upliftment in India quicker. Even in Western nations, prominent women's rights organizations implemented imagery of goddesses from pertinent ancient cultures, like U.K.'s Women's Freedom League and National Union of Women's Suffrage Societies, and the global International Woman Suffrage Alliance, to legitimize female equality and women being in positions of power. Some Western feminists and women's rights activists, like Matilda Joslyn Gage<ref>"''While the sale of daughters was practiced in England for seven hundred years after the introduction of Christianity, we note that by the ancient law of India, a father was forbidden to sell his daughter in marriage, or receive the smallest present therefor.''" - P. 79-82 ''Woman, Church and State'' (1893) By Matilda Joslyn Gage</ref> (U.S. suffragist) and Helena Petrovna Blavatsky<ref>"''The pre- and post-Vedic woman was as free as man; and no impure terrestrial thought was ever mixed with the religious symbology of the early Aryans.''" 
"''This is proven by the fact that in the Vedic period their women were not placed apart from men in penetralia, or ‘Zenanas.’ Their seclusion began when the Mahomedans … had conquered the land and gradually enforced their ways and customs upon the Hindus.''" 
- P. 379-380 ''The Secret Doctrine: Volume I'' By Helena Blavatsky </ref> (European feminist), even used the examples of [[Worship of God as Mother|Hindu goddess-worship]] and Hindu queens to support their examples. (M.J. Gage[https://www.smithsonianmag.com/history/the-feminist-inspired-witches-of-oz-180985334/] in her ''Woman, Church, and State'' even highlighted Hindu texts to counter the male-centric theology of the West and referenced ''[[Bhagavad Gita]]'' to validate the concept of a female [[divinity]].) Even feminists of the colonial era like Victoria Woodhull that was skeptical of organized religion, respected "''Christna and Buddha''" (Krishna and Gautama.) Mary Lowe Dickinson at the World's Parliament Circles (1893) was so impressed by [[Swami Vivekananda|Swami Vivekanand]]'s speech, that she developed a fascination with female divinity of Hinduism, and in her editorials and public circles, argued that Hinduism's recognition of a feminine aspect within the divine was spiritually superior to the rigidly patriarchal, all-male Trinity of mainstream American Christianity. Emily Pitts Stevens and Charlotte LeMoyne Wills (wrote about the genderless [[Brahm]]) became disciples of Vivekanand. Laura de Force Gordon wrote about the immortal soul and continuous cycle of life. Alice Moore McComas wrote about the interconnectedness (aikatmyam) of all things. In U.K., Charlotte Despard's specific pamphlets linked [[karma]] to political activism. Margaret Louise Sanger was influenced by Vivekanand and Rabindranath Tagore. Sarah Bull<ref> P. 483 ''Western Admirers of Ramakrishna and His Disciples'' By Gopal Stavig, Swami Shuddhidananda </ref>, who particularly focused on women's education and reform was connected to both Vivekanand and Sister Nivedita. Josephine MacLeod was a major promoter of Vivekanand in the West and was involved in transatlantic reform-intellectual networks. Viktoria Ocampo of Argentina was deeply influenced by Tagore, even hosting him in Argentina and promoting his ideas widely. Gabriela Mistral of Chile was too, and she applied Tagore's ideas to women's education, child welfare, and cultural reform. Mabel Dodge Luhan was fascinated with Sanatan philosophy and influenced by Vivekanand. Mentionable is Emma Calve of France, who wasn't a political feminist leader but influential in women's intellectual-cultural circles, and she was deeply influenced by Vivekanand.
[[image:Carol Patrice Christ.jpg|right|thumb|200px|Carol Patrice Christ.]]
After suffragists had attained complete institutional equality, they them progressed to the next stage of female liberation by ensuring that their own spiritual faith wasn't male-chauvinistic or making them subordinates of males. Feminists were inspired by goddess deity of Hinduism to then promote it within generic spirituality. Valerie Saiving, Isaac Bonewits and Naomi Goldenberg founded in the 1970's, Thealogy, a feminine-specific theology. Carol Patrice Christ launched the Goddess Movement, which provided 4 aspects of Goddess symbolism as reasons to needing a goddess in women's lives; 1) the Goddess as affirmation of female power, 2) the female body, 3) the female will, and 4) women's bond and heritage. She specifically used the Shakti concept to prove that a major global religion (Hinduism) explicitly defined the [[Brahmanda|material universe]]/nature/change ([[Darshana#Sankhya|Prakriti]]) as an inherently active, female, and sacred force. She was an ecofeminist, as were Charlene Spretnak and Miriam Simos were ecofeminists too. Merlin Stone wrote ''Ancient Mirrors of Womanhood: Our Goddess and Heroine Heritage'' (1979) and in a chapter analyzes goddesses like [[Durga]], [[Kali]], [[Lakshmi Puja|Lakshmi]], Parvati, and Saraswati. Devout Christian women feminists too drew on Hindu practices and ideas to support women's advocacy, and they include Ivone Gebara, Pearl Sydenstricker Buck, and Sally McFague.

'Matriarchal religion' is a philosophy stating that societies were Goddess worshippers with females having the same status and rights as men before male gods began being worshipped, and the latter led to patriarchy. Goddesses being worshipped contiguously in Hindu societies for thousands of years was the backing this thought utilized, in addition to feminist archaeology (i.e., ancient idols and temples of goddesses uncovered.)

==Start of modern reforms==
In modern India, most positive social changes within Indian Hindu societies came not first as enforcement or pressure from European rulers but from advocacy of forward-thinking Hindus. Raja Ram Mohan Roy had led the campaign to purge Hindu societies of Sati and caste prejudices. Roy worked with British imperial authority, specifically Lord William Bentinck to have sati outlawed. Roy himself was a religious leader that reiterated Upanishads for their principles.

Other institutions of positive social changes were mainly Hindu ones or were governed by Hindu religious leaders, not secular ones.

The Indian National Social Conference of 1887 was organized by Justice Ranade, Rai Raghunath Rao, Narendra Nath Sen Gupta, and Janki Nath Ghoshal. Ranade was founder of the Prarthana Samaj, a religious group.

Arya Samajis, Brahmo Samajis, and Prarthana Samajis were the most vocal and active forces advocating: 
#Widow Remarriage (i.e., Widow Remarriage Act 1856—initiative of Brahmo Samaj)
#Women's right to divorce (i.e., Native Marriage Act 1872—initiative of Brahmo Samaj) 
#Property rights for women 
#Opposition to child marriages (i.e., Age of Consent Act 1891—initiative of Brahmo Samaj and Prarthana Samaj, Child Marriage Restraint Act 1929—initiative of Arya Samaj) 
#Universal accessible education (built schools, including colleges and gurukuls) 
#Caste-based reservations
[[image:Justice Ranade.jpg|right|thumb|200px|Mahadev Govind Ranade (alias 'Justice Ranade'.)]]
[[image:Jagannath Shankarshet.jpg|right|thumb|200px|Jagannath Shankarshet (alias 'Architect of Modern Mumbai'.)]]
The Indian Factories Act 1881's ratification was a landmark in workers' rights and the credit goes mainly to Sorabjee Shapoorjee Bengalee, and then Prarthana Samaj. He did work alongside the Prarthana Samaj to lobby the British authority through the First Factory Commission in 1875 (made to investigate the brutal conditions of Indian labour.) Prarthana Samaj's ''Subodh Patrika'' newspaper specifically critiqued mill owners. Rahnumai Mazdayasnan Sabha, its newspaper ''Rast Goftar'', and Bengalee himself referenced labour reformers Sasipada Banerji and Protap Chunder Mozumdar, and used the former's methods of worker upliftment as a blueprint for their own legislative arguments. Collaboration between the Sabha and Prarthana Samaj began with the latter's creation of the Theistic Association, on which the Parsi Naoroji Furdonji was its 1st Chairman. Ranade and Bhandarkar drove the Association from discussing only theism to improving society through finding solutions of work hardships. The Night School Initiative was launched, helping workers receive adequate training, particularly in labourer-heavy neighborhoods Byculla, Dongri, Khetwadi, and Thakurdwar. (From 1886-1890 alone, over 2,750 industrial workers successfully studied through this initiative.)

Brahmo Samaj's K.C. Sen’s first visit to Mumbai in March-April 1864 engaged him with Bengalee, Furdonji, Ranade, and Bhandarkar (all then members of Young India.) They all discussed ways to develop India. They also shared strategies on how to bypass orthodox religious resistance—Furdonji within Zoroastrianism and Sen within Sanatan Dharm. Bengalee's First Labor Bill (1878) laid the groundwork for the later Indian Factories Act.

Prior to all of this, Jagannath Shankarshet[https://www.vishwakonkani.org/hall-of-fame/hon-jagannath-shankar-sheth/] spent the 1850s petitioning the British Parliament for local governance. As a result, it codified the Indian Councils Act of 1861, thus creating the Bombay Legislative Council as a political body to better govern the-then Bombay Presidency. Shankarshet was the main founder of Bombay Association. In its first leadership were also Dr. Ramachandra Vitthal Lad (alias 'Dr. Bhau Daji'), a Hindu intellectual who used his Sanskrit knowledge to decipher inscriptions, preserve manuscripts, and help reconstruct the forgotten timelines of ancient Guptas and Western Kshatrapa dynasties. Mentionable is the Parsi Sir Jamsetjee Jeejeebhoy of the group. Shankarshet was a wealthy philanthropist that constructed and financed Sanatan and secular infrastructure, most notably the Bhavani Shankar Mandir[https://www.mcgm.gov.in/irj/go/km/docs/documents/D%20Ward/Heritage-Sites/73_Legacy%20of%20D%20Ward_Article_Bhavani%20Shankar%20Temple.pdf] (Mumbai), Sanskrit Seminary and Sanskrit Library (both in Mumbai too.) Elphinstone Educational Institution[https://elphinstone.ac.in/index.php] and Grant Medical College[https://gmcjjh.edu.in/] were his creations too. (Jeejeebhoy contributed to constructing the Grant Medical College.)

===Shahu's royal authority to implement reforms===
[[image:Shahu adoption.jpg|right|thumb|200px|Prince Yeshwantrao Ghatge being adopted by the royal family of Kohlapur.]]
[[image:Rajarshi.jpg|right|thumb|200px|Rajarshi Chhatrapati Shahu Maharaj.]]
[[image:School foundation.jpg|right|thumb|200px|Foundation of Shri Shahu Chhatrapati Shikshan Sanstha.]]
The greatest champion on all of these sections for reforms was Chhatrapati Shahu Maharaj[https://aissms.org/breaking-barriers-chhatrapati-shahu-maharaj-and-his-enduring-impact-on-progress-and-modernity/] (born Yeshwantrao Ghatge), '[[Rta and Spiritual Authority#Rishis|Rajarshi]]', the ruler of Kohlapur Kingdom who affiliated with organizations but probably the Arya Samaj[https://thearyasamaj.org] more than any other. Shahu definitely was not shy to publicly perform prayers, as he famously attended temples of goddesses Ambabai[https://www.mahalaxmikolhapur.com/home] and Bhavani[https://shrituljabhavani.org/] when having returned from his Europe trip in 1902. Also in 1902, Pratap Singh Maharaj of Idhar (Gujarat) introduced and educated him about the Arya Samaj. He provided patronage to the Arya Samaj.[https://navjyot.net/wp-content/uploads/2022/12/10.pdf]

The king passed many policies for for the upliftment of untouchable, nomadic, non-Brahmin communities and for females.<ref>Act of Free and Compulsory Primary Education (1917), Widow remarriage Act (1917), End of Balutedari (1918), Repeal of Kulkarni Watan (1918), Intercaste and Interreligious Marriages and Sanctioning of Registered Marriage Act (1919), Act relating to protection of Harassment of Women (1919), Divorce act (1919), Order on prohibition of Untouchability practice (1919), Illegitimate Children's Rights and Devadasi Prohibition Act (1920); 
[https://www.indiejournal.in/article/rajarshi-shahu-maharaj-and-his-tryst-with-the-arya-samaj "Rajarshi Shahu Maharaj & his tryst with the Arya Samaj Lessons for our times"] By Devkumar Ahire (Jun 26, 2023 6:42 PM)</ref>

;Prejudiced disgruntled castists promoting anti-Brahman hate, not universalism
While Shahu was affiliated with the Satyashodhak Samaj (SS) because it wanted to uplift the non-dwija castes, he did not feel they had any religious foundations, whereas the Arya Samaj was encompassed both a spiritual and social movement.<ref>"Beyond Reformism: Chhatrapati Shahu and Hinduism Reimagined" By Surajkumar Thube P. 124-144 ''Nidān: International Journal for Indian Studies, Volume 8'', Issue 1 (July 2023)</ref> Also, the SS of Pune was antithetical to social cohesion because it targeted the Brahman caste as an enemy, and while its main founder (Jyotirao Phule) made absurd claims like 'Shiv-Dharma'<ref>"''The real Shiv-Dharma that is ours, we are re-establishing it as Sarvajanik Satya Dharma.''" Chapter 4, ''Sarvajanik Satya Pustak''</ref> or 'Mahadev-Dharma' (worship of [[Shiva|Shiv]] as God and some local gods like Khandoba as avatars) being the true religion of Indians whereas every other Hindu belief and practice was an imposition by 'non-Indian Brahman invaders'. Being a chauvinist, he also criticized freedom fighter martyrs Lakshmi Bai, Nana Sahib, Tantia Tope for being Brahmans. He also wrote positively that freedom fighters lost the 1857 War of Independence against the British colonialists. He was also openly criticized by his own relative Baburao Phule, who accused the former of being a Christian convert who destroyed the Hindu religion.<ref>P. 58-59 ''The Caste Question: Dalits and the Politics of Modern India'' (2009) By Anupama Rao </ref>

The organization would receive the most aid from Shahu (financial and social work), Karmvir (social work), and Padval (intellectual) but they themselves always kept a distance from the SS because of its explicitly castist vitriol. People would choose to align or become members of other associations for their inclusivity and harmonious vision for the future.

;Satyashodhak Samaj becoming less anti-Brahman
"''All Hindus are equal. No one is superior, no one is inferior. Let all flesh and blood be one. Four varnas are a real deceit. It's a tool to keep the non-Brahmins in slavery. There is no difference among the Hindus. Hindu is the only varna. If a Hindu eats or marries with another Hindu that's not ''[[adharma]].'' In contrast, what divide Hindus in the name of religion is not a dharma, but a trick by Brahmins. One who calls themselves a Hindu, whether they are Europeans or Africans, they are our coreligionists.''" - P. 39 ''Deshache Dushman'' (1925) By Dinkarrao Javalkar
[[image:Sasipada Banerji.jpg|right|thumb|100px|Sasipada Banerji (alias 'Sevabrata'.)]]
Notable is that Phule's friend Narayan Meghaji Lokhande, a labour organization leader, was close friends with Phule and used Khandoba-worship and the reverence of Sundays for Khandoba in his petition to British authority to achieve Sunday as a holiday for factory labourers. Phule and Lokhande emulated Brahmans, like forming the political lobby group Deenbandhu Sarvajanik Sabha after Ranade's Poona Sarvajanik Sabha and forming the Bombay Mill Hands Association based and its mouthpiece ''Deenbandhu'' on the Working Men's Club (India's 1st labour welfare platform) and its mouthpiece ''Bharat Sramajibi'' (India's 1st labour journal) of Sasipada Banerji (Brahmo Samaji.)

Though Dinkarrao Javalkar portrayed himself as pan-Hindu when discussing the specific topic of Hindu unity, he still prejudicially criticized the Brahman caste in general<ref>"''This day will be counted among the most important days in the history of Hindus. There is no reason for you to fear jail. The Brahmans who eat ghee and roti should have that fear. To make the touchable people behave is in your hands. You are the sons of Hindus. You capture the tank saying 'har har Mahadev' and follow the advice of your leader Dr. Ambedkar Saheb. This is my own position.''" -Dinkarrao Javalkar at satyagraha with Keshavrao Jedhe and Dr. Ambedkar among a Mahar crowd</ref> and targeted some prominent Brahmans like Lokmanya Tilak. (Javalkar and Keshavrao Jedhe also portrayed themselves as pro-woman but derogatory remarks about women from the Brahman and certain other castes<ref>P. 44 ''19th Century Maharashtra: A Reassessment'' (2020) By Shraddha Kumbhojkar </ref> and both appealed to Dr. B.R. Ambedkar in 1927 to exclude Brahmans from the Mahad Satyagraha<ref> P. 27 ''Social Reform Movements in India: A Historical Perspective'' (1991) By V.D. Divekar</ref>.) Jedhe did protest with other activists (including Brahmans like Narhar Vishnu Gadgil, Seshdas Ranade, Shreedhar Mahadev Joshi, and members of Arya Samaj) for the right of Dalits to worship at Pune's Devdeveshwar Mandir[https://devdeveshwarsanthan.org/home.html]. Javalkar did write favourably about some like Ranade, Gopal Ganesh Agarkar, and Krishna Gopal Gokhale but even they were rarely mentioned. He rightfully partook in the Kalaram Mandir[https://www.shrikalaramsansthannasik.org/] Satyagraha in Nasik that protested for Dalits to be able to enter the temple. He was a communist and 10 years after his death, the Peasants and Workers Party (PWP) was formed.

SS branches outside of Pune were less hateful of Brahmans. It is also noteworthy, however, is that Nana Patil, a founder of the PWP, was affiliated with both the Satyashodhak and Prarthana associations [meaning that he, like most other Satyashodhaks didn't believe in Phule's religious ideology.] Some other PWP founders like Jedhe and Madhavrao Bagal were Satyashodhaks, they popularized Shiv Jayanti and Ganesh Chathuri. The latter and his son Vasantrao even wrote devotional pieces inspired from Bhakti Era saints (i.e., [[Tukaram]], [[Eknath]]) and valourizing pieces about Shahu. Tulshidas Jadhav, a Gandian within the PWP, championed the Bhakti Era's Warkari Movement, which was still popular in his time, because it was based on social equality and public seva. Also noteworthy is, that even some prominent members supported the Arya Samaj, like Krishnarao Bhalekar (1 of the founders of SS with Phule) defended Dayanand Saraswati (Arya Samaj’s founder), when the latter’s procession was opposed by some orthodox Hindus in Pune, and Bhalekar organized a speech to be delivered by Saraswati at a dharmshal near a Rokdoba Temple in Pune.

Bhalekar himself made the claim that the SS is the true follower of Sant Tukaram's [[Bhāgavata-dharma|Bhagwat Dharma]] ([[Krishna|Krishnaite]] [[Vaishnava|Vaishnavism]].) His son was Mukundrao Patil, who made the claim, "''The Satyasodhak Samaj is the true heir of the Hindu religion. Brahmanism is not Hinduism.''"<ref>''Dinmitra'' newspaper (1920s)</ref> Javalkar claimed SS is the true representative of the Hindu religion and that SS members are liberating Hinduism from the supremacy of the Brahmins. Shivram Janma Kamble stated the SS is a revival movement of the true Hinduism. Kisan Faguji Bansode argued "Shivdharma" was the true Hindu religion and that the SS advocates that version.

There were those in his organization that promoted about how in ancient Sanatan society, there were no caste distinctions and that people were recognized by their merits. Their view was promoted by Tukaram Tatya Padval, who wrote ''Jatibhed Vivekshar'' (1861) after being inspired by Ashwaghosha's ''Vajrasuchi''. Phule republished copies of Padval's books, and the 2 developed a friendship. He did write at that in ancient India, certain sages were had Sudra or Avarna status but rose to the rank of a Brahman through their intellect, and used examples of Valmiki (wrote a ''Ramayan''), Sankhya, and Kabilar rishis. He also published copies of the ''Bhagavad Gita'', ''Yogasutra'', and compilations of the ''Rajayoga'' and ''Sankhya Karika.'' He further compiled the ''Tukarambaba ani Tyanche Shisya Yanchi Abhanga Gatha'' (1889) and ''Eknath Maharajancha Abhangachi Gatha'' (1903.) Padval, however, never became a member of Phule's organization and instead became a member of the Theosophical Society.

;Shahu forming his own Satyashodhak Samaj focused on upliftment (free of anti-Brahman distractions)
As a result of the Satyashodhak Samaj of Pune being too antagonistic of Brahmans, Shahu had instead founded his own branch in 1911 — Shri Shahu Satyashodhak Samaj. By an order, Shahu replaced the Brahman priests in the Patgaon Sansthan (Mauni Maharaj Math[https://durgbharari.in/maunibaba-patgaon/]) and Jyotiba Devasthan[https://shreejyotiba.com/?lang=E][https://maharashtratourism.gov.in/temple/jyotiba/] with Maratha priests. Bhaskarrao Jadhav and Anna Babaji Latthe were leaders of Shahu's Kolhapur Satyashodhak Samaj. Whereas Phule mostly only wrote positively of Shiva and local-born gods, Jadhav in his ''Marathas and their Religion'' wrote positively about Krishna and the ''Bhagavad Gita''. He further worked with Shahu to aid Arya Samaj in its activities and goals (i.e., train non-Brahmans to become priests too.) Noteworthy is that Latthe, who worked personally with Shahu Maharaj, was its first VP and that he worked to dismantle priestly (Jain priests, not usually Brahmans) intermediation within the Jain clergy. (He was a big-time activist for general upliftment and for reform within the Jain community (i.e., wrote ''Jain Dharmacha Parichay''.)

Latthe founded the Dakshin Bharat Jain Sabha[https://dbjainsabha.com/], of which Dr. Bhaurao Patil (from a Jain family) became a member and through he wasn't a member of any SS branch, he did sometimes participate in its activities and himself founded the Rayat Shikshan Sansthan[https://rayatshikshan.edu/], which educated students in a multitude of topics, including Sanskrit. Patil (alias 'Karmvir Anna') was deeply influenced by Mahatma Gandhi and Vitthal Ramji Shinde.

;Shahu distancing himself formally from Satyashodhak Samaj
The SS had earned a bad reputation in Maharashtra with the general public, particularly for the outright anti-Brahman vitriol spewed in the SS's publications and events. Because the goal of Shahu and true reformers was to achieve a harmonious society with all people cooperating, it would not make sense to support an organization that's known for abusing persons (i.e., Brahmans) specifically over their caste identity.

In 1921, Shahu made a public statement in a Baroda newspaper that even though he granted significant support to the non-Brahman movement and introduced measures to eliminate Brahman dominance, he had never been affiliated with Phule's SS, and that he always accepted [[Rta and Spiritual Authority#Rishis|Vedic ritual authority]].

;Granting, accommodating, and expanding Arya Samaj
Shahu attended Arya Samaj sessions like the one at Navsari in 1918 and another at Bhavnagar in 1920<ref>P. 6. ''People's Raj Volume 30'' (1974) By Directorate-General of Information and Public Relations </ref>. He provided funding for Gurukul Boarding House to be built at Kerle, wherein large buildings and well-irrigated lands were granted to the Arya Samaj. Later, the Rajaram Anathalaya orphanage was added to this grant. He also brought educational institutions in his domain under the leadership of Arya Pratinidhi Sabha. Rajaram College's administration was also granted to the Arya Samaj.

;Spiritual Authority as Rajarshi
Shahu Maharaj, being a devout Sanatan wanted to proclaim the rights that warriors of history had and so participated in important ceremonies and worked with priests (i.e., Brahmans) to achieve the rights to learn and perform Vedic ceremonies. He established the Vedokta Committee for Marathas to be able to perform Vedic rites without requiring priests. In 1905, the Karveer Peeth's (or Kolhapur Math's) Shankaracharya declared full rights of Vedokta to Chhatrapati Shahu.

Tatyarao Joshirao was appointed by Shahu Maharaj as new royal purohit, replacing the Rajopadhye (creator of the infamous 'Vedokta Controversy'), who denied the Maharaj to perform Vedic rites. Joshirao was from a family that had traditional ownership of the historic Binkhambi Ganapati Mandir in Kolhapur.

Rajaram Shastri (alias 'Bhagavata'), a Brahman scholar, linguist, and researcher, openly challenged the religious orthodoxy, arguing from scripture that Shahu Maharaj had full rights to the Vedas. Vishnu Topkhane was another Brahman who greatly helped the Chhatrapati with his progressive reforms. Topkhane the educationalist helped the latter establish the Vidyapeeth High School near the Shri Karveer Niwasini Ambabai Mahalakshmi Temple. Freedom fighter Gokhale was someone who worked with Shahu. When the Vedokta Controversy broke out and the conservative press attacked the Maharaja, Gokhale privately and publicly validated Shahu Maharaj's stance, recognizing that social reform was a prerequisite for true political freedom. Ranade, though passed away before much Shahu's reforms began, was admired by the latter for his progressive ideals and actions.

Chhatrapati Shahu founded the Satyashodhak School for spiritual training in 1913, in which seminarians (predominantly from castes such as Marathas, Mahars, and Chambhars) were taught to recite and preach the poems (i.e., abhangs of Tukaram) of sants. He also created the Shivaji Vedic School (aliases 'Shahu Vedic School', 'Shahu Vedic Pathshala', 'Shri Shahu Vaidik Vidyalay') in 1920 and had invited scholars from Varanasi (spiritual capital of Sanatan Dharm) to ensure the highest standard of scriptural and linguistic training. The school trained seminarians (of all castes) to learn Sanskrit and become priests and conduct ceremonies. He further established and financed the office of the Kshatra Jagadguru (''Warrior Universal Teacher''), a pontiff seat open to anyone of any caste. The first Kshatra Jagadguru was Sadashivrao Lakshmanrao Sankpal Patil Benadikar, was an accomplished Sanskrit scholar who received his formal higher education at Rajaram College in Kolhapur. The Kshatra Jagadguru Peeth was the pontiff's seat at Patgaon (in the Bhudargad region of Kolhapur.) Patgaon was chosen because it was the historic site of the Mauni Maharaj Math, a highly respected spiritual center that had historically blessed Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj[https://pilgrimdata.in/temple/mouni-maharaj-math-temple-patgaon-bhudargarh-dist-kolhapur/]. The Kshatra Jagadguru had the Shri Sadashivrao Patil Shikshan Sanstha educationalist association named after him, and it runs schools[https://www.mwssm.org/][https://sspiop.com/] in Maharashtra still. Other organizations too use his name for schools like Sadashivrao Mandlik Mahavidyalaya (Kolhapur) of the ⁠Jay Shivray Education Society.

===Successive associations===
From Hindu-based institutions like sociopolitical organizations and schools came a number of philanthropic associations. Even other humanitarian associations that were not established by Hindu activists, were established by their influence. For example, Krishna Gopal Gokhale had participated in many sessions of the Prarthana Samaj as he was Ranade's pupil, and he later joined the Deccan Education Society, which he left to establish the Servants of India Society. Narayan Malhar Joshi was a member of Gokhale's group and later formed his own Social Service League[https://socialserviceleague.org.in/]. Hriday Nath Kunzru too was part of Gokhale's group and left to establish the Seva Samiti.

{| class="wikitable sortable"
|-
! Organization
! Demographic of Focus
! Region(s)
! Founder
! Founder's Affiliation(s)
! Achievement
|-
|Anath Balikashram Society
|Widows
|Maharashtra
|Dhondo Keshav Karve
|Educated at BHU
|
|-
|Andhra Mahila Sabha
|Females
|Andhra Pradesh
|Durgabai Deshmukh
|
|
|-
|Bharat Stree Mahamandal
|Females
|Bengal, Bihar, Punjab, Sindh, U.P.
|Sarala Devi Chaudhurani
|Arya Samaji, Brahmo Samaji, accepted Bijoy Krishna Chattopadhyaya as her guru
|
|-
|Central Social Welfare Board
|Females and children
|
|Dr. Durgabai Deshmukh
|
|
|-
|Hindu Widow Marriage Association
|Females
|Maharashtra
|Dhondo Keshav Karve
|Educated at BHU
|
|-
|Hindustani Seva Dal
|Females
|Every province
|Dr. Narayan Subbarao Hardikar
|
|Established the Hindustani Seva Mandal (later became Rashtriya Seva Dal) in 1923, established the Arya Bala Sabha, taught the Gita during his student days in Kolkata, was a fan of Lokmanya Tilak, and had enthusiastically worked with Lala Rai
|-
|Indian Reform Association
|Females
|West Bengal
|Keshub Chandra Sen
|
|Brahmo Samaji, founded ''Sulabh Samachar'' as weekly newspaper of group
|-
|Kasthurbha Gandhi Kanya Gurukulam[http://www.kgkgurukulam.org/]
|Girls
|Tamil Nadu (Vedaranyam)
|Vedaratnam Pillai
|
|Involved in temple-based philanthropy and donated to Sri Ramakrishna Mission too
|-
|Lakshmi Ashram
|Females
|Uttarakhand
|Sarla Behn
|
|Established individual Mahila Mandals throughout Uttarakhand and promoted important skills as well as ecological awareness
|-
|Lokahitawadi Mandal
|Females and males
|Maharashtra
|Vishnu Vaman Shirwadkar
|
|Wrote about Hindu themes, including persons from scriptures and about Shivaji poetically, philosophically, and nationally
|-
|Maharshi Karve Stree Shikshan Samstha
|Females
|Maharashtra
|Dhondo Keshav Karve
|Educated at BHU
|
|-
|Mahila Vidyalaya (Pune)
|Females
|Maharashtra
|Dhondo Keshav Karve
|Educated at BHU
|
|-
|Nishkam Karma Math
|Females
|Maharashtra
|Dhondo Keshav Karve
|Educated at BHU
|
|-
|Poona Seva Sadan
|Females
|Maharashtra (at its peak, included M.P. and T.N.)
|Ramabai Ranade
|
|
|-
|Samata Sangh
|Men and Women
|Maharashtra
|Dhondo Keshav Karve
|Educated at BHU
|
|-
|Self Employed Women's Association (SEWA)
|Females
|18 states
|Ela Bhatt
|Gandhian Textile Labour Association
|Established: own bank (Shri Mahila Sewa Sahakari Bank, or 'SEWA Cooperative Bank'), SEWA Mahila Housing Trust
|-
|Servants of the People Society
|Females
|Kerala, Maharashtra, M.P., Odisha T.N., Uttarakhand U.P.
|
|
|
|-
|Shraddhanand Ashram[https://shraddhanandmahilashram.org] (alias Hindu Women's Welfare Society)
|Females and boys
|Maharashtra (Mumbai)
|Swami Shraddhanand
|
|Has cared for thousands of destitute women and orphans, and educated them and provided skills development, as well as fostered personal development
|-
|Stree Hitaishini Mandali
|Females
|Andhra Pradesh
|Kanuparti Varalakshmamma
|
|Educated many females
|-
|Widow Marriage Association
|Females
|Maharashtra
|Dhondo Keshav Karve
|Educated at BHU
|
|-
|}

==Inspiration to Madras Presidency==
[[image:M.C. Rajah.jpg|right|thumb|200px|Mylai Chinna Thambi Pillai Rajah (the real 'Periyar'.)]]
While the Arya Samaj, Brahmo Samaj, Prarthana Samaj, and a host of other Hindu-based humanitarian and sociopolitical institutions existed in the-then Madras Presidency of southern India, they inspired local organizations as well. Shahu Maharaj had friends in the-then Justice Party (JP, est. 1916), like Arcot Ramasamy Mudaliar and Panaganti Ramarayaningar. While some ethnic groups, like certain castes even falsely supported the idea of an 'Aryan Invasion Theory' and themselves (Dravidian-languages speakers) as indigenous, they still appreciated Hinduism and did not consider it alien.

The biggest uplifter of the party was M.C. Rajah, who had the highest influence upon the policies that improved the lives of the Dalits in Madras Presidency. The party itself was founded primarily by 3 individuals — Sir Pitti Theagaraya Chetty (political founder who built the political machine), Dr. Taravath Madhavan Nair (ideological co-founder), and Dr. Chintadripet Natesa Mudaliar (cultural/grassroots mobilizer who helped shape cultural legitimacy.) Dr. Nair had said that Hindu society had originally possessed broader equality before caste dominance hardened it. Chetty occasionally used dharm-based ethical framing. He is consistently described as arguing that governance must align with "''dharma and justice''". The Dr. Mudaliar was a devout Shaiva that infused into the party Shaivism as a cultural identity for southerners.
[[image:P.T. Rajan.jpg|right|thumb|200px|P.T. Rajan (centre-right, wearing glasses next to priest), touring with the idol of [[Ayyappan|Ayyappa]] he had made at Swamimalai Temple[https://swamimalaiswaminathar.hrce.tn.gov.in/] and it was placed in the Sabarimala Temple[https://www.sabarimalauptodate.in/].]]
An ideologue of influence to the JP and Self-Respect Movement was Maraimalai Adigal, a Shaiv preacher and writer, who claimed that both the JP and Self-Respect Movement were from his teachings and that militant atheist Erode Venkatappa Ramasami Naicker had hijacked them. JP founder Dr. Nair died in 1919 and Chetty in 1925, so had no interaction Naicker. Ponnambala Thiaga Rajan was an active party member and disagreed with Naicker's ideology, so joined Congress-aligned politics. Mudaliar died in 1935 around the time Naicker entered the JP. Naicker was also a prejudiced castist that criticized but did not contribute to build schools and shelters for women and children, as Rajah[https://www.news18.com/opinion/opinion-m-c-rajah-the-forgotten-hindu-mahasabha-dalit-8937192.html][https://vskbharat.com/m-c-rajah-a-staunch-hindu-leader/?lang=en][https://thecommunemag.com/m-c-rajah-the-hindu-mahasabha-dalit/], a practicing Hindu of the party did. Rajah even once formed a political alliance with the Hindu Mahasabha, was the contributor. Before Rajah, the party's caste disparity was mainly about civil service occupations and education access for underprivileged castes. Rajah was recommended by Ambedkar to convert but Rajah replied there's no religion better than Hinduism.<ref>P. 92 ''The Political Evolution of Muslims in Tamilnadu and Madras, 1930-1947'' By J.B. Prashant More (1997) </ref><ref> In a public meeting of the All India Adi Dravida Mahajana Sabha in Nungambakkam, Chennai he said, "''The president (of this meeting) mentioned that no other community other than us has more right to be called Hindus. Conversion will not bring about any good. By saying so, I am not undermining or wishing away the oppression and ills we have faced. We need to fight for our rights. The speed at which reforms are happening might be slow. But think about our current situation and how much it has improved. I beseech you to please abandon any move that will weaken us. I request the government to bring about the Untouchability Abolition Bill and pass it quickly. The Harijans are proud Hindus. That is the only reason why even after years of oppression by higher castes and a barrage of proselytization efforts by other religions hasn't changed their resolve being Hindus.''" P. 123 ''Evolution of Hindu Nationalism - Icons of HMS, RSS & BJS'' By Sankara Narayanan T (2025)</ref> Adigal's writings had a profound impact on Subramania Ramanathan, the founder of the Self-Respect Movement, and on the Naicker but the latter only wanted pro-Tamil and castist societal changes, not promotion of Shaivism. Naicker would later break away from the party and form his own Dravidar Kazhagam, a title he copied from Adigal's Shaiv association (Podhunilak Kazhagam.) (His own pupil, Conjeevaram Natarajan Annadurai, would eventually disown him after he married his own adopted daughter, and Annadurai would leave his group.)
[[image:Alamelu.jpg|right|thumb|200px|Alamelu Mangai Thayarammal, a Brahmo Samaji, was co-founder of the party among 29 others (all men.)]]
The Hindu sentiment was definitely present in the JP. Many left after Naicker's hijacking. Important members bothered by Naicker's rhetoric apart from Rajan were Ananda Prasad Patro, Arunachalam Thamaraiselvam Panneerselvam, Muthiah Annamalai Chettiar, Ramasamy Kandasamy Shanmukham Chetty, and Subbarayalu Kumaraswami Reddiar. Chettiar even personally regularly donated to temple renovations, endowing temple lands or festivals, supporting pilgrimage facilities, and Hindu-managed schools. Rajan, the last leader of the JP, was the head-of-government of the Presidency, and was a big devotee a [[Ayyappan|Swami Ayyappa]]. Rajan even solemnized a marriage of a German couple converted to Hinduism in Coimbatore (Oct 31, 1962.) He further discouraged conversion of Dalits from Hinduism to another religion<ref>"''If by mass conversion you expect to achieve your object, you will be disappointed, because of a mere change of religion it will not give you all that you want.''" 
P. 147 ''Sir P. T. Rajan's Eighty Second Birthday Souvenir, 1973'' By P.T. Rajan and K. Paramasivam</ref> while encouraging caste-Hindus to better treat Dalits. His family had deep ties to the Meenakshi Amman Temple[https://maduraimeenakshi.hrce.tn.gov.in/] in Madurai, with his son (Palanivel Rajan), serving as a minister, and his daughter-in-law (Rukmani), serving as the first female chairperson of the temple's board of trustees. His predecessor Ramakrishna Ranga Rao denied that the JP was anti-Hindu and declared that it aimed to purify Hindu society from "''absurdities''" and return "''Hinduism greater and more glorious than it was in the past...''"<ref>"''As I understand it, the Self-Respect movement stands for certain great ideals to make Hinduism greater and more glorious than it was in the past, to rid it of all those absurdities which are the accretions of an unfortunate era of the past, and unite us in a solid federation so that all those who profess to follow the Hindu faith may feel that they are brethren following one of the most ancient and glorious religions of the world. No longer should the foreigner point his finger of scorn at this or that particular phase of Hinduism which belies its cosmopolitan tendency by inflicting personal hardship on classes or communities. If a few youths in their exuberant enthusiasm have been carried away beyond the bounds of Hinduism it will not do to fight shy of the new movements, but political wisdom and sagacity lie in taking them into our fold and guiding them aright along the paths of duty and rectitude.''" 
P. 289 ''The Indian Annual Register An Annual Digest of Public Affairs of India Recording the Nation's Activities Each Year in Matters Political, Economic, Industrial, Educational, Social, Etc · Volume 2'' By Nipendra Nath Mitra (1934)</ref> Alamelu Mangai Thayarammal, conferred 'Pandithai' title by Saiva Sabha in Palamcottah, was a JP co-founder [with 29 co-founders being men] who was a Brahmo Samaji, meaning the influence of the Hindu-based organizations wasn't insignificant. Paramasivan Subbarayan Gounder, while not technically a JP member, worked with it closely, and both he and his women's rights activist wife Kailash Radhabai Kulmud were Brahmos. It is also noteworthy that [[Ascetics|ascetic]] Swamiyar Kaivalyar who supported the party without being a member wrote pro-Shaiv material. Cattamanchi Ramalinga Reddy, an ex-member who formed his own party in 1923 was a close friend of Dr. Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan, and he himself engaged with Hindu texts on a literary artistic level. As Hinduism isn't a scripture-dependent religion, some JP members like A.R. Mudaliar heavily criticized certain scriptures but were devout Hindus ([[Vaiśnava|Vaishnav]] in his case.) And while orthodox opposition was present, the majority of Indians, including religious leaders, supported reforms, like when Shankaracharya of Kanchi[https://www.kamakoti.org/] supported the "Hindu Religious Endowments Bill" (1921) even while voicing some concerns in within. Mentionable is that [[Shatata-Unnati#Female upliftment|Dr. Muthulakshmi Reddy]] wasn't part of the JP but it still nominated her in 1926 for the Madras Legislative Council to bring about positive changes.

==Related articles==
*[[Women]]
*[[Women as Rishikas in the Vedas]]
*[[Worship of God as Mother]]

==External resources==
*[https://www.ijhsss.com/files/08.-ABHISEK-KARMAKAR_6813z4a4.pdf "Changing status of women in Indian politics (1917-1947): the role of civil society"], P. 42-45 ''International Journal of Humanities & Social Science Studies'' Volume-I, Issue-II (September 2014) By Abhisek Karmakar
*[https://www.besanthill.org/about/history-heritage/annie-besant/ Besant Hill School of Happy Valley in Ojai, California]
*[https://www.anniebesant.org Annie Besant Women's College in Hyderabad, Telangana]
*[https://www.aryasabha.mu/cultural-programme-arya-mahila-mandal-in-the-context-of-the-200th-birth-anniversary-of-swami-dayananda-saraswati/ Arya Mahila Mandal (Mauritius)]
*[https://www.thearyasamaj.org/ammkarolbagh Arya Mahila Mandal Karol Bagh]
*[https://vatikashaktipeeth.com/seven-agitations/women-awakening.html Vatika Shakti Peeth]

==References==
{{reflist}}

[[Category: History]]
[[Category: Economics]]
[[Category: Societal altruism]]

Shatata-Unnati

2026-06-07T17:38:04Z

Himanshu Bhatt: /* Shahu's royal authority to implement reforms */

{{Author|Himanshu Bhatt}}
'Shatata-Unnati' is ''continual change'', 'abhyas' means improvement, 'kram-parivartanam' is ''incremental reformation'', while 'shodhanam' is ''refinement''. All of these terms are descriptive of Hindu society throughout the ages.

Continual social betterment has been one of the defining characteristics of Hindu society. All major cultures have had evils in their histories, including Hindu societies, but the shining examples to enforce positive changes and adaptability to a changing world are the Hinduism, Christianity, and Judaism.

In an era wherein colonial norms meant imprisonment or executions for speaking out against imperial rule, Mahatma Gandhi challenged the ideas of forcing nations to be subservient, fighting oppression by violence, and purging one's own nation of evils (i.e., inequality and superstition.) Today, much of the world still looks to Gandhi's perseverance to bring positive change into society.

Transformation of India's political systems made India into the world's largest democracy, and for accomplishing that, [[Indian Freedom Fighters#INC's Hindu activist roots|Hindu doctrines were rationalize to promote democracy]]. Even in India's political spectrum, Hindu principles were used to make liberalism and communism resonate with people, like Ram Rajya being a communist utopia. Some of the Communist Party of India's [[Indian Freedom Fighters#CPI's Hindu activist roots|founders were idealogues for both communism and Hinduism]], such as Swami Kumaranand, Swami Satyabhakt, and Swami Sahajanand Saraswati, as well as Keezhedathu Damodaran, Radhamohan Gokulji, and Rahul Sankrityayan.

==Comparison in societal reformation (India and Europe)==
:''See also: [[Contribution of Hindu Diaspora]]''
Whereas even in modern times, in most European Christian societies, witch-hunts and slavery were the norm, in Indian Hindu societies, widow-burning was the norm among certain communities (usually northwestern) and caste prejudice was prevalent. Both the Christian and Hindu communities worked to extinguish these and other evils.

Historical societal injustices have been acknowledged and reconciled. Even today, the lasting legacy of important Hindu reformers is visible wherein quotas employment and educational quotas are implemented for social upward mobility to ensure poorer castes and women do not fall behind.

During the colonial era, as human rights improved in Western societies as results from agricultural/economic advancements, Western writers of non-Christian societies took a chauvinistic, parochialist, and Eurocentric approach towards Hindu societies, claiming that they:
#Would never improve in human rights, morality, or rationality
#Are permanently stagnant
#Cannot produce modern or political economic institutions

Critics of the colonial era were proven wrong in these concrete ways:
#Large-scale societal reforms led by Hindu activists themselves improved Hindu societies — i.e., promoting window remarriage and caste integration while also creating quotas for females and historically-disadvantaged castes
#Rapid expansion of education and intellectual mobility — i.e., growth of global Hindu academic presence
#Global economic and corporate leadership — i.e., entrepreneurship and CEOs of major multinational companies like Adobe, Google, and Microsoft
#Democratic political evolution — i.e., maintaining electoral democracies like Hindu-majority nations, providing peaceful transfers of power, and granting significant autonomy to judiciary, press, and civil societies
#Religious and philosophical continuity + adaptation
#Ritual practice has diversified massively by religion and class — i.e., clerics ([[Rta and Spiritual Authority|priests]] and [[ascetics|monks]]) are from many backgrounds
#Reinterpretation of scriptures became internationally influential — i.e., Aldous Huxley loved the perennialism of Upanishads, Erwin Schrödinger the idea of aikatmyam, and Henry David Thoreau that of Ishavasyam
#Non-Hindus from outside of the Indian Subcontinent have converted to Sanatan Dharm and have promoted the religion — James Donald Walters who founded Ananda Sangha, Richard Alpert who founded Hanuman Foundation, John Edwin Favors who founded iFast[https://ifastdc.com/][https://ifastglobal.com/], and Robert Hansen who founded Saiva Siddhanta Church[https://www.himalayanacademy.com/]
#Hindu-based intellectual practices have popularized globally — i.e., [[Ayurveda|Ayurvedic medicine]], divination, political activism, [[Animal rights#Influence upon Westerners|animal rights]], [[Animal_rights#Vegetarianism|vegetarianism]], and [[yoga]]

==Hindu-led social betterment==
What is extraordinary in the case of India is that it was the religious institutions ([[Organizations|Hindu organizations]] and [[Hindu Post-Secondary Institutes|schools]]) that made revolutionary changes, not normally secular or non-Hindu ones. Practicing Hindus saw that superstitious and chauvinistic practices had become institutionalized (caste system and misogyny) within Hindu society, so they formed associations to help, uplift, educate the destitute. They would even go steps further to privilege the marginalized through reservations.

Even women who were more exploratory and not members of specific religions engaged with Hinduism positively. The best example might be Annette Beveridge, an Englishwoman who was the daughter of a Unitarian Christian herself became affiliated with Keshub Chandra Sen in England. She was drawn to his lectures and this fascination with his philosophy inspired her to begin life in India, where she even established<ref>Its expenses were financed by Ananda Mohan Bose and Durga Mohan Das, Dwarkanath Ganguly was its headmaster, and others Brahmos involved with the school were Sibnath Sastri and Monomohun Ghose.</ref> the Hindu Mahila Vidyalaya (''Hindu Women's School''.) Her husband Henry Beveridge was an orientalist (westerners intrigued with Asian cultures) working in India, meaning they were not Westerners critical of Hindu identity. Mrs. Emily Phear was an honorary teacher, and she too was involved in Brahmo Samaji circles for societal development. (Her husband Sir John Budd Phear helped Brahmo Samaj legally.) A non-Hindu that likewise began a girls school (Hindu Female School[https://www.bethunecollegiateschool.com/]) with Brahmos and other Hindus was John Bethune, whose accomplices were Dakshinaranjan Mukherjee, Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar, Ramgopal Ghosh, and Madanmohan Tarkalanka (the last even taught at the school without pay.) Others foreign women in India that engaged positively with Hindu activist organizations were Mary Carpenter[https://southasianbritain.org/people/mary-carpenter/] and Sophia Dobson Collet with Brahmo Samaj, Alma B.R.A. with Arya Samaj, and Mary Hobson with Prarthana Samaj[https://puneprarthanasamaj.org/].

Hindu women that set women's rights activism into motion were Arya Samaj's Lajwanti Sood and Satyavati Devi, and Brahmo Samaj's Kadambini Ganguly and Sarala Devi Chaudhurani. Swarnakumari Devi was both an Arya Samaji and a Brahmo Samaji.

===Female upliftment===
:''See also: [[Indian Freedom Fighters]] 
;Theosophical Society wing
[[image:Paris Women's Congress.jpg|right|thumb|200px|Dr. Reddy and 3 Indian women at the Paris Women's Congress (1926.)]]
The top 3 champions who politically improved Indian women's rights in the modern era were foreigners — Dr. Annie Besant, Dorothy Jinarajadasa, and Margaret Cousins. They did not tell Indian women to leave Hinduism but rather they themselves became Hindu in practice and Indian in habit. They then sought to restore the Vedic-era of womanhood wherein women had authority (i.e., to become clerics, scholars, and leaders.) Emma Mitchell (American) and Francesca Arundale (English) greatly contributed to building of Hindu educational institutions (i.e., Central Hindu College.)

Dr. Muthulakshmi Reddy is a big name in female rights, and she was influenced by Dr. Besant in her college years (1907-1912) and was guided by Dr. Besant in both her social reform and political work. She worked with Dr. Besant and others to establish the Women's Indian Association (1917.) After Dr. Besant's death, she took over the presidency of the WIA. Gandhi was another major mentor but Reddy never formally joined the INC but sometimes protested colonial injustices (i.e., Gandhi's arrest.)

;Ramakrishna Mission wing
[[image:Nivedita & Vivekanand.jpg|right|thumb|200px|Nivedita with Vivekanand.]]
[[Niveditā, Sister|Sister Nivedita (Margaret Noble)]], a convert from Ireland became a disciple of [[Swami Vivekananda|Swami Vivekanand]] and joined Aurobindo's Dawn Society and had also founded and ran girls' schools in Kolkata (i.e., Ramakrishna Sarada Mission Sister Nivedita Girls' School[https://www.sisterniveditagirlsschool.org/home.html] in Baghbazar) to educate girls who had little to no access to education (i.e., poorest of the poor.) She advocated for women's intellectual and moral development, influenced by Vivekanand's vision of strong Indian womanhood. Her work included lectures, fundraising (India, England, and U.S.), and writings that promoted gender equality in access to knowledge and opportunities. She had worked with Dr. Annie Besant at times. Likewise, Sister Christine, disciple of Vivekanand, is another example of a Westerner who utilized the Ramakrishna Mission and Vivekanand's circles as vehicles for improving female rights in India.

;INC wing
:''See also: [[Indian Freedom Fighters#INC's Hindu activist roots|INC's Hindu activist roots]] 
[[image:Nellie Sen Gupta.jpg|right|thumb|100px|N.S. Gupta.]]
Nellie Sen Gupta[https://www.thedailystar.net/in-focus/news/deshpriya-jatindra-mohan-nellie-sengupta-2036981] (nee Edith Ellen Gray) had married freedom fighter Jatindra Mohan Sen Gupta, and both joined the INC — she also founded Deepali Sangha, a women's organization aimed at promoting social and political awareness, leadership, training, and empowerment among women. Her husband passed away but she was advised to stay in the-then East Pakistan to take care of Hindu rights, which she did. Umadevi (born Wanda Dynowska), a Polish convert to Sanatan Dharm too championed women's rights in India and translated ''[[Bhagavad Gita]]'', ''[[Mahabharata]]'', ''[[Ramayana]]'', and other [[Hindu Scriptures|Hindu and Bauddh literature]] into Polish. Mira Behn (born Madeleine Slade), the daughter of a British Royal Navy admiral, gave up her affluent lifestyle to become Gandhi's servant in India.
[[image:Sarla Behn Chipko Movement.jpg|right|thumb|200px|Sarla Behn's Chipko act[https://www.adda247.com/school/chipko-movement/].]]
Sarla Behn[https://growbilliontrees.com/blogs/knowledge/sarla-behn-tree-nurturing-nature-and-empowering-communities-for-a-sustainable-future?srsltid=AfmBOoq4h0d0skQBNr4w4zOvISuhYz02_EXtPvD3pUoQYjTlcvNHEbQ-#fullcontent] (born Catherine Mary Heilman) from England setup the Lakshmi Ashram Kausani in 1946 within Uttarakhand to uplift women, after having lived in the Sevagram Ashram[https://gandhiashramsevagram.org/] in Maharashtra. The organization educated rural hill girls academically, trained women of self-reliance and industrial skills (i.e., khadi weaving), taught personal care (i.e., literacy, hygiene, anti-liquor campaigns), and promoted [[Environmentalism|ecological awareness]] (Chipko Movement.) It also worked with the INC to encourage nationalist fervour. Lakshmi Ashram individual units were known as Mahila Mandals. This ashram attracted foreign residents intrigued with Sanatan Dharm even after independence, like David Hopkins, who relocated to there in the 1990's.
[[image:Durgabai Deshmukh.jpg|right|thumb|100px|Dr. D.D.]]
Dr. Durgabai Deshmukh, pupil of Gandhi and freedom fighter in the colonial era, established the Central Social Welfare Board (1953.) She later became president of the All India Women's Conference (1931.) Taraben Premchand is an important mention, as she was an important member of this organization, as well as the Jain Mahila Parishad[https://www.dbjainsabha.com], Jyoti Sangh[https://jyotisangh.org/about-us/] (local women's advancement group in Gujarat), and Shraddhanand Ashram[https://shraddhanandmahilashram.org/].

Madeleine Rolland was Women's International League for Peace and Freedom's[https://www.wilpf.org/] French section and never settled in India. However, upon engaging with Hindu culture in the 1920's, she translated Ananda Coomaraswamy's ''[[Nataraja Dasakam|The Dance of Shiva]]'' into French, introducing Hinduism to the-then residents of France. She also translated Rabindranath Tagore's writings of Sanatan themes and universal humanism, helping popularize them in Europe. She welcomed Gandhi on his visit to Marseille, France. [[image:Kanuparti Varalakshmamma.jpg|right|thumb|100px|'Sarada'.]]
Kanuparti Varalakshmamma (alias 'Sarada'), a devout Gandhian, used Hindu themes like providing ethical refences (i.e., Savitri, Sita) to depict women's morality, dignity, and conduct. She often engaged with the idea of a grihalakshmi (idea woman of the household.) She also founded the Stree Hitaishini Mandali for uplifting women. She used ''Andhra Patrika'', a newspaper created by a promoter of the ''Bhagavad Gita'', Kasinathuni Nageswara Rao, to preach her ideas.
[[image:Vijaya Lakshmi Pandit.jpg|right|thumb|100px|'Vijaya Lakshmi Pandit'.]]
It is also noteworthy that the 1st female head of government in the world was a [[Bauddh Dharm|Bauddh]] (Sirimavo Bandaranaike of Sri Lanka, non-INC member), and 2nd was a Hindu (Indira Gandhi, INC member.) Also Vijaya Lakshmi Pandit[https://news.un.org/en/story/2024/03/1147327] (born Swaroop Rani Nehru) played a significant role in global representation of women, particularly in the United Nations. She was the first woman to serve as the President of the UN General Assembly (1953-1954), a position she held to advocate for decolonization and the independence of countries in Asia and Africa. Hansa Mehta[https://india.un.org/en/311450-hansa-mehta%E2%80%99s-life-story-continues-inspire] had an impact on the UN's constitution wording wherein "''all human beings''" instead of "all men" in the Universal Declaration of Human Rights. (She was also one of only 2 women delegates working alongside Eleanor Roosevelt in the UN Human Rights Commission 1946-48.)
[[image:Nilla Cram Cook.jpg|right|thumb|100px|'Nilla Nagini Devi'.]]
Nilla Cram Cook, an American who settled at Gandhi's ashrams, had [[Conversion|converted to Hinduism]] in the 1930's but identified with the '[[Samyag Darshan#Samadarshan|sarva dharma sambhava]]' ideal, so considered herself a [[Bhakta|devotee]] of not only [[Krishna]] but of Jesus too, and so she later also translated the Quran and engaged with Islamic practices in a syncretic way with her Hindu and Christian customs. Her final literary work was ''The Way of the Swam: Poems of Kashmir'' (1958), which was mostly focused around the [[Saiva|Shaiv]] mystic poetess Lal Ded[https://hindupost.in/society-culture/lal-ded-her-life-and-works/#][https://homegrown.co.in/homegrown-voices/the-poetry-of-lal-ded-mysticism-resistance-the-female-voice-in-14th-century-kashmir] and others from Kashmir syncretic Sanatan-[[Bauddh Dharm|Bauddh]]-[[Sufism with Vaishnavism|Sufi]] tradition. She dedicated the book to Pandit. She didn't work on women's upliftment directly but did participate with Gandhi's Harijan Sevak Sangh. She had also written about Sarojini Naidu.

;Other associations
[[image:Maharani Chimnabai Gaekwad II.jpg|right|thumb|100px|Maharani Chimnabai.]]
[[image:Sethu Parvathi Bayi.jpg|right|thumb|100px|Junior Queen Bayi.]]
The National Council of Women in India[https://www.ncwi.in/], founded 1925, was also a monumental organization to make progress for women — it mainly focused on female literacy, vocational training, public participation, and legal reform. It was primarily the initiative of Lady Meherbai Tata, a Mazdaean icon, and its first president was Maharani Chimnabai Gaekwad II, born Gajrabai Ghatge, a princess of Dewas (M.P.) She supported societal progress of women that did not compromise on Hindu identity (i.e., traditional customs like wearing sari and sindhoor or like celebrating Raksha Bandhan), which is how she framed her ''The Position of Women in Indian Life'' book. She financed schools for girls, as well as Hindu charities and temples. The Gaekwad family also funded libraries and women's institutions and social reform initiatives. She discussed the eradication or the purdah, child marriage, women's restrictions (i.e., obtaining education and employment), and other obstacles towards advancement. Following her presidentship, Sethu Parvathi Bayi took over. She was from the royal family of Travancore (Kerala), and her family was deeply connected to the Padmanabhaswamy Temple[https://spst.in/][https://www.padmanabhaswamytemple.com/]. She financed Hindu institutions as well. It is notable that Sucharu Deo, daughter of Brahmo leader K.C. Sen was a prominent member and she had also helped build the Maharani Girls' High School[https://school.banglarshiksha.gov.in/ws/website/index/19013701705] in Darjeeling (W.B.) together with her sister (Suniti) and Hemlata Sarkar, daughter of Brahmo leader Sibnath Sastri.

From Hindu-based institutions like sociopolitical organizations and schools came a number of philanthropic associations.
;Most influential persons for women's upliftment
{| class="wikitable sortable"
|-
! Area of Contribution
! Meaning
! Steps Taken
! Activists
! Organizations
! Founder's Affiliation(s)
|-
|Political rights and visibility
|1. Women appearing in public political spaces 2. Women being recognized as leaders (not just participants) 3. Changing social norms about women's public roles 4. Symbolic representation
|Helped institutionalize women's leadership through bodies like Women's Indian Association
|Dr. Annie Besant (women's political rights + organizational leadership), Kamaladevi Chattopadhyay (political participation, economic empowerment, cooperatives), Margaret Cousins[https://www.womensmuseumofireland.ie/exhibits/margaret-elizabeth-cousins] (Suffarage, WIA), Sarojini Naidu (mass mobilization of women in politics)
|
|
|-
|Modern institutional equality
|
|Helped institutionalize institutional equality through contributing policy influence (Hansa Mehta) and constitutional rights (Dr. Durgabai Deshmukh)
|Dr. Durgabai Deshmukh (welfare systems), Hansa Mehta
|
|
|-
|Foundational legal reform
|
|
|Raja Ram Mohan Roy (abolition of sati), Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar (widow remarriage)
|
|
|-
|Education
|
|
|Raja Ram Mohan Roy, Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar
|
|
|-
|}

===Hindu influence internationally===
Even outside of India during the 20th century, women's rights were not perfect, and so many women incorporated Hindu symbolism (i.e., worship) and concepts towards promoting societies where women would have equal rights.
[[image:M.J. Gage.jpg|right|thumb|200px|Matilda Joslyn Gage.]]
[[image: Charlotte Despard.jpg|right|thumb|200px|Charlotte Despard, an Anglo-Irish suffragist who supported Indian independence.]]
As [[Worship of God as Mother|worship of God as a female or mother]] has been common in Sanatan Dharm since its foundation, that made validating female upliftment in India quicker. Even in Western nations, prominent women's rights organizations implemented imagery of goddesses from pertinent ancient cultures, like U.K.'s Women's Freedom League and National Union of Women's Suffrage Societies, and the global International Woman Suffrage Alliance, to legitimize female equality and women being in positions of power. Some Western feminists and women's rights activists, like Matilda Joslyn Gage<ref>"''While the sale of daughters was practiced in England for seven hundred years after the introduction of Christianity, we note that by the ancient law of India, a father was forbidden to sell his daughter in marriage, or receive the smallest present therefor.''" - P. 79-82 ''Woman, Church and State'' (1893) By Matilda Joslyn Gage</ref> (U.S. suffragist) and Helena Petrovna Blavatsky<ref>"''The pre- and post-Vedic woman was as free as man; and no impure terrestrial thought was ever mixed with the religious symbology of the early Aryans.''" 
"''This is proven by the fact that in the Vedic period their women were not placed apart from men in penetralia, or ‘Zenanas.’ Their seclusion began when the Mahomedans … had conquered the land and gradually enforced their ways and customs upon the Hindus.''" 
- P. 379-380 ''The Secret Doctrine: Volume I'' By Helena Blavatsky </ref> (European feminist), even used the examples of [[Worship of God as Mother|Hindu goddess-worship]] and Hindu queens to support their examples. (M.J. Gage[https://www.smithsonianmag.com/history/the-feminist-inspired-witches-of-oz-180985334/] in her ''Woman, Church, and State'' even highlighted Hindu texts to counter the male-centric theology of the West and referenced ''[[Bhagavad Gita]]'' to validate the concept of a female [[divinity]].) Even feminists of the colonial era like Victoria Woodhull that was skeptical of organized religion, respected "''Christna and Buddha''" (Krishna and Gautama.) Mary Lowe Dickinson at the World's Parliament Circles (1893) was so impressed by [[Swami Vivekananda|Swami Vivekanand]]'s speech, that she developed a fascination with female divinity of Hinduism, and in her editorials and public circles, argued that Hinduism's recognition of a feminine aspect within the divine was spiritually superior to the rigidly patriarchal, all-male Trinity of mainstream American Christianity. Emily Pitts Stevens and Charlotte LeMoyne Wills (wrote about the genderless [[Brahm]]) became disciples of Vivekanand. Laura de Force Gordon wrote about the immortal soul and continuous cycle of life. Alice Moore McComas wrote about the interconnectedness (aikatmyam) of all things. In U.K., Charlotte Despard's specific pamphlets linked [[karma]] to political activism. Margaret Louise Sanger was influenced by Vivekanand and Rabindranath Tagore. Sarah Bull<ref> P. 483 ''Western Admirers of Ramakrishna and His Disciples'' By Gopal Stavig, Swami Shuddhidananda </ref>, who particularly focused on women's education and reform was connected to both Vivekanand and Sister Nivedita. Josephine MacLeod was a major promoter of Vivekanand in the West and was involved in transatlantic reform-intellectual networks. Viktoria Ocampo of Argentina was deeply influenced by Tagore, even hosting him in Argentina and promoting his ideas widely. Gabriela Mistral of Chile was too, and she applied Tagore's ideas to women's education, child welfare, and cultural reform. Mabel Dodge Luhan was fascinated with Sanatan philosophy and influenced by Vivekanand. Mentionable is Emma Calve of France, who wasn't a political feminist leader but influential in women's intellectual-cultural circles, and she was deeply influenced by Vivekanand.
[[image:Carol Patrice Christ.jpg|right|thumb|200px|Carol Patrice Christ.]]
After suffragists had attained complete institutional equality, they them progressed to the next stage of female liberation by ensuring that their own spiritual faith wasn't male-chauvinistic or making them subordinates of males. Feminists were inspired by goddess deity of Hinduism to then promote it within generic spirituality. Valerie Saiving, Isaac Bonewits and Naomi Goldenberg founded in the 1970's, Thealogy, a feminine-specific theology. Carol Patrice Christ launched the Goddess Movement, which provided 4 aspects of Goddess symbolism as reasons to needing a goddess in women's lives; 1) the Goddess as affirmation of female power, 2) the female body, 3) the female will, and 4) women's bond and heritage. She specifically used the Shakti concept to prove that a major global religion (Hinduism) explicitly defined the [[Brahmanda|material universe]]/nature/change ([[Darshana#Sankhya|Prakriti]]) as an inherently active, female, and sacred force. She was an ecofeminist, as were Charlene Spretnak and Miriam Simos were ecofeminists too. Merlin Stone wrote ''Ancient Mirrors of Womanhood: Our Goddess and Heroine Heritage'' (1979) and in a chapter analyzes goddesses like [[Durga]], [[Kali]], [[Lakshmi Puja|Lakshmi]], Parvati, and Saraswati. Devout Christian women feminists too drew on Hindu practices and ideas to support women's advocacy, and they include Ivone Gebara, Pearl Sydenstricker Buck, and Sally McFague.

'Matriarchal religion' is a philosophy stating that societies were Goddess worshippers with females having the same status and rights as men before male gods began being worshipped, and the latter led to patriarchy. Goddesses being worshipped contiguously in Hindu societies for thousands of years was the backing this thought utilized, in addition to feminist archaeology (i.e., ancient idols and temples of goddesses uncovered.)

==Start of modern reforms==
In modern India, most positive social changes within Indian Hindu societies came not first as enforcement or pressure from European rulers but from advocacy of forward-thinking Hindus. Raja Ram Mohan Roy had led the campaign to purge Hindu societies of Sati and caste prejudices. Roy worked with British imperial authority, specifically Lord William Bentinck to have sati outlawed. Roy himself was a religious leader that reiterated Upanishads for their principles.

Other institutions of positive social changes were mainly Hindu ones or were governed by Hindu religious leaders, not secular ones.

The Indian National Social Conference of 1887 was organized by Justice Ranade, Rai Raghunath Rao, Narendra Nath Sen Gupta, and Janki Nath Ghoshal. Ranade was founder of the Prarthana Samaj, a religious group.

Arya Samajis, Brahmo Samajis, and Prarthana Samajis were the most vocal and active forces advocating: 
#Widow Remarriage (i.e., Widow Remarriage Act 1856—initiative of Brahmo Samaj)
#Women's right to divorce (i.e., Native Marriage Act 1872—initiative of Brahmo Samaj) 
#Property rights for women 
#Opposition to child marriages (i.e., Age of Consent Act 1891—initiative of Brahmo Samaj and Prarthana Samaj, Child Marriage Restraint Act 1929—initiative of Arya Samaj) 
#Universal accessible education (built schools, including colleges and gurukuls) 
#Caste-based reservations
[[image:Justice Ranade.jpg|right|thumb|200px|Mahadev Govind Ranade (alias 'Justice Ranade'.)]]
[[image:Jagannath Shankarshet.jpg|right|thumb|200px|Jagannath Shankarshet (alias 'Architect of Modern Mumbai'.)]]
The Indian Factories Act 1881's ratification was a landmark in workers' rights and the credit goes mainly to Sorabjee Shapoorjee Bengalee, and then Prarthana Samaj. He did work alongside the Prarthana Samaj to lobby the British authority through the First Factory Commission in 1875 (made to investigate the brutal conditions of Indian labour.) Prarthana Samaj's ''Subodh Patrika'' newspaper specifically critiqued mill owners. Rahnumai Mazdayasnan Sabha, its newspaper ''Rast Goftar'', and Bengalee himself referenced labour reformers Sasipada Banerji and Protap Chunder Mozumdar, and used the former's methods of worker upliftment as a blueprint for their own legislative arguments. Collaboration between the Sabha and Prarthana Samaj began with the latter's creation of the Theistic Association, on which the Parsi Naoroji Furdonji was its 1st Chairman. Ranade and Bhandarkar drove the Association from discussing only theism to improving society through finding solutions of work hardships. The Night School Initiative was launched, helping workers receive adequate training, particularly in labourer-heavy neighborhoods Byculla, Dongri, Khetwadi, and Thakurdwar. (From 1886-1890 alone, over 2,750 industrial workers successfully studied through this initiative.)

Brahmo Samaj's K.C. Sen’s first visit to Mumbai in March-April 1864 engaged him with Bengalee, Furdonji, Ranade, and Bhandarkar (all then members of Young India.) They all discussed ways to develop India. They also shared strategies on how to bypass orthodox religious resistance—Furdonji within Zoroastrianism and Sen within Sanatan Dharm. Bengalee's First Labor Bill (1878) laid the groundwork for the later Indian Factories Act.

Prior to all of this, Jagannath Shankarshet[https://www.vishwakonkani.org/hall-of-fame/hon-jagannath-shankar-sheth/] spent the 1850s petitioning the British Parliament for local governance. As a result, it codified the Indian Councils Act of 1861, thus creating the Bombay Legislative Council as a political body to better govern the-then Bombay Presidency. Shankarshet was the main founder of Bombay Association. In its first leadership were also Dr. Ramachandra Vitthal Lad (alias 'Dr. Bhau Daji'), a Hindu intellectual who used his Sanskrit knowledge to decipher inscriptions, preserve manuscripts, and help reconstruct the forgotten timelines of ancient Guptas and Western Kshatrapa dynasties. Mentionable is the Parsi Sir Jamsetjee Jeejeebhoy of the group. Shankarshet was a wealthy philanthropist that constructed and financed Sanatan and secular infrastructure, most notably the Bhavani Shankar Mandir[https://www.mcgm.gov.in/irj/go/km/docs/documents/D%20Ward/Heritage-Sites/73_Legacy%20of%20D%20Ward_Article_Bhavani%20Shankar%20Temple.pdf] (Mumbai), Sanskrit Seminary and Sanskrit Library (both in Mumbai too.) Elphinstone Educational Institution[https://elphinstone.ac.in/index.php] and Grant Medical College[https://gmcjjh.edu.in/] were his creations too. (Jeejeebhoy contributed to constructing the Grant Medical College.)

===Shahu's royal authority to implement reforms===
[[image:Shahu adoption.jpg|right|thumb|200px|Prince Yeshwantrao Ghatge being adopted by the royal family of Kohlapur.]]
[[image:Rajarshi.jpg|right|thumb|200px|Rajarshi Chhatrapati Shahu Maharaj.]]
[[image:School foundation.jpg|right|thumb|200px|Foundation of Shri Shahu Chhatrapati Shikshan Sanstha.]]
The greatest champion on all of these sections for reforms was Chhatrapati Shahu Maharaj[https://aissms.org/breaking-barriers-chhatrapati-shahu-maharaj-and-his-enduring-impact-on-progress-and-modernity/] (born Yeshwantrao Ghatge), '[[Rta and Spiritual Authority#Rishis|Rajarshi]]', the ruler of Kohlapur Kingdom who affiliated with organizations but probably the Arya Samaj[https://thearyasamaj.org] more than any other. Shahu definitely was not shy to publicly perform prayers, as he famously attended temples of goddesses Ambabai[https://www.mahalaxmikolhapur.com/home] and Bhavani[https://shrituljabhavani.org/] when having returned from his Europe trip in 1902. Also in 1902, Pratap Singh Maharaj of Idhar (Gujarat) introduced and educated him about the Arya Samaj. He provided patronage to the Arya Samaj.[https://navjyot.net/wp-content/uploads/2022/12/10.pdf]

The king passed many policies for for the upliftment of untouchable, nomadic, non-Brahmin communities and for females.<ref>Act of Free and Compulsory Primary Education (1917), Widow remarriage Act (1917), End of Balutedari (1918), Repeal of Kulkarni Watan (1918), Intercaste and Interreligious Marriages and Sanctioning of Registered Marriage Act (1919), Act relating to protection of Harassment of Women (1919), Divorce act (1919), Order on prohibition of Untouchability practice (1919), Illegitimate Children's Rights and Devadasi Prohibition Act (1920); 
[https://www.indiejournal.in/article/rajarshi-shahu-maharaj-and-his-tryst-with-the-arya-samaj "Rajarshi Shahu Maharaj & his tryst with the Arya Samaj Lessons for our times"] By Devkumar Ahire (Jun 26, 2023 6:42 PM)</ref>

;Prejudiced disgruntled castists promoting anti-Brahman hate, not universalism
While Shahu was affiliated with the Satyashodhak Samaj (SS) because it wanted to uplift the non-dwija castes, he did not feel they had any religious foundations, whereas the Arya Samaj was encompassed both a spiritual and social movement.<ref>"Beyond Reformism: Chhatrapati Shahu and Hinduism Reimagined" By Surajkumar Thube P. 124-144 ''Nidān: International Journal for Indian Studies, Volume 8'', Issue 1 (July 2023)</ref> Also, the SS of Pune was antithetical to social cohesion because it targeted the Brahman caste as an enemy, and while its main founder (Jyotirao Phule) made absurd claims like 'Shiv-Dharma'<ref>"''The real Shiv-Dharma that is ours, we are re-establishing it as Sarvajanik Satya Dharma.''" Chapter 4, ''Sarvajanik Satya Pustak''</ref> or 'Mahadev-Dharma' (worship of [[Shiva|Shiv]] as God and some local gods like Khandoba as avatars) being the true religion of Indians whereas every other Hindu belief and practice was an imposition by 'non-Indian Brahman invaders'. Being a chauvinist, he also criticized freedom fighter martyrs Lakshmi Bai, Nana Sahib, Tantia Tope for being Brahmans. He also wrote positively that freedom fighters lost the 1857 War of Independence against the British colonialists. He was also openly criticized by his own relative Baburao Phule, who accused the former of being a Christian convert who destroyed the Hindu religion.<ref>P. 58-59 ''The Caste Question: Dalits and the Politics of Modern India'' (2009) By Anupama Rao </ref>

The organization would receive the most aid from Shahu (financial and social work), Karmvir (social work), and Padval (intellectual) but they themselves always kept a distance from the group because of its explicitly castist vitriol. People would choose to align or become members or other associations for their inclusivity and harmonious vision for the future.

;Satyashodhak Samaj becoming less anti-Brahman
"''All Hindus are equal. No one is superior, no one is inferior. Let all flesh and blood be one. Four varnas are a real deceit. It's a tool to keep the non-Brahmins in slavery. There is no difference among the Hindus. Hindu is the only varna. If a Hindu eats or marries with another Hindu that's not ''[[adharma]].'' In contrast, what divide Hindus in the name of religion is not a dharma, but a trick by Brahmins. One who calls themselves a Hindu, whether they are Europeans or Africans, they are our coreligionists.''" - P. 39 ''Deshache Dushman'' (1925) By Dinkarrao Javalkar
[[image:Sasipada Banerji.jpg|right|thumb|100px|Sasipada Banerji (alias 'Sevabrata'.)]]
Notable is that Phule's friend Narayan Meghaji Lokhande, a labour organization leader, was close friends with Phule and used Khandoba-worship and the reverence of Sundays for Khandoba in his petition to British authority to achieve Sunday as a holiday for factory labourers. Phule and Lokhande emulated Brahmans, like forming the political lobby group Deenbandhu Sarvajanik Sabha after Ranade's Poona Sarvajanik Sabha and forming the Bombay Mill Hands Association based and its mouthpiece ''Deenbandhu'' on the Working Men's Club (India's 1st labour welfare platform) and its mouthpiece ''Bharat Sramajibi'' (India's 1st labour journal) of Sasipada Banerji (Brahmo Samaji.)

Though Dinkarrao Javalkar portrayed himself as pan-Hindu when discussing the specific topic of Hindu unity, he still prejudicially criticized the Brahman caste in general<ref>"''This day will be counted among the most important days in the history of Hindus. There is no reason for you to fear jail. The Brahmans who eat ghee and roti should have that fear. To make the touchable people behave is in your hands. You are the sons of Hindus. You capture the tank saying 'har har Mahadev' and follow the advice of your leader Dr. Ambedkar Saheb. This is my own position.''" -Dinkarrao Javalkar at satyagraha with Keshavrao Jedhe and Dr. Ambedkar among a Mahar crowd</ref> and targeted some prominent Brahmans like Lokmanya Tilak. (Javalkar and Keshavrao Jedhe also portrayed themselves as pro-woman but derogatory remarks about women from the Brahman and certain other castes<ref>P. 44 ''19th Century Maharashtra: A Reassessment'' (2020) By Shraddha Kumbhojkar </ref> and both appealed to Dr. B.R. Ambedkar in 1927 to exclude Brahmans from the Mahad Satyagraha<ref> P. 27 ''Social Reform Movements in India: A Historical Perspective'' (1991) By V.D. Divekar</ref>.) Jedhe did protest with other activists (including Brahmans like Narhar Vishnu Gadgil, Seshdas Ranade, Shreedhar Mahadev Joshi, and members of Arya Samaj) for the right of Dalits to worship at Pune's Devdeveshwar Mandir[https://devdeveshwarsanthan.org/home.html]. Javalkar did write favourably about some like Ranade, Gopal Ganesh Agarkar, and Krishna Gopal Gokhale but even they were rarely mentioned. He rightfully partook in the Kalaram Mandir[https://www.shrikalaramsansthannasik.org/] Satyagraha in Nasik that protested for Dalits to be able to enter the temple. He was a communist and 10 years after his death, the Peasants and Workers Party (PWP) was formed.

SS branches outside of Pune were less hateful of Brahmans. It is also noteworthy, however, is that Nana Patil, a founder of the PWP, was affiliated with both the Satyashodhak and Prarthana associations [meaning that he, like most other Satyashodhaks didn't believe in Phule's religious ideology.] Some other PWP founders like Jedhe and Madhavrao Bagal were Satyashodhaks, they popularized Shiv Jayanti and Ganesh Chathuri. The latter and his son Vasantrao even wrote devotional pieces inspired from Bhakti Era saints (i.e., [[Tukaram]], [[Eknath]]) and valourizing pieces about Shahu. Tulshidas Jadhav, a Gandian within the PWP, championed the Bhakti Era's Warkari Movement, which was still popular in his time, because it was based on social equality and public seva. Also noteworthy is, that even some prominent members supported the Arya Samaj, like Krishnarao Bhalekar (1 of the founders of SS with Phule) defended Dayanand Saraswati (Arya Samaj’s founder), when the latter’s procession was opposed by some orthodox Hindus in Pune, and Bhalekar organized a speech to be delivered by Saraswati at a dharmshal near a Rokdoba Temple in Pune.

Bhalekar himself made the claim that the SS is the true follower of Sant Tukaram's [[Bhāgavata-dharma|Bhagwat Dharma]] ([[Krishna|Krishnaite]] [[Vaishnava|Vaishnavism]].) His son was Mukundrao Patil, who made the claim, "''The Satyasodhak Samaj is the true heir of the Hindu religion. Brahmanism is not Hinduism.''"<ref>''Dinmitra'' newspaper (1920s)</ref> Javalkar claimed SS is the true representative of the Hindu religion and that SS members are liberating Hinduism from the supremacy of the Brahmins. Shivram Janma Kamble stated the SS is a revival movement of the true Hinduism. Kisan Faguji Bansode argued "Shivdharma" was the true Hindu religion and that the SS advocates that version.

There were those in his organization that promoted about how in ancient Sanatan society, there were no caste distinctions and that people were recognized by their merits. Their view was promoted by Tukaram Tatya Padval, who wrote ''Jatibhed Vivekshar'' (1861) after being inspired by Ashwaghosha's ''Vajrasuchi''. Phule republished copies of Padval's books, and the 2 developed a friendship. He did write at that in ancient India, certain sages were had Sudra or Avarna status but rose to the rank of a Brahman through their intellect, and used examples of Valmiki (wrote a ''Ramayan''), Sankhya, and Kabilar rishis. He also published copies of the ''Bhagavad Gita'', ''Yogasutra'', and compilations of the ''Rajayoga'' and ''Sankhya Karika.'' He further compiled the ''Tukarambaba ani Tyanche Shisya Yanchi Abhanga Gatha'' (1889) and ''Eknath Maharajancha Abhangachi Gatha'' (1903.) Padval, however, never became a member of Phule's organization and instead became a member of the Theosophical Society.

;Shahu forming his own Satyashodhak Samaj focused on upliftment (free of anti-Brahman distractions)
As a result of the Satyashodhak Samaj of Pune being too antagonistic of Brahmans, Shahu had instead founded his own branch in 1911 — Shri Shahu Satyashodhak Samaj. By an order, Shahu replaced the Brahman priests in the Patgaon Sansthan (Mauni Maharaj Math[https://durgbharari.in/maunibaba-patgaon/]) and Jyotiba Devasthan[https://shreejyotiba.com/?lang=E][https://maharashtratourism.gov.in/temple/jyotiba/] with Maratha priests. Bhaskarrao Jadhav and Anna Babaji Latthe were leaders of Shahu's Kolhapur Satyashodhak Samaj. Whereas Phule mostly only wrote positively of Shiva and local-born gods, Jadhav in his ''Marathas and their Religion'' wrote positively about Krishna and the ''Bhagavad Gita''. He further worked with Shahu to aid Arya Samaj in its activities and goals (i.e., train non-Brahmans to become priests too.) Noteworthy is that Latthe, who worked personally with Shahu Maharaj, was its first VP and that he worked to dismantle priestly (Jain priests, not usually Brahmans) intermediation within the Jain clergy. (He was a big-time activist for general upliftment and for reform within the Jain community (i.e., wrote ''Jain Dharmacha Parichay''.)

Latthe founded the Dakshin Bharat Jain Sabha[https://dbjainsabha.com/], of which Dr. Bhaurao Patil (from a Jain family) became a member and through he wasn't a member of any SS branch, he did sometimes participate in its activities and himself founded the Rayat Shikshan Sansthan[https://rayatshikshan.edu/], which educated students in a multitude of topics, including Sanskrit. Patil (alias 'Karmvir Anna') was deeply influenced by Mahatma Gandhi and Vitthal Ramji Shinde.

;Shahu distancing himself formally from Satyashodhak Samaj
The SS had earned a bad reputation in Maharashtra with the general public, particularly for the outright anti-Brahman vitriol spewed in the SS's publications and events. Because the goal of Shahu and true reformers was to achieve a harmonious society with all people cooperating, it would not make sense to support an organization that's known for abusing persons (i.e., Brahmans) specifically over their caste identity.

In 1921, Shahu made a public statement in a Baroda newspaper that even though he granted significant support to the non-Brahman movement and introduced measures to eliminate Brahman dominance, he had never been affiliated with Phule's SS, and that he always accepted [[Rta and Spiritual Authority#Rishis|Vedic ritual authority]].

;Granting, accommodating, and expanding Arya Samaj
Shahu attended Arya Samaj sessions like the one at Navsari in 1918 and another at Bhavnagar in 1920<ref>P. 6. ''People's Raj Volume 30'' (1974) By Directorate-General of Information and Public Relations </ref>. He provided funding for Gurukul Boarding House to be built at Kerle, wherein large buildings and well-irrigated lands were granted to the Arya Samaj. Later, the Rajaram Anathalaya orphanage was added to this grant. He also brought educational institutions in his domain under the leadership of Arya Pratinidhi Sabha. Rajaram College's administration was also granted to the Arya Samaj.

;Spiritual Authority as Rajarshi
Shahu Maharaj, being a devout Sanatan wanted to proclaim the rights that warriors of history had and so participated in important ceremonies and worked with priests (i.e., Brahmans) to achieve the rights to learn and perform Vedic ceremonies. He established the Vedokta Committee for Marathas to be able to perform Vedic rites without requiring priests. In 1905, the Karveer Peeth's (or Kolhapur Math's) Shankaracharya declared full rights of Vedokta to Chhatrapati Shahu.

Tatyarao Joshirao was appointed by Shahu Maharaj as new royal purohit, replacing the Rajopadhye (creator of the infamous 'Vedokta Controversy'), who denied the Maharaj to perform Vedic rites. Joshirao was from a family that had traditional ownership of the historic Binkhambi Ganapati Mandir in Kolhapur.

Rajaram Shastri (alias 'Bhagavata'), a Brahman scholar, linguist, and researcher, openly challenged the religious orthodoxy, arguing from scripture that Shahu Maharaj had full rights to the Vedas. Vishnu Topkhane was another Brahman who greatly helped the Chhatrapati with his progressive reforms. Topkhane the educationalist helped the latter establish the Vidyapeeth High School near the Shri Karveer Niwasini Ambabai Mahalakshmi Temple. Freedom fighter Gokhale was someone who worked with Shahu. When the Vedokta Controversy broke out and the conservative press attacked the Maharaja, Gokhale privately and publicly validated Shahu Maharaj's stance, recognizing that social reform was a prerequisite for true political freedom. Ranade, though passed away before much Shahu's reforms began, was admired by the latter for his progressive ideals and actions.

Chhatrapati Shahu founded the Satyashodhak School for spiritual training in 1913, in which seminarians (predominantly from castes such as Marathas, Mahars, and Chambhars) were taught to recite and preach the poems (i.e., abhangs of Tukaram) of sants. He also created the Shivaji Vedic School (aliases 'Shahu Vedic School', 'Shahu Vedic Pathshala', 'Shri Shahu Vaidik Vidyalay') in 1920 and had invited scholars from Varanasi (spiritual capital of Sanatan Dharm) to ensure the highest standard of scriptural and linguistic training. The school trained seminarians (of all castes) to learn Sanskrit and become priests and conduct ceremonies. He further established and financed the office of the Kshatra Jagadguru (''Warrior Universal Teacher''), a pontiff seat open to anyone of any caste. The first Kshatra Jagadguru was Sadashivrao Lakshmanrao Sankpal Patil Benadikar, was an accomplished Sanskrit scholar who received his formal higher education at Rajaram College in Kolhapur. The Kshatra Jagadguru Peeth was the pontiff's seat at Patgaon (in the Bhudargad region of Kolhapur.) Patgaon was chosen because it was the historic site of the Mauni Maharaj Math, a highly respected spiritual center that had historically blessed Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj[https://pilgrimdata.in/temple/mouni-maharaj-math-temple-patgaon-bhudargarh-dist-kolhapur/]. The Kshatra Jagadguru had the Shri Sadashivrao Patil Shikshan Sanstha educationalist association named after him, and it runs schools[https://www.mwssm.org/][https://sspiop.com/] in Maharashtra still. Other organizations too use his name for schools like Sadashivrao Mandlik Mahavidyalaya (Kolhapur) of the ⁠Jay Shivray Education Society.

===Successive associations===
From Hindu-based institutions like sociopolitical organizations and schools came a number of philanthropic associations. Even other humanitarian associations that were not established by Hindu activists, were established by their influence. For example, Krishna Gopal Gokhale had participated in many sessions of the Prarthana Samaj as he was Ranade's pupil, and he later joined the Deccan Education Society, which he left to establish the Servants of India Society. Narayan Malhar Joshi was a member of Gokhale's group and later formed his own Social Service League[https://socialserviceleague.org.in/]. Hriday Nath Kunzru too was part of Gokhale's group and left to establish the Seva Samiti.

{| class="wikitable sortable"
|-
! Organization
! Demographic of Focus
! Region(s)
! Founder
! Founder's Affiliation(s)
! Achievement
|-
|Anath Balikashram Society
|Widows
|Maharashtra
|Dhondo Keshav Karve
|Educated at BHU
|
|-
|Andhra Mahila Sabha
|Females
|Andhra Pradesh
|Durgabai Deshmukh
|
|
|-
|Bharat Stree Mahamandal
|Females
|Bengal, Bihar, Punjab, Sindh, U.P.
|Sarala Devi Chaudhurani
|Arya Samaji, Brahmo Samaji, accepted Bijoy Krishna Chattopadhyaya as her guru
|
|-
|Central Social Welfare Board
|Females and children
|
|Dr. Durgabai Deshmukh
|
|
|-
|Hindu Widow Marriage Association
|Females
|Maharashtra
|Dhondo Keshav Karve
|Educated at BHU
|
|-
|Hindustani Seva Dal
|Females
|Every province
|Dr. Narayan Subbarao Hardikar
|
|Established the Hindustani Seva Mandal (later became Rashtriya Seva Dal) in 1923, established the Arya Bala Sabha, taught the Gita during his student days in Kolkata, was a fan of Lokmanya Tilak, and had enthusiastically worked with Lala Rai
|-
|Indian Reform Association
|Females
|West Bengal
|Keshub Chandra Sen
|
|Brahmo Samaji, founded ''Sulabh Samachar'' as weekly newspaper of group
|-
|Kasthurbha Gandhi Kanya Gurukulam[http://www.kgkgurukulam.org/]
|Girls
|Tamil Nadu (Vedaranyam)
|Vedaratnam Pillai
|
|Involved in temple-based philanthropy and donated to Sri Ramakrishna Mission too
|-
|Lakshmi Ashram
|Females
|Uttarakhand
|Sarla Behn
|
|Established individual Mahila Mandals throughout Uttarakhand and promoted important skills as well as ecological awareness
|-
|Lokahitawadi Mandal
|Females and males
|Maharashtra
|Vishnu Vaman Shirwadkar
|
|Wrote about Hindu themes, including persons from scriptures and about Shivaji poetically, philosophically, and nationally
|-
|Maharshi Karve Stree Shikshan Samstha
|Females
|Maharashtra
|Dhondo Keshav Karve
|Educated at BHU
|
|-
|Mahila Vidyalaya (Pune)
|Females
|Maharashtra
|Dhondo Keshav Karve
|Educated at BHU
|
|-
|Nishkam Karma Math
|Females
|Maharashtra
|Dhondo Keshav Karve
|Educated at BHU
|
|-
|Poona Seva Sadan
|Females
|Maharashtra (at its peak, included M.P. and T.N.)
|Ramabai Ranade
|
|
|-
|Samata Sangh
|Men and Women
|Maharashtra
|Dhondo Keshav Karve
|Educated at BHU
|
|-
|Self Employed Women's Association (SEWA)
|Females
|18 states
|Ela Bhatt
|Gandhian Textile Labour Association
|Established: own bank (Shri Mahila Sewa Sahakari Bank, or 'SEWA Cooperative Bank'), SEWA Mahila Housing Trust
|-
|Servants of the People Society
|Females
|Kerala, Maharashtra, M.P., Odisha T.N., Uttarakhand U.P.
|
|
|
|-
|Shraddhanand Ashram[https://shraddhanandmahilashram.org] (alias Hindu Women's Welfare Society)
|Females and boys
|Maharashtra (Mumbai)
|Swami Shraddhanand
|
|Has cared for thousands of destitute women and orphans, and educated them and provided skills development, as well as fostered personal development
|-
|Stree Hitaishini Mandali
|Females
|Andhra Pradesh
|Kanuparti Varalakshmamma
|
|Educated many females
|-
|Widow Marriage Association
|Females
|Maharashtra
|Dhondo Keshav Karve
|Educated at BHU
|
|-
|}

==Inspiration to Madras Presidency==
[[image:M.C. Rajah.jpg|right|thumb|200px|Mylai Chinna Thambi Pillai Rajah (the real 'Periyar'.)]]
While the Arya Samaj, Brahmo Samaj, Prarthana Samaj, and a host of other Hindu-based humanitarian and sociopolitical institutions existed in the-then Madras Presidency of southern India, they inspired local organizations as well. Shahu Maharaj had friends in the-then Justice Party (JP, est. 1916), like Arcot Ramasamy Mudaliar and Panaganti Ramarayaningar. While some ethnic groups, like certain castes even falsely supported the idea of an 'Aryan Invasion Theory' and themselves (Dravidian-languages speakers) as indigenous, they still appreciated Hinduism and did not consider it alien.

The biggest uplifter of the party was M.C. Rajah, who had the highest influence upon the policies that improved the lives of the Dalits in Madras Presidency. The party itself was founded primarily by 3 individuals — Sir Pitti Theagaraya Chetty (political founder who built the political machine), Dr. Taravath Madhavan Nair (ideological co-founder), and Dr. Chintadripet Natesa Mudaliar (cultural/grassroots mobilizer who helped shape cultural legitimacy.) Dr. Nair had said that Hindu society had originally possessed broader equality before caste dominance hardened it. Chetty occasionally used dharm-based ethical framing. He is consistently described as arguing that governance must align with "''dharma and justice''". The Dr. Mudaliar was a devout Shaiva that infused into the party Shaivism as a cultural identity for southerners.
[[image:P.T. Rajan.jpg|right|thumb|200px|P.T. Rajan (centre-right, wearing glasses next to priest), touring with the idol of [[Ayyappan|Ayyappa]] he had made at Swamimalai Temple[https://swamimalaiswaminathar.hrce.tn.gov.in/] and it was placed in the Sabarimala Temple[https://www.sabarimalauptodate.in/].]]
An ideologue of influence to the JP and Self-Respect Movement was Maraimalai Adigal, a Shaiv preacher and writer, who claimed that both the JP and Self-Respect Movement were from his teachings and that militant atheist Erode Venkatappa Ramasami Naicker had hijacked them. JP founder Dr. Nair died in 1919 and Chetty in 1925, so had no interaction Naicker. Ponnambala Thiaga Rajan was an active party member and disagreed with Naicker's ideology, so joined Congress-aligned politics. Mudaliar died in 1935 around the time Naicker entered the JP. Naicker was also a prejudiced castist that criticized but did not contribute to build schools and shelters for women and children, as Rajah[https://www.news18.com/opinion/opinion-m-c-rajah-the-forgotten-hindu-mahasabha-dalit-8937192.html][https://vskbharat.com/m-c-rajah-a-staunch-hindu-leader/?lang=en][https://thecommunemag.com/m-c-rajah-the-hindu-mahasabha-dalit/], a practicing Hindu of the party did. Rajah even once formed a political alliance with the Hindu Mahasabha, was the contributor. Before Rajah, the party's caste disparity was mainly about civil service occupations and education access for underprivileged castes. Rajah was recommended by Ambedkar to convert but Rajah replied there's no religion better than Hinduism.<ref>P. 92 ''The Political Evolution of Muslims in Tamilnadu and Madras, 1930-1947'' By J.B. Prashant More (1997) </ref><ref> In a public meeting of the All India Adi Dravida Mahajana Sabha in Nungambakkam, Chennai he said, "''The president (of this meeting) mentioned that no other community other than us has more right to be called Hindus. Conversion will not bring about any good. By saying so, I am not undermining or wishing away the oppression and ills we have faced. We need to fight for our rights. The speed at which reforms are happening might be slow. But think about our current situation and how much it has improved. I beseech you to please abandon any move that will weaken us. I request the government to bring about the Untouchability Abolition Bill and pass it quickly. The Harijans are proud Hindus. That is the only reason why even after years of oppression by higher castes and a barrage of proselytization efforts by other religions hasn't changed their resolve being Hindus.''" P. 123 ''Evolution of Hindu Nationalism - Icons of HMS, RSS & BJS'' By Sankara Narayanan T (2025)</ref> Adigal's writings had a profound impact on Subramania Ramanathan, the founder of the Self-Respect Movement, and on the Naicker but the latter only wanted pro-Tamil and castist societal changes, not promotion of Shaivism. Naicker would later break away from the party and form his own Dravidar Kazhagam, a title he copied from Adigal's Shaiv association (Podhunilak Kazhagam.) (His own pupil, Conjeevaram Natarajan Annadurai, would eventually disown him after he married his own adopted daughter, and Annadurai would leave his group.)
[[image:Alamelu.jpg|right|thumb|200px|Alamelu Mangai Thayarammal, a Brahmo Samaji, was co-founder of the party among 29 others (all men.)]]
The Hindu sentiment was definitely present in the JP. Many left after Naicker's hijacking. Important members bothered by Naicker's rhetoric apart from Rajan were Ananda Prasad Patro, Arunachalam Thamaraiselvam Panneerselvam, Muthiah Annamalai Chettiar, Ramasamy Kandasamy Shanmukham Chetty, and Subbarayalu Kumaraswami Reddiar. Chettiar even personally regularly donated to temple renovations, endowing temple lands or festivals, supporting pilgrimage facilities, and Hindu-managed schools. Rajan, the last leader of the JP, was the head-of-government of the Presidency, and was a big devotee a [[Ayyappan|Swami Ayyappa]]. Rajan even solemnized a marriage of a German couple converted to Hinduism in Coimbatore (Oct 31, 1962.) He further discouraged conversion of Dalits from Hinduism to another religion<ref>"''If by mass conversion you expect to achieve your object, you will be disappointed, because of a mere change of religion it will not give you all that you want.''" 
P. 147 ''Sir P. T. Rajan's Eighty Second Birthday Souvenir, 1973'' By P.T. Rajan and K. Paramasivam</ref> while encouraging caste-Hindus to better treat Dalits. His family had deep ties to the Meenakshi Amman Temple[https://maduraimeenakshi.hrce.tn.gov.in/] in Madurai, with his son (Palanivel Rajan), serving as a minister, and his daughter-in-law (Rukmani), serving as the first female chairperson of the temple's board of trustees. His predecessor Ramakrishna Ranga Rao denied that the JP was anti-Hindu and declared that it aimed to purify Hindu society from "''absurdities''" and return "''Hinduism greater and more glorious than it was in the past...''"<ref>"''As I understand it, the Self-Respect movement stands for certain great ideals to make Hinduism greater and more glorious than it was in the past, to rid it of all those absurdities which are the accretions of an unfortunate era of the past, and unite us in a solid federation so that all those who profess to follow the Hindu faith may feel that they are brethren following one of the most ancient and glorious religions of the world. No longer should the foreigner point his finger of scorn at this or that particular phase of Hinduism which belies its cosmopolitan tendency by inflicting personal hardship on classes or communities. If a few youths in their exuberant enthusiasm have been carried away beyond the bounds of Hinduism it will not do to fight shy of the new movements, but political wisdom and sagacity lie in taking them into our fold and guiding them aright along the paths of duty and rectitude.''" 
P. 289 ''The Indian Annual Register An Annual Digest of Public Affairs of India Recording the Nation's Activities Each Year in Matters Political, Economic, Industrial, Educational, Social, Etc · Volume 2'' By Nipendra Nath Mitra (1934)</ref> Alamelu Mangai Thayarammal, conferred 'Pandithai' title by Saiva Sabha in Palamcottah, was a JP co-founder [with 29 co-founders being men] who was a Brahmo Samaji, meaning the influence of the Hindu-based organizations wasn't insignificant. Paramasivan Subbarayan Gounder, while not technically a JP member, worked with it closely, and both he and his women's rights activist wife Kailash Radhabai Kulmud were Brahmos. It is also noteworthy that [[Ascetics|ascetic]] Swamiyar Kaivalyar who supported the party without being a member wrote pro-Shaiv material. Cattamanchi Ramalinga Reddy, an ex-member who formed his own party in 1923 was a close friend of Dr. Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan, and he himself engaged with Hindu texts on a literary artistic level. As Hinduism isn't a scripture-dependent religion, some JP members like A.R. Mudaliar heavily criticized certain scriptures but were devout Hindus ([[Vaiśnava|Vaishnav]] in his case.) And while orthodox opposition was present, the majority of Indians, including religious leaders, supported reforms, like when Shankaracharya of Kanchi[https://www.kamakoti.org/] supported the "Hindu Religious Endowments Bill" (1921) even while voicing some concerns in within. Mentionable is that [[Shatata-Unnati#Female upliftment|Dr. Muthulakshmi Reddy]] wasn't part of the JP but it still nominated her in 1926 for the Madras Legislative Council to bring about positive changes.

==Related articles==
*[[Women]]
*[[Women as Rishikas in the Vedas]]
*[[Worship of God as Mother]]

==External resources==
*[https://www.ijhsss.com/files/08.-ABHISEK-KARMAKAR_6813z4a4.pdf "Changing status of women in Indian politics (1917-1947): the role of civil society"], P. 42-45 ''International Journal of Humanities & Social Science Studies'' Volume-I, Issue-II (September 2014) By Abhisek Karmakar
*[https://www.besanthill.org/about/history-heritage/annie-besant/ Besant Hill School of Happy Valley in Ojai, California]
*[https://www.anniebesant.org Annie Besant Women's College in Hyderabad, Telangana]
*[https://www.aryasabha.mu/cultural-programme-arya-mahila-mandal-in-the-context-of-the-200th-birth-anniversary-of-swami-dayananda-saraswati/ Arya Mahila Mandal (Mauritius)]
*[https://www.thearyasamaj.org/ammkarolbagh Arya Mahila Mandal Karol Bagh]
*[https://vatikashaktipeeth.com/seven-agitations/women-awakening.html Vatika Shakti Peeth]

==References==
{{reflist}}

[[Category: History]]
[[Category: Economics]]
[[Category: Societal altruism]]

Poetry

2026-06-07T07:04:21Z

Himanshu Bhatt:

Ancient [[hindu]] poetry was composed in metrical form. Poetry has greater beauty and power in conveying the idea. [[Ramayana]] was the first poetical work, hence it is called AdiKavya. [[Chandas]] helped in the birth of various metrical forms used in the hyms to various [[deities]], in the Puranas and other poetical works.

Poetry was an extremely useful means to use language arts to portray principles to audiences. Basava wrote his vachanas, Dnyaneshwar his ovis, Eknath his bharuds, Kabir his dohas, Lal Ded her vakhs (vatsun), Mirabai her pads, Tukaram his abhangs, Tulsidas his chaupais, and other sants wrote in other forms of poetic metres.

[[Category: Entertainment]]
[[Category: Language arts]]

Shatata-Unnati

2026-06-07T06:50:02Z

Himanshu Bhatt: /* Shahu's royal authority to implement reforms */

{{Author|Himanshu Bhatt}}
'Shatata-Unnati' is ''continual change'', 'abhyas' means improvement, 'kram-parivartanam' is ''incremental reformation'', while 'shodhanam' is ''refinement''. All of these terms are descriptive of Hindu society throughout the ages.

Continual social betterment has been one of the defining characteristics of Hindu society. All major cultures have had evils in their histories, including Hindu societies, but the shining examples to enforce positive changes and adaptability to a changing world are the Hinduism, Christianity, and Judaism.

In an era wherein colonial norms meant imprisonment or executions for speaking out against imperial rule, Mahatma Gandhi challenged the ideas of forcing nations to be subservient, fighting oppression by violence, and purging one's own nation of evils (i.e., inequality and superstition.) Today, much of the world still looks to Gandhi's perseverance to bring positive change into society.

Transformation of India's political systems made India into the world's largest democracy, and for accomplishing that, [[Indian Freedom Fighters#INC's Hindu activist roots|Hindu doctrines were rationalize to promote democracy]]. Even in India's political spectrum, Hindu principles were used to make liberalism and communism resonate with people, like Ram Rajya being a communist utopia. Some of the Communist Party of India's [[Indian Freedom Fighters#CPI's Hindu activist roots|founders were idealogues for both communism and Hinduism]], such as Swami Kumaranand, Swami Satyabhakt, and Swami Sahajanand Saraswati, as well as Keezhedathu Damodaran, Radhamohan Gokulji, and Rahul Sankrityayan.

==Comparison in societal reformation (India and Europe)==
:''See also: [[Contribution of Hindu Diaspora]]''
Whereas even in modern times, in most European Christian societies, witch-hunts and slavery were the norm, in Indian Hindu societies, widow-burning was the norm among certain communities (usually northwestern) and caste prejudice was prevalent. Both the Christian and Hindu communities worked to extinguish these and other evils.

Historical societal injustices have been acknowledged and reconciled. Even today, the lasting legacy of important Hindu reformers is visible wherein quotas employment and educational quotas are implemented for social upward mobility to ensure poorer castes and women do not fall behind.

During the colonial era, as human rights improved in Western societies as results from agricultural/economic advancements, Western writers of non-Christian societies took a chauvinistic, parochialist, and Eurocentric approach towards Hindu societies, claiming that they:
#Would never improve in human rights, morality, or rationality
#Are permanently stagnant
#Cannot produce modern or political economic institutions

Critics of the colonial era were proven wrong in these concrete ways:
#Large-scale societal reforms led by Hindu activists themselves improved Hindu societies — i.e., promoting window remarriage and caste integration while also creating quotas for females and historically-disadvantaged castes
#Rapid expansion of education and intellectual mobility — i.e., growth of global Hindu academic presence
#Global economic and corporate leadership — i.e., entrepreneurship and CEOs of major multinational companies like Adobe, Google, and Microsoft
#Democratic political evolution — i.e., maintaining electoral democracies like Hindu-majority nations, providing peaceful transfers of power, and granting significant autonomy to judiciary, press, and civil societies
#Religious and philosophical continuity + adaptation
#Ritual practice has diversified massively by religion and class — i.e., clerics ([[Rta and Spiritual Authority|priests]] and [[ascetics|monks]]) are from many backgrounds
#Reinterpretation of scriptures became internationally influential — i.e., Aldous Huxley loved the perennialism of Upanishads, Erwin Schrödinger the idea of aikatmyam, and Henry David Thoreau that of Ishavasyam
#Non-Hindus from outside of the Indian Subcontinent have converted to Sanatan Dharm and have promoted the religion — James Donald Walters who founded Ananda Sangha, Richard Alpert who founded Hanuman Foundation, John Edwin Favors who founded iFast[https://ifastdc.com/][https://ifastglobal.com/], and Robert Hansen who founded Saiva Siddhanta Church[https://www.himalayanacademy.com/]
#Hindu-based intellectual practices have popularized globally — i.e., [[Ayurveda|Ayurvedic medicine]], divination, political activism, [[Animal rights#Influence upon Westerners|animal rights]], [[Animal_rights#Vegetarianism|vegetarianism]], and [[yoga]]

==Hindu-led social betterment==
What is extraordinary in the case of India is that it was the religious institutions ([[Organizations|Hindu organizations]] and [[Hindu Post-Secondary Institutes|schools]]) that made revolutionary changes, not normally secular or non-Hindu ones. Practicing Hindus saw that superstitious and chauvinistic practices had become institutionalized (caste system and misogyny) within Hindu society, so they formed associations to help, uplift, educate the destitute. They would even go steps further to privilege the marginalized through reservations.

Even women who were more exploratory and not members of specific religions engaged with Hinduism positively. The best example might be Annette Beveridge, an Englishwoman who was the daughter of a Unitarian Christian herself became affiliated with Keshub Chandra Sen in England. She was drawn to his lectures and this fascination with his philosophy inspired her to begin life in India, where she even established<ref>Its expenses were financed by Ananda Mohan Bose and Durga Mohan Das, Dwarkanath Ganguly was its headmaster, and others Brahmos involved with the school were Sibnath Sastri and Monomohun Ghose.</ref> the Hindu Mahila Vidyalaya (''Hindu Women's School''.) Her husband Henry Beveridge was an orientalist (westerners intrigued with Asian cultures) working in India, meaning they were not Westerners critical of Hindu identity. Mrs. Emily Phear was an honorary teacher, and she too was involved in Brahmo Samaji circles for societal development. (Her husband Sir John Budd Phear helped Brahmo Samaj legally.) A non-Hindu that likewise began a girls school (Hindu Female School[https://www.bethunecollegiateschool.com/]) with Brahmos and other Hindus was John Bethune, whose accomplices were Dakshinaranjan Mukherjee, Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar, Ramgopal Ghosh, and Madanmohan Tarkalanka (the last even taught at the school without pay.) Others foreign women in India that engaged positively with Hindu activist organizations were Mary Carpenter[https://southasianbritain.org/people/mary-carpenter/] and Sophia Dobson Collet with Brahmo Samaj, Alma B.R.A. with Arya Samaj, and Mary Hobson with Prarthana Samaj[https://puneprarthanasamaj.org/].

Hindu women that set women's rights activism into motion were Arya Samaj's Lajwanti Sood and Satyavati Devi, and Brahmo Samaj's Kadambini Ganguly and Sarala Devi Chaudhurani. Swarnakumari Devi was both an Arya Samaji and a Brahmo Samaji.

===Female upliftment===
:''See also: [[Indian Freedom Fighters]] 
;Theosophical Society wing
[[image:Paris Women's Congress.jpg|right|thumb|200px|Dr. Reddy and 3 Indian women at the Paris Women's Congress (1926.)]]
The top 3 champions who politically improved Indian women's rights in the modern era were foreigners — Dr. Annie Besant, Dorothy Jinarajadasa, and Margaret Cousins. They did not tell Indian women to leave Hinduism but rather they themselves became Hindu in practice and Indian in habit. They then sought to restore the Vedic-era of womanhood wherein women had authority (i.e., to become clerics, scholars, and leaders.) Emma Mitchell (American) and Francesca Arundale (English) greatly contributed to building of Hindu educational institutions (i.e., Central Hindu College.)

Dr. Muthulakshmi Reddy is a big name in female rights, and she was influenced by Dr. Besant in her college years (1907-1912) and was guided by Dr. Besant in both her social reform and political work. She worked with Dr. Besant and others to establish the Women's Indian Association (1917.) After Dr. Besant's death, she took over the presidency of the WIA. Gandhi was another major mentor but Reddy never formally joined the INC but sometimes protested colonial injustices (i.e., Gandhi's arrest.)

;Ramakrishna Mission wing
[[image:Nivedita & Vivekanand.jpg|right|thumb|200px|Nivedita with Vivekanand.]]
[[Niveditā, Sister|Sister Nivedita (Margaret Noble)]], a convert from Ireland became a disciple of [[Swami Vivekananda|Swami Vivekanand]] and joined Aurobindo's Dawn Society and had also founded and ran girls' schools in Kolkata (i.e., Ramakrishna Sarada Mission Sister Nivedita Girls' School[https://www.sisterniveditagirlsschool.org/home.html] in Baghbazar) to educate girls who had little to no access to education (i.e., poorest of the poor.) She advocated for women's intellectual and moral development, influenced by Vivekanand's vision of strong Indian womanhood. Her work included lectures, fundraising (India, England, and U.S.), and writings that promoted gender equality in access to knowledge and opportunities. She had worked with Dr. Annie Besant at times. Likewise, Sister Christine, disciple of Vivekanand, is another example of a Westerner who utilized the Ramakrishna Mission and Vivekanand's circles as vehicles for improving female rights in India.

;INC wing
:''See also: [[Indian Freedom Fighters#INC's Hindu activist roots|INC's Hindu activist roots]] 
[[image:Nellie Sen Gupta.jpg|right|thumb|100px|N.S. Gupta.]]
Nellie Sen Gupta[https://www.thedailystar.net/in-focus/news/deshpriya-jatindra-mohan-nellie-sengupta-2036981] (nee Edith Ellen Gray) had married freedom fighter Jatindra Mohan Sen Gupta, and both joined the INC — she also founded Deepali Sangha, a women's organization aimed at promoting social and political awareness, leadership, training, and empowerment among women. Her husband passed away but she was advised to stay in the-then East Pakistan to take care of Hindu rights, which she did. Umadevi (born Wanda Dynowska), a Polish convert to Sanatan Dharm too championed women's rights in India and translated ''[[Bhagavad Gita]]'', ''[[Mahabharata]]'', ''[[Ramayana]]'', and other [[Hindu Scriptures|Hindu and Bauddh literature]] into Polish. Mira Behn (born Madeleine Slade), the daughter of a British Royal Navy admiral, gave up her affluent lifestyle to become Gandhi's servant in India.
[[image:Sarla Behn Chipko Movement.jpg|right|thumb|200px|Sarla Behn's Chipko act[https://www.adda247.com/school/chipko-movement/].]]
Sarla Behn[https://growbilliontrees.com/blogs/knowledge/sarla-behn-tree-nurturing-nature-and-empowering-communities-for-a-sustainable-future?srsltid=AfmBOoq4h0d0skQBNr4w4zOvISuhYz02_EXtPvD3pUoQYjTlcvNHEbQ-#fullcontent] (born Catherine Mary Heilman) from England setup the Lakshmi Ashram Kausani in 1946 within Uttarakhand to uplift women, after having lived in the Sevagram Ashram[https://gandhiashramsevagram.org/] in Maharashtra. The organization educated rural hill girls academically, trained women of self-reliance and industrial skills (i.e., khadi weaving), taught personal care (i.e., literacy, hygiene, anti-liquor campaigns), and promoted [[Environmentalism|ecological awareness]] (Chipko Movement.) It also worked with the INC to encourage nationalist fervour. Lakshmi Ashram individual units were known as Mahila Mandals. This ashram attracted foreign residents intrigued with Sanatan Dharm even after independence, like David Hopkins, who relocated to there in the 1990's.
[[image:Durgabai Deshmukh.jpg|right|thumb|100px|Dr. D.D.]]
Dr. Durgabai Deshmukh, pupil of Gandhi and freedom fighter in the colonial era, established the Central Social Welfare Board (1953.) She later became president of the All India Women's Conference (1931.) Taraben Premchand is an important mention, as she was an important member of this organization, as well as the Jain Mahila Parishad[https://www.dbjainsabha.com], Jyoti Sangh[https://jyotisangh.org/about-us/] (local women's advancement group in Gujarat), and Shraddhanand Ashram[https://shraddhanandmahilashram.org/].

Madeleine Rolland was Women's International League for Peace and Freedom's[https://www.wilpf.org/] French section and never settled in India. However, upon engaging with Hindu culture in the 1920's, she translated Ananda Coomaraswamy's ''[[Nataraja Dasakam|The Dance of Shiva]]'' into French, introducing Hinduism to the-then residents of France. She also translated Rabindranath Tagore's writings of Sanatan themes and universal humanism, helping popularize them in Europe. She welcomed Gandhi on his visit to Marseille, France. [[image:Kanuparti Varalakshmamma.jpg|right|thumb|100px|'Sarada'.]]
Kanuparti Varalakshmamma (alias 'Sarada'), a devout Gandhian, used Hindu themes like providing ethical refences (i.e., Savitri, Sita) to depict women's morality, dignity, and conduct. She often engaged with the idea of a grihalakshmi (idea woman of the household.) She also founded the Stree Hitaishini Mandali for uplifting women. She used ''Andhra Patrika'', a newspaper created by a promoter of the ''Bhagavad Gita'', Kasinathuni Nageswara Rao, to preach her ideas.
[[image:Vijaya Lakshmi Pandit.jpg|right|thumb|100px|'Vijaya Lakshmi Pandit'.]]
It is also noteworthy that the 1st female head of government in the world was a [[Bauddh Dharm|Bauddh]] (Sirimavo Bandaranaike of Sri Lanka, non-INC member), and 2nd was a Hindu (Indira Gandhi, INC member.) Also Vijaya Lakshmi Pandit[https://news.un.org/en/story/2024/03/1147327] (born Swaroop Rani Nehru) played a significant role in global representation of women, particularly in the United Nations. She was the first woman to serve as the President of the UN General Assembly (1953-1954), a position she held to advocate for decolonization and the independence of countries in Asia and Africa. Hansa Mehta[https://india.un.org/en/311450-hansa-mehta%E2%80%99s-life-story-continues-inspire] had an impact on the UN's constitution wording wherein "''all human beings''" instead of "all men" in the Universal Declaration of Human Rights. (She was also one of only 2 women delegates working alongside Eleanor Roosevelt in the UN Human Rights Commission 1946-48.)
[[image:Nilla Cram Cook.jpg|right|thumb|100px|'Nilla Nagini Devi'.]]
Nilla Cram Cook, an American who settled at Gandhi's ashrams, had [[Conversion|converted to Hinduism]] in the 1930's but identified with the '[[Samyag Darshan#Samadarshan|sarva dharma sambhava]]' ideal, so considered herself a [[Bhakta|devotee]] of not only [[Krishna]] but of Jesus too, and so she later also translated the Quran and engaged with Islamic practices in a syncretic way with her Hindu and Christian customs. Her final literary work was ''The Way of the Swam: Poems of Kashmir'' (1958), which was mostly focused around the [[Saiva|Shaiv]] mystic poetess Lal Ded[https://hindupost.in/society-culture/lal-ded-her-life-and-works/#][https://homegrown.co.in/homegrown-voices/the-poetry-of-lal-ded-mysticism-resistance-the-female-voice-in-14th-century-kashmir] and others from Kashmir syncretic Sanatan-[[Bauddh Dharm|Bauddh]]-[[Sufism with Vaishnavism|Sufi]] tradition. She dedicated the book to Pandit. She didn't work on women's upliftment directly but did participate with Gandhi's Harijan Sevak Sangh. She had also written about Sarojini Naidu.

;Other associations
[[image:Maharani Chimnabai Gaekwad II.jpg|right|thumb|100px|Maharani Chimnabai.]]
[[image:Sethu Parvathi Bayi.jpg|right|thumb|100px|Junior Queen Bayi.]]
The National Council of Women in India[https://www.ncwi.in/], founded 1925, was also a monumental organization to make progress for women — it mainly focused on female literacy, vocational training, public participation, and legal reform. It was primarily the initiative of Lady Meherbai Tata, a Mazdaean icon, and its first president was Maharani Chimnabai Gaekwad II, born Gajrabai Ghatge, a princess of Dewas (M.P.) She supported societal progress of women that did not compromise on Hindu identity (i.e., traditional customs like wearing sari and sindhoor or like celebrating Raksha Bandhan), which is how she framed her ''The Position of Women in Indian Life'' book. She financed schools for girls, as well as Hindu charities and temples. The Gaekwad family also funded libraries and women's institutions and social reform initiatives. She discussed the eradication or the purdah, child marriage, women's restrictions (i.e., obtaining education and employment), and other obstacles towards advancement. Following her presidentship, Sethu Parvathi Bayi took over. She was from the royal family of Travancore (Kerala), and her family was deeply connected to the Padmanabhaswamy Temple[https://spst.in/][https://www.padmanabhaswamytemple.com/]. She financed Hindu institutions as well. It is notable that Sucharu Deo, daughter of Brahmo leader K.C. Sen was a prominent member and she had also helped build the Maharani Girls' High School[https://school.banglarshiksha.gov.in/ws/website/index/19013701705] in Darjeeling (W.B.) together with her sister (Suniti) and Hemlata Sarkar, daughter of Brahmo leader Sibnath Sastri.

From Hindu-based institutions like sociopolitical organizations and schools came a number of philanthropic associations.
;Most influential persons for women's upliftment
{| class="wikitable sortable"
|-
! Area of Contribution
! Meaning
! Steps Taken
! Activists
! Organizations
! Founder's Affiliation(s)
|-
|Political rights and visibility
|1. Women appearing in public political spaces 2. Women being recognized as leaders (not just participants) 3. Changing social norms about women's public roles 4. Symbolic representation
|Helped institutionalize women's leadership through bodies like Women's Indian Association
|Dr. Annie Besant (women's political rights + organizational leadership), Kamaladevi Chattopadhyay (political participation, economic empowerment, cooperatives), Margaret Cousins[https://www.womensmuseumofireland.ie/exhibits/margaret-elizabeth-cousins] (Suffarage, WIA), Sarojini Naidu (mass mobilization of women in politics)
|
|
|-
|Modern institutional equality
|
|Helped institutionalize institutional equality through contributing policy influence (Hansa Mehta) and constitutional rights (Dr. Durgabai Deshmukh)
|Dr. Durgabai Deshmukh (welfare systems), Hansa Mehta
|
|
|-
|Foundational legal reform
|
|
|Raja Ram Mohan Roy (abolition of sati), Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar (widow remarriage)
|
|
|-
|Education
|
|
|Raja Ram Mohan Roy, Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar
|
|
|-
|}

===Hindu influence internationally===
Even outside of India during the 20th century, women's rights were not perfect, and so many women incorporated Hindu symbolism (i.e., worship) and concepts towards promoting societies where women would have equal rights.
[[image:M.J. Gage.jpg|right|thumb|200px|Matilda Joslyn Gage.]]
[[image: Charlotte Despard.jpg|right|thumb|200px|Charlotte Despard, an Anglo-Irish suffragist who supported Indian independence.]]
As [[Worship of God as Mother|worship of God as a female or mother]] has been common in Sanatan Dharm since its foundation, that made validating female upliftment in India quicker. Even in Western nations, prominent women's rights organizations implemented imagery of goddesses from pertinent ancient cultures, like U.K.'s Women's Freedom League and National Union of Women's Suffrage Societies, and the global International Woman Suffrage Alliance, to legitimize female equality and women being in positions of power. Some Western feminists and women's rights activists, like Matilda Joslyn Gage<ref>"''While the sale of daughters was practiced in England for seven hundred years after the introduction of Christianity, we note that by the ancient law of India, a father was forbidden to sell his daughter in marriage, or receive the smallest present therefor.''" - P. 79-82 ''Woman, Church and State'' (1893) By Matilda Joslyn Gage</ref> (U.S. suffragist) and Helena Petrovna Blavatsky<ref>"''The pre- and post-Vedic woman was as free as man; and no impure terrestrial thought was ever mixed with the religious symbology of the early Aryans.''" 
"''This is proven by the fact that in the Vedic period their women were not placed apart from men in penetralia, or ‘Zenanas.’ Their seclusion began when the Mahomedans … had conquered the land and gradually enforced their ways and customs upon the Hindus.''" 
- P. 379-380 ''The Secret Doctrine: Volume I'' By Helena Blavatsky </ref> (European feminist), even used the examples of [[Worship of God as Mother|Hindu goddess-worship]] and Hindu queens to support their examples. (M.J. Gage[https://www.smithsonianmag.com/history/the-feminist-inspired-witches-of-oz-180985334/] in her ''Woman, Church, and State'' even highlighted Hindu texts to counter the male-centric theology of the West and referenced ''[[Bhagavad Gita]]'' to validate the concept of a female [[divinity]].) Even feminists of the colonial era like Victoria Woodhull that was skeptical of organized religion, respected "''Christna and Buddha''" (Krishna and Gautama.) Mary Lowe Dickinson at the World's Parliament Circles (1893) was so impressed by [[Swami Vivekananda|Swami Vivekanand]]'s speech, that she developed a fascination with female divinity of Hinduism, and in her editorials and public circles, argued that Hinduism's recognition of a feminine aspect within the divine was spiritually superior to the rigidly patriarchal, all-male Trinity of mainstream American Christianity. Emily Pitts Stevens and Charlotte LeMoyne Wills (wrote about the genderless [[Brahm]]) became disciples of Vivekanand. Laura de Force Gordon wrote about the immortal soul and continuous cycle of life. Alice Moore McComas wrote about the interconnectedness (aikatmyam) of all things. In U.K., Charlotte Despard's specific pamphlets linked [[karma]] to political activism. Margaret Louise Sanger was influenced by Vivekanand and Rabindranath Tagore. Sarah Bull<ref> P. 483 ''Western Admirers of Ramakrishna and His Disciples'' By Gopal Stavig, Swami Shuddhidananda </ref>, who particularly focused on women's education and reform was connected to both Vivekanand and Sister Nivedita. Josephine MacLeod was a major promoter of Vivekanand in the West and was involved in transatlantic reform-intellectual networks. Viktoria Ocampo of Argentina was deeply influenced by Tagore, even hosting him in Argentina and promoting his ideas widely. Gabriela Mistral of Chile was too, and she applied Tagore's ideas to women's education, child welfare, and cultural reform. Mabel Dodge Luhan was fascinated with Sanatan philosophy and influenced by Vivekanand. Mentionable is Emma Calve of France, who wasn't a political feminist leader but influential in women's intellectual-cultural circles, and she was deeply influenced by Vivekanand.
[[image:Carol Patrice Christ.jpg|right|thumb|200px|Carol Patrice Christ.]]
After suffragists had attained complete institutional equality, they them progressed to the next stage of female liberation by ensuring that their own spiritual faith wasn't male-chauvinistic or making them subordinates of males. Feminists were inspired by goddess deity of Hinduism to then promote it within generic spirituality. Valerie Saiving, Isaac Bonewits and Naomi Goldenberg founded in the 1970's, Thealogy, a feminine-specific theology. Carol Patrice Christ launched the Goddess Movement, which provided 4 aspects of Goddess symbolism as reasons to needing a goddess in women's lives; 1) the Goddess as affirmation of female power, 2) the female body, 3) the female will, and 4) women's bond and heritage. She specifically used the Shakti concept to prove that a major global religion (Hinduism) explicitly defined the [[Brahmanda|material universe]]/nature/change ([[Darshana#Sankhya|Prakriti]]) as an inherently active, female, and sacred force. She was an ecofeminist, as were Charlene Spretnak and Miriam Simos were ecofeminists too. Merlin Stone wrote ''Ancient Mirrors of Womanhood: Our Goddess and Heroine Heritage'' (1979) and in a chapter analyzes goddesses like [[Durga]], [[Kali]], [[Lakshmi Puja|Lakshmi]], Parvati, and Saraswati. Devout Christian women feminists too drew on Hindu practices and ideas to support women's advocacy, and they include Ivone Gebara, Pearl Sydenstricker Buck, and Sally McFague.

'Matriarchal religion' is a philosophy stating that societies were Goddess worshippers with females having the same status and rights as men before male gods began being worshipped, and the latter led to patriarchy. Goddesses being worshipped contiguously in Hindu societies for thousands of years was the backing this thought utilized, in addition to feminist archaeology (i.e., ancient idols and temples of goddesses uncovered.)

==Start of modern reforms==
In modern India, most positive social changes within Indian Hindu societies came not first as enforcement or pressure from European rulers but from advocacy of forward-thinking Hindus. Raja Ram Mohan Roy had led the campaign to purge Hindu societies of Sati and caste prejudices. Roy worked with British imperial authority, specifically Lord William Bentinck to have sati outlawed. Roy himself was a religious leader that reiterated Upanishads for their principles.

Other institutions of positive social changes were mainly Hindu ones or were governed by Hindu religious leaders, not secular ones.

The Indian National Social Conference of 1887 was organized by Justice Ranade, Rai Raghunath Rao, Narendra Nath Sen Gupta, and Janki Nath Ghoshal. Ranade was founder of the Prarthana Samaj, a religious group.

Arya Samajis, Brahmo Samajis, and Prarthana Samajis were the most vocal and active forces advocating: 
#Widow Remarriage (i.e., Widow Remarriage Act 1856—initiative of Brahmo Samaj)
#Women's right to divorce (i.e., Native Marriage Act 1872—initiative of Brahmo Samaj) 
#Property rights for women 
#Opposition to child marriages (i.e., Age of Consent Act 1891—initiative of Brahmo Samaj and Prarthana Samaj, Child Marriage Restraint Act 1929—initiative of Arya Samaj) 
#Universal accessible education (built schools, including colleges and gurukuls) 
#Caste-based reservations
[[image:Justice Ranade.jpg|right|thumb|200px|Mahadev Govind Ranade (alias 'Justice Ranade'.)]]
[[image:Jagannath Shankarshet.jpg|right|thumb|200px|Jagannath Shankarshet (alias 'Architect of Modern Mumbai'.)]]
The Indian Factories Act 1881's ratification was a landmark in workers' rights and the credit goes mainly to Sorabjee Shapoorjee Bengalee, and then Prarthana Samaj. He did work alongside the Prarthana Samaj to lobby the British authority through the First Factory Commission in 1875 (made to investigate the brutal conditions of Indian labour.) Prarthana Samaj's ''Subodh Patrika'' newspaper specifically critiqued mill owners. Rahnumai Mazdayasnan Sabha, its newspaper ''Rast Goftar'', and Bengalee himself referenced labour reformers Sasipada Banerji and Protap Chunder Mozumdar, and used the former's methods of worker upliftment as a blueprint for their own legislative arguments. Collaboration between the Sabha and Prarthana Samaj began with the latter's creation of the Theistic Association, on which the Parsi Naoroji Furdonji was its 1st Chairman. Ranade and Bhandarkar drove the Association from discussing only theism to improving society through finding solutions of work hardships. The Night School Initiative was launched, helping workers receive adequate training, particularly in labourer-heavy neighborhoods Byculla, Dongri, Khetwadi, and Thakurdwar. (From 1886-1890 alone, over 2,750 industrial workers successfully studied through this initiative.)

Brahmo Samaj's K.C. Sen’s first visit to Mumbai in March-April 1864 engaged him with Bengalee, Furdonji, Ranade, and Bhandarkar (all then members of Young India.) They all discussed ways to develop India. They also shared strategies on how to bypass orthodox religious resistance—Furdonji within Zoroastrianism and Sen within Sanatan Dharm. Bengalee's First Labor Bill (1878) laid the groundwork for the later Indian Factories Act.

Prior to all of this, Jagannath Shankarshet[https://www.vishwakonkani.org/hall-of-fame/hon-jagannath-shankar-sheth/] spent the 1850s petitioning the British Parliament for local governance. As a result, it codified the Indian Councils Act of 1861, thus creating the Bombay Legislative Council as a political body to better govern the-then Bombay Presidency. Shankarshet was the main founder of Bombay Association. In its first leadership were also Dr. Ramachandra Vitthal Lad (alias 'Dr. Bhau Daji'), a Hindu intellectual who used his Sanskrit knowledge to decipher inscriptions, preserve manuscripts, and help reconstruct the forgotten timelines of ancient Guptas and Western Kshatrapa dynasties. Mentionable is the Parsi Sir Jamsetjee Jeejeebhoy of the group. Shankarshet was a wealthy philanthropist that constructed and financed Sanatan and secular infrastructure, most notably the Bhavani Shankar Mandir[https://www.mcgm.gov.in/irj/go/km/docs/documents/D%20Ward/Heritage-Sites/73_Legacy%20of%20D%20Ward_Article_Bhavani%20Shankar%20Temple.pdf] (Mumbai), Sanskrit Seminary and Sanskrit Library (both in Mumbai too.) Elphinstone Educational Institution[https://elphinstone.ac.in/index.php] and Grant Medical College[https://gmcjjh.edu.in/] were his creations too. (Jeejeebhoy contributed to constructing the Grant Medical College.)

===Shahu's royal authority to implement reforms===
[[image:Shahu adoption.jpg|right|thumb|200px|Prince Yeshwantrao Ghatge being adopted by the royal family of Kohlapur.]]
[[image:Rajarshi.jpg|right|thumb|200px|Rajarshi Chhatrapati Shahu Maharaj.]]
[[image:School foundation.jpg|right|thumb|200px|Foundation of Shri Shahu Chhatrapati Shikshan Sanstha.]]
The greatest champion on all of these sections for reforms was Chhatrapati Shahu Maharaj[https://aissms.org/breaking-barriers-chhatrapati-shahu-maharaj-and-his-enduring-impact-on-progress-and-modernity/] (born Yeshwantrao Ghatge), '[[Rta and Spiritual Authority#Rishis|Rajarshi]]', the ruler of Kohlapur Kingdom who affiliated with organizations but probably the Arya Samaj[https://thearyasamaj.org] more than any other. Shahu definitely was not shy to publicly perform prayers, as he famously attended temples of goddesses Ambabai[https://www.mahalaxmikolhapur.com/home] and Bhavani[https://shrituljabhavani.org/] when having returned from his Europe trip in 1902. Also in 1902, Pratap Singh Maharaj of Idhar (Gujarat) introduced and educated him about the Arya Samaj. He provided patronage to the Arya Samaj.[https://navjyot.net/wp-content/uploads/2022/12/10.pdf]

The king passed many policies for for the upliftment of untouchable, nomadic, non-Brahmin communities and for females.<ref>Act of Free and Compulsory Primary Education (1917), Widow remarriage Act (1917), End of Balutedari (1918), Repeal of Kulkarni Watan (1918), Intercaste and Interreligious Marriages and Sanctioning of Registered Marriage Act (1919), Act relating to protection of Harassment of Women (1919), Divorce act (1919), Order on prohibition of Untouchability practice (1919), Illegitimate Children's Rights and Devadasi Prohibition Act (1920); 
[https://www.indiejournal.in/article/rajarshi-shahu-maharaj-and-his-tryst-with-the-arya-samaj "Rajarshi Shahu Maharaj & his tryst with the Arya Samaj Lessons for our times"] By Devkumar Ahire (Jun 26, 2023 6:42 PM)</ref>

;Prejudiced disgruntled castists promoting anti-Brahman hate, not universalism
While Shahu was affiliated with the Satyashodhak Samaj (SS) because it wanted to uplift the non-dwija castes, he did not feel they had any religious foundations, whereas the Arya Samaj was encompassed both a spiritual and social movement.<ref>"Beyond Reformism: Chhatrapati Shahu and Hinduism Reimagined" By Surajkumar Thube P. 124-144 ''Nidān: International Journal for Indian Studies, Volume 8'', Issue 1 (July 2023)</ref> Also, the SS of Pune was antithetical to social cohesion because it targeted the Brahman caste as an enemy, and while its main founder (Jyotirao Phule) made absurd claims like 'Shiv-Dharma'<ref>"''The real Shiv-Dharma that is ours, we are re-establishing it as Sarvajanik Satya Dharma.''" Chapter 4, ''Sarvajanik Satya Pustak''</ref> or 'Mahadev-Dharma' (worship of [[Shiva|Shiv]] as God and some local gods like Khandoba as avatars) being the true religion of Indians whereas every other Hindu belief and practice was an imposition by 'non-Indian Brahman invaders'. Being a chauvinist, he also criticized freedom fighter martyrs Lakshmi Bai, Nana Sahib, Tantia Tope for being Brahmans. He also wrote positively that freedom fighters lost the 1857 War of Independence against the British colonialists. He was also openly criticized by his own relative Baburao Phule, who accused the former of being a Christian convert who destroyed the Hindu religion.<ref>P. 58-59 ''The Caste Question: Dalits and the Politics of Modern India'' (2009) By Anupama Rao </ref>

;Satyashodhak Samaj becoming less anti-Brahman
"''All Hindus are equal. No one is superior, no one is inferior. Let all flesh and blood be one. Four varnas are a real deceit. It's a tool to keep the non-Brahmins in slavery. There is no difference among the Hindus. Hindu is the only varna. If a Hindu eats or marries with another Hindu that's not ''[[adharma]].'' In contrast, what divide Hindus in the name of religion is not a dharma, but a trick by Brahmins. One who calls themselves a Hindu, whether they are Europeans or Africans, they are our coreligionists.''" - P. 39 ''Deshache Dushman'' (1925) By Dinkarrao Javalkar
[[image:Sasipada Banerji.jpg|right|thumb|100px|Sasipada Banerji (alias 'Sevabrata'.)]]
Notable is that Phule's friend Narayan Meghaji Lokhande, a labour organization leader, was close friends with Phule and used Khandoba-worship and the reverence of Sundays for Khandoba in his petition to British authority to achieve Sunday as a holiday for factory labourers. Phule and Lokhande emulated Brahmans, like forming the political lobby group Deenbandhu Sarvajanik Sabha after Ranade's Poona Sarvajanik Sabha and forming the Bombay Mill Hands Association based and its mouthpiece ''Deenbandhu'' on the Working Men's Club (India's 1st labour welfare platform) and its mouthpiece ''Bharat Sramajibi'' (India's 1st labour journal) of Sasipada Banerji (Brahmo Samaji.)

Though Dinkarrao Javalkar portrayed himself as pan-Hindu when discussing the specific topic of Hindu unity, he still prejudicially criticized the Brahman caste in general<ref>"''This day will be counted among the most important days in the history of Hindus. There is no reason for you to fear jail. The Brahmans who eat ghee and roti should have that fear. To make the touchable people behave is in your hands. You are the sons of Hindus. You capture the tank saying 'har har Mahadev' and follow the advice of your leader Dr. Ambedkar Saheb. This is my own position.''" -Dinkarrao Javalkar at satyagraha with Keshavrao Jedhe and Dr. Ambedkar among a Mahar crowd</ref> and targeted some prominent Brahmans like Lokmanya Tilak. (Javalkar and Keshavrao Jedhe also portrayed themselves as pro-woman but derogatory remarks about women from the Brahman and certain other castes<ref>P. 44 ''19th Century Maharashtra: A Reassessment'' (2020) By Shraddha Kumbhojkar </ref> and both appealed to Dr. B.R. Ambedkar in 1927 to exclude Brahmans from the Mahad Satyagraha<ref> P. 27 ''Social Reform Movements in India: A Historical Perspective'' (1991) By V.D. Divekar</ref>.) Jedhe did protest with other activists (including Brahmans like Narhar Vishnu Gadgil, Seshdas Ranade, Shreedhar Mahadev Joshi, and members of Arya Samaj) for the right of Dalits to worship at Pune's Devdeveshwar Mandir[https://devdeveshwarsanthan.org/home.html]. Javalkar did write favourably about some like Ranade, Gopal Ganesh Agarkar, and Krishna Gopal Gokhale but even they were rarely mentioned. He rightfully partook in the Kalaram Mandir[https://www.shrikalaramsansthannasik.org/] Satyagraha in Nasik that protested for Dalits to be able to enter the temple. He was a communist and 10 years after his death, the Peasants and Workers Party (PWP) was formed.

SS branches outside of Pune were less hateful of Brahmans. It is also noteworthy, however, is that Nana Patil, a founder of the PWP, was affiliated with both the Satyashodhak and Prarthana associations [meaning that he, like most other Satyashodhaks didn't believe in Phule's religious ideology.] Some other PWP founders like Jedhe and Madhavrao Bagal were Satyashodhaks, they popularized Shiv Jayanti and Ganesh Chathuri. The latter and his son Vasantrao even wrote devotional pieces inspired from Bhakti Era saints (i.e., [[Tukaram]], [[Eknath]]) and valourizing pieces about Shahu. Tulshidas Jadhav, a Gandian within the PWP, championed the Bhakti Era's Warkari Movement, which was still popular in his time, because it was based on social equality and public seva. Also noteworthy is, that even some prominent members supported the Arya Samaj, like Krishnarao Bhalekar (1 of the founders of SS with Phule) defended Dayanand Saraswati (Arya Samaj’s founder), when the latter’s procession was opposed by some orthodox Hindus in Pune, and Bhalekar organized a speech to be delivered by Saraswati at a dharmshal near a Rokdoba Temple in Pune.

Bhalekar himself made the claim that the SS is the true follower of Sant Tukaram's [[Bhāgavata-dharma|Bhagwat Dharma]] ([[Krishna|Krishnaite]] [[Vaishnava|Vaishnavism]].) His son was Mukundrao Patil, who made the claim, "''The Satyasodhak Samaj is the true heir of the Hindu religion. Brahmanism is not Hinduism.''"<ref>''Dinmitra'' newspaper (1920s)</ref> Javalkar claimed SS is the true representative of the Hindu religion and that SS members are liberating Hinduism from the supremacy of the Brahmins. Shivram Janma Kamble stated the SS is a revival movement of the true Hinduism. Kisan Faguji Bansode argued "Shivdharma" was the true Hindu religion and that the SS advocates that version.

There were those in his organization that promoted about how in ancient Sanatan society, there were no caste distinctions and that people were recognized by their merits. Their view was promoted by Tukaram Tatya Padval, who wrote ''Jatibhed Vivekshar'' (1861) after being inspired by Ashwaghosha's ''Vajrasuchi''. Phule republished copies of Padval's books, and the 2 developed a friendship. He did write at that in ancient India, certain sages were had Sudra or Avarna status but rose to the rank of a Brahman through their intellect, and used examples of Valmiki (wrote a ''Ramayan''), Sankhya, and Kabilar rishis. He also published copies of the ''Bhagavad Gita'', ''Yogasutra'', and compilations of the ''Rajayoga'' and ''Sankhya Karika.'' He further compiled the ''Tukarambaba ani Tyanche Shisya Yanchi Abhanga Gatha'' (1889) and ''Eknath Maharajancha Abhangachi Gatha'' (1903.) Padval, however, never became a member of Phule's organization and instead became a member of the Theosophical Society.

;Shahu forming his own Satyashodhak Samaj focused on upliftment (free of anti-Brahman distractions)
As a result of the Satyashodhak Samaj of Pune being too antagonistic of Brahmans, Shahu had instead founded his own branch in 1911 — Shri Shahu Satyashodhak Samaj. By an order, Shahu replaced the Brahman priests in the Patgaon Sansthan (Mauni Maharaj Math[https://durgbharari.in/maunibaba-patgaon/]) and Jyotiba Devasthan[https://shreejyotiba.com/?lang=E][https://maharashtratourism.gov.in/temple/jyotiba/] with Maratha priests. Bhaskarrao Jadhav and Anna Babaji Latthe were leaders of Shahu's Kolhapur Satyashodhak Samaj. Whereas Phule mostly only wrote positively of Shiva and local-born gods, Jadhav in his ''Marathas and their Religion'' wrote positively about Krishna and the ''Bhagavad Gita''. He further worked with Shahu to aid Arya Samaj in its activities and goals (i.e., train non-Brahmans to become priests too.) Noteworthy is that Latthe, who worked personally with Shahu Maharaj, was its first VP and that he worked to dismantle priestly (Jain priests, not usually Brahmans) intermediation within the Jain clergy. (He was a big-time activist for general upliftment and for reform within the Jain community (i.e., wrote ''Jain Dharmacha Parichay''.)

Latthe founded the Dakshin Bharat Jain Sabha[https://dbjainsabha.com/], of which Dr. Bhaurao Patil (from a Jain family) became a member and through he wasn't a member of any SS branch, he did sometimes participate in its activities and himself founded the Rayat Shikshan Sansthan[https://rayatshikshan.edu/], which educated students in a multitude of topics, including Sanskrit. Patil (alias 'Karmavir Anna') was deeply influenced by Mahatma Gandhi and Vitthal Ramji Shinde.

;Shahu distancing himself formally from Satyashodhak Samaj
The SS had earned a bad reputation in Maharashtra with the general public, particularly for the outright anti-Brahman vitriol spewed in the SS's publications and events. Because the goal of Shahu and true reformers was to achieve a harmonious society with all people cooperating, it would not make sense to support an organization that's known for abusing persons (i.e., Brahmans) specifically over their caste identity.

In 1921, Shahu made a public statement in a Baroda newspaper that even though he granted significant support to the non-Brahman movement and introduced measures to eliminate Brahman dominance, he had never been affiliated with Phule's SS, and that he always accepted [[Rta and Spiritual Authority#Rishis|Vedic ritual authority]].

;Granting, accommodating, and expanding Arya Samaj
Shahu attended Arya Samaj sessions like the one at Navsari in 1918 and another at Bhavnagar in 1920<ref>P. 6. ''People's Raj Volume 30'' (1974) By Directorate-General of Information and Public Relations </ref>. He provided funding for Gurukul Boarding House to be built at Kerle, wherein large buildings and well-irrigated lands were granted to the Arya Samaj. Later, the Rajaram Anathalaya orphanage was added to this grant. He also brought educational institutions in his domain under the leadership of Arya Pratinidhi Sabha. Rajaram College's administration was also granted to the Arya Samaj.

;Spiritual Authority as Rajarshi
Shahu Maharaj, being a devout Sanatan wanted to proclaim the rights that warriors of history had and so participated in important ceremonies and worked with priests (i.e., Brahmans) to achieve the rights to learn and perform Vedic ceremonies. He established the Vedokta Committee for Marathas to be able to perform Vedic rites without requiring priests. In 1905, the Karveer Peeth's (or Kolhapur Math's) Shankaracharya declared full rights of Vedokta to Chhatrapati Shahu.

Tatyarao Joshirao was appointed by Shahu Maharaj as new royal purohit, replacing the Rajopadhye (creator of the infamous 'Vedokta Controversy'), who denied the Maharaj to perform Vedic rites. Joshirao was from a family that had traditional ownership of the historic Binkhambi Ganapati Mandir in Kolhapur.

Rajaram Shastri (alias 'Bhagavata'), a Brahman scholar, linguist, and researcher, openly challenged the religious orthodoxy, arguing from scripture that Shahu Maharaj had full rights to the Vedas. Vishnu Topkhane was another Brahman who greatly helped the Chhatrapati with his progressive reforms. Topkhane the educationalist helped the latter establish the Vidyapeeth High School near the Shri Karveer Niwasini Ambabai Mahalakshmi Temple. Freedom fighter Gokhale was someone who worked with Shahu. When the Vedokta Controversy broke out and the conservative press attacked the Maharaja, Gokhale privately and publicly validated Shahu Maharaj's stance, recognizing that social reform was a prerequisite for true political freedom. Ranade, though passed away before much Shahu's reforms began, was admired by the latter for his progressive ideals and actions.

Chhatrapati Shahu founded the Satyashodhak School for spiritual training in 1913, in which seminarians (predominantly from castes such as Marathas, Mahars, and Chambhars) were taught to recite and preach the poems (i.e., abhangs of Tukaram) of sants. He also created the Shivaji Vedic School (aliases 'Shahu Vedic School', 'Shahu Vedic Pathshala', 'Shri Shahu Vaidik Vidyalay') in 1920 and had invited scholars from Varanasi (spiritual capital of Sanatan Dharm) to ensure the highest standard of scriptural and linguistic training. The school trained seminarians (of all castes) to learn Sanskrit and become priests and conduct ceremonies. He further established and financed the office of the Kshatra Jagadguru (''Warrior Universal Teacher''), a pontiff seat open to anyone of any caste. The first Kshatra Jagadguru was Sadashivrao Lakshmanrao Sankpal Patil Benadikar, was an accomplished Sanskrit scholar who received his formal higher education at Rajaram College in Kolhapur. The Kshatra Jagadguru Peeth was the pontiff's seat at Patgaon (in the Bhudargad region of Kolhapur.) Patgaon was chosen because it was the historic site of the Mauni Maharaj Math, a highly respected spiritual center that had historically blessed Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj[https://pilgrimdata.in/temple/mouni-maharaj-math-temple-patgaon-bhudargarh-dist-kolhapur/]. The Kshatra Jagadguru had the Shri Sadashivrao Patil Shikshan Sanstha educationalist association named after him, and it runs schools[https://www.mwssm.org/][https://sspiop.com/] in Maharashtra still. Other organizations too use his name for schools like Sadashivrao Mandlik Mahavidyalaya (Kolhapur) of the ⁠Jay Shivray Education Society.

===Successive associations===
From Hindu-based institutions like sociopolitical organizations and schools came a number of philanthropic associations. Even other humanitarian associations that were not established by Hindu activists, were established by their influence. For example, Krishna Gopal Gokhale had participated in many sessions of the Prarthana Samaj as he was Ranade's pupil, and he later joined the Deccan Education Society, which he left to establish the Servants of India Society. Narayan Malhar Joshi was a member of Gokhale's group and later formed his own Social Service League[https://socialserviceleague.org.in/]. Hriday Nath Kunzru too was part of Gokhale's group and left to establish the Seva Samiti.

{| class="wikitable sortable"
|-
! Organization
! Demographic of Focus
! Region(s)
! Founder
! Founder's Affiliation(s)
! Achievement
|-
|Anath Balikashram Society
|Widows
|Maharashtra
|Dhondo Keshav Karve
|Educated at BHU
|
|-
|Andhra Mahila Sabha
|Females
|Andhra Pradesh
|Durgabai Deshmukh
|
|
|-
|Bharat Stree Mahamandal
|Females
|Bengal, Bihar, Punjab, Sindh, U.P.
|Sarala Devi Chaudhurani
|Arya Samaji, Brahmo Samaji, accepted Bijoy Krishna Chattopadhyaya as her guru
|
|-
|Central Social Welfare Board
|Females and children
|
|Dr. Durgabai Deshmukh
|
|
|-
|Hindu Widow Marriage Association
|Females
|Maharashtra
|Dhondo Keshav Karve
|Educated at BHU
|
|-
|Hindustani Seva Dal
|Females
|Every province
|Dr. Narayan Subbarao Hardikar
|
|Established the Hindustani Seva Mandal (later became Rashtriya Seva Dal) in 1923, established the Arya Bala Sabha, taught the Gita during his student days in Kolkata, was a fan of Lokmanya Tilak, and had enthusiastically worked with Lala Rai
|-
|Indian Reform Association
|Females
|West Bengal
|Keshub Chandra Sen
|
|Brahmo Samaji, founded ''Sulabh Samachar'' as weekly newspaper of group
|-
|Kasthurbha Gandhi Kanya Gurukulam[http://www.kgkgurukulam.org/]
|Girls
|Tamil Nadu (Vedaranyam)
|Vedaratnam Pillai
|
|Involved in temple-based philanthropy and donated to Sri Ramakrishna Mission too
|-
|Lakshmi Ashram
|Females
|Uttarakhand
|Sarla Behn
|
|Established individual Mahila Mandals throughout Uttarakhand and promoted important skills as well as ecological awareness
|-
|Lokahitawadi Mandal
|Females and males
|Maharashtra
|Vishnu Vaman Shirwadkar
|
|Wrote about Hindu themes, including persons from scriptures and about Shivaji poetically, philosophically, and nationally
|-
|Maharshi Karve Stree Shikshan Samstha
|Females
|Maharashtra
|Dhondo Keshav Karve
|Educated at BHU
|
|-
|Mahila Vidyalaya (Pune)
|Females
|Maharashtra
|Dhondo Keshav Karve
|Educated at BHU
|
|-
|Nishkam Karma Math
|Females
|Maharashtra
|Dhondo Keshav Karve
|Educated at BHU
|
|-
|Poona Seva Sadan
|Females
|Maharashtra (at its peak, included M.P. and T.N.)
|Ramabai Ranade
|
|
|-
|Samata Sangh
|Men and Women
|Maharashtra
|Dhondo Keshav Karve
|Educated at BHU
|
|-
|Self Employed Women's Association (SEWA)
|Females
|18 states
|Ela Bhatt
|Gandhian Textile Labour Association
|Established: own bank (Shri Mahila Sewa Sahakari Bank, or 'SEWA Cooperative Bank'), SEWA Mahila Housing Trust
|-
|Servants of the People Society
|Females
|Kerala, Maharashtra, M.P., Odisha T.N., Uttarakhand U.P.
|
|
|
|-
|Shraddhanand Ashram[https://shraddhanandmahilashram.org] (alias Hindu Women's Welfare Society)
|Females and boys
|Maharashtra (Mumbai)
|Swami Shraddhanand
|
|Has cared for thousands of destitute women and orphans, and educated them and provided skills development, as well as fostered personal development
|-
|Stree Hitaishini Mandali
|Females
|Andhra Pradesh
|Kanuparti Varalakshmamma
|
|Educated many females
|-
|Widow Marriage Association
|Females
|Maharashtra
|Dhondo Keshav Karve
|Educated at BHU
|
|-
|}

==Inspiration to Madras Presidency==
[[image:M.C. Rajah.jpg|right|thumb|200px|Mylai Chinna Thambi Pillai Rajah (the real 'Periyar'.)]]
While the Arya Samaj, Brahmo Samaj, Prarthana Samaj, and a host of other Hindu-based humanitarian and sociopolitical institutions existed in the-then Madras Presidency of southern India, they inspired local organizations as well. Shahu Maharaj had friends in the-then Justice Party (JP, est. 1916), like Arcot Ramasamy Mudaliar and Panaganti Ramarayaningar. While some ethnic groups, like certain castes even falsely supported the idea of an 'Aryan Invasion Theory' and themselves (Dravidian-languages speakers) as indigenous, they still appreciated Hinduism and did not consider it alien.

The biggest uplifter of the party was M.C. Rajah, who had the highest influence upon the policies that improved the lives of the Dalits in Madras Presidency. The party itself was founded primarily by 3 individuals — Sir Pitti Theagaraya Chetty (political founder who built the political machine), Dr. Taravath Madhavan Nair (ideological co-founder), and Dr. Chintadripet Natesa Mudaliar (cultural/grassroots mobilizer who helped shape cultural legitimacy.) Dr. Nair had said that Hindu society had originally possessed broader equality before caste dominance hardened it. Chetty occasionally used dharm-based ethical framing. He is consistently described as arguing that governance must align with "''dharma and justice''". The Dr. Mudaliar was a devout Shaiva that infused into the party Shaivism as a cultural identity for southerners.
[[image:P.T. Rajan.jpg|right|thumb|200px|P.T. Rajan (centre-right, wearing glasses next to priest), touring with the idol of [[Ayyappan|Ayyappa]] he had made at Swamimalai Temple[https://swamimalaiswaminathar.hrce.tn.gov.in/] and it was placed in the Sabarimala Temple[https://www.sabarimalauptodate.in/].]]
An ideologue of influence to the JP and Self-Respect Movement was Maraimalai Adigal, a Shaiv preacher and writer, who claimed that both the JP and Self-Respect Movement were from his teachings and that militant atheist Erode Venkatappa Ramasami Naicker had hijacked them. JP founder Dr. Nair died in 1919 and Chetty in 1925, so had no interaction Naicker. Ponnambala Thiaga Rajan was an active party member and disagreed with Naicker's ideology, so joined Congress-aligned politics. Mudaliar died in 1935 around the time Naicker entered the JP. Naicker was also a prejudiced castist that criticized but did not contribute to build schools and shelters for women and children, as Rajah[https://www.news18.com/opinion/opinion-m-c-rajah-the-forgotten-hindu-mahasabha-dalit-8937192.html][https://vskbharat.com/m-c-rajah-a-staunch-hindu-leader/?lang=en][https://thecommunemag.com/m-c-rajah-the-hindu-mahasabha-dalit/], a practicing Hindu of the party did. Rajah even once formed a political alliance with the Hindu Mahasabha, was the contributor. Before Rajah, the party's caste disparity was mainly about civil service occupations and education access for underprivileged castes. Rajah was recommended by Ambedkar to convert but Rajah replied there's no religion better than Hinduism.<ref>P. 92 ''The Political Evolution of Muslims in Tamilnadu and Madras, 1930-1947'' By J.B. Prashant More (1997) </ref><ref> In a public meeting of the All India Adi Dravida Mahajana Sabha in Nungambakkam, Chennai he said, "''The president (of this meeting) mentioned that no other community other than us has more right to be called Hindus. Conversion will not bring about any good. By saying so, I am not undermining or wishing away the oppression and ills we have faced. We need to fight for our rights. The speed at which reforms are happening might be slow. But think about our current situation and how much it has improved. I beseech you to please abandon any move that will weaken us. I request the government to bring about the Untouchability Abolition Bill and pass it quickly. The Harijans are proud Hindus. That is the only reason why even after years of oppression by higher castes and a barrage of proselytization efforts by other religions hasn't changed their resolve being Hindus.''" P. 123 ''Evolution of Hindu Nationalism - Icons of HMS, RSS & BJS'' By Sankara Narayanan T (2025)</ref> Adigal's writings had a profound impact on Subramania Ramanathan, the founder of the Self-Respect Movement, and on the Naicker but the latter only wanted pro-Tamil and castist societal changes, not promotion of Shaivism. Naicker would later break away from the party and form his own Dravidar Kazhagam, a title he copied from Adigal's Shaiv association (Podhunilak Kazhagam.) (His own pupil, Conjeevaram Natarajan Annadurai, would eventually disown him after he married his own adopted daughter, and Annadurai would leave his group.)
[[image:Alamelu.jpg|right|thumb|200px|Alamelu Mangai Thayarammal, a Brahmo Samaji, was co-founder of the party among 29 others (all men.)]]
The Hindu sentiment was definitely present in the JP. Many left after Naicker's hijacking. Important members bothered by Naicker's rhetoric apart from Rajan were Ananda Prasad Patro, Arunachalam Thamaraiselvam Panneerselvam, Muthiah Annamalai Chettiar, Ramasamy Kandasamy Shanmukham Chetty, and Subbarayalu Kumaraswami Reddiar. Chettiar even personally regularly donated to temple renovations, endowing temple lands or festivals, supporting pilgrimage facilities, and Hindu-managed schools. Rajan, the last leader of the JP, was the head-of-government of the Presidency, and was a big devotee a [[Ayyappan|Swami Ayyappa]]. Rajan even solemnized a marriage of a German couple converted to Hinduism in Coimbatore (Oct 31, 1962.) He further discouraged conversion of Dalits from Hinduism to another religion<ref>"''If by mass conversion you expect to achieve your object, you will be disappointed, because of a mere change of religion it will not give you all that you want.''" 
P. 147 ''Sir P. T. Rajan's Eighty Second Birthday Souvenir, 1973'' By P.T. Rajan and K. Paramasivam</ref> while encouraging caste-Hindus to better treat Dalits. His family had deep ties to the Meenakshi Amman Temple[https://maduraimeenakshi.hrce.tn.gov.in/] in Madurai, with his son (Palanivel Rajan), serving as a minister, and his daughter-in-law (Rukmani), serving as the first female chairperson of the temple's board of trustees. His predecessor Ramakrishna Ranga Rao denied that the JP was anti-Hindu and declared that it aimed to purify Hindu society from "''absurdities''" and return "''Hinduism greater and more glorious than it was in the past...''"<ref>"''As I understand it, the Self-Respect movement stands for certain great ideals to make Hinduism greater and more glorious than it was in the past, to rid it of all those absurdities which are the accretions of an unfortunate era of the past, and unite us in a solid federation so that all those who profess to follow the Hindu faith may feel that they are brethren following one of the most ancient and glorious religions of the world. No longer should the foreigner point his finger of scorn at this or that particular phase of Hinduism which belies its cosmopolitan tendency by inflicting personal hardship on classes or communities. If a few youths in their exuberant enthusiasm have been carried away beyond the bounds of Hinduism it will not do to fight shy of the new movements, but political wisdom and sagacity lie in taking them into our fold and guiding them aright along the paths of duty and rectitude.''" 
P. 289 ''The Indian Annual Register An Annual Digest of Public Affairs of India Recording the Nation's Activities Each Year in Matters Political, Economic, Industrial, Educational, Social, Etc · Volume 2'' By Nipendra Nath Mitra (1934)</ref> Alamelu Mangai Thayarammal, conferred 'Pandithai' title by Saiva Sabha in Palamcottah, was a JP co-founder [with 29 co-founders being men] who was a Brahmo Samaji, meaning the influence of the Hindu-based organizations wasn't insignificant. Paramasivan Subbarayan Gounder, while not technically a JP member, worked with it closely, and both he and his women's rights activist wife Kailash Radhabai Kulmud were Brahmos. It is also noteworthy that [[Ascetics|ascetic]] Swamiyar Kaivalyar who supported the party without being a member wrote pro-Shaiv material. Cattamanchi Ramalinga Reddy, an ex-member who formed his own party in 1923 was a close friend of Dr. Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan, and he himself engaged with Hindu texts on a literary artistic level. As Hinduism isn't a scripture-dependent religion, some JP members like A.R. Mudaliar heavily criticized certain scriptures but were devout Hindus ([[Vaiśnava|Vaishnav]] in his case.) And while orthodox opposition was present, the majority of Indians, including religious leaders, supported reforms, like when Shankaracharya of Kanchi[https://www.kamakoti.org/] supported the "Hindu Religious Endowments Bill" (1921) even while voicing some concerns in within. Mentionable is that [[Shatata-Unnati#Female upliftment|Dr. Muthulakshmi Reddy]] wasn't part of the JP but it still nominated her in 1926 for the Madras Legislative Council to bring about positive changes.

==Related articles==
*[[Women]]
*[[Women as Rishikas in the Vedas]]
*[[Worship of God as Mother]]

==External resources==
*[https://www.ijhsss.com/files/08.-ABHISEK-KARMAKAR_6813z4a4.pdf "Changing status of women in Indian politics (1917-1947): the role of civil society"], P. 42-45 ''International Journal of Humanities & Social Science Studies'' Volume-I, Issue-II (September 2014) By Abhisek Karmakar
*[https://www.besanthill.org/about/history-heritage/annie-besant/ Besant Hill School of Happy Valley in Ojai, California]
*[https://www.anniebesant.org Annie Besant Women's College in Hyderabad, Telangana]
*[https://www.aryasabha.mu/cultural-programme-arya-mahila-mandal-in-the-context-of-the-200th-birth-anniversary-of-swami-dayananda-saraswati/ Arya Mahila Mandal (Mauritius)]
*[https://www.thearyasamaj.org/ammkarolbagh Arya Mahila Mandal Karol Bagh]
*[https://vatikashaktipeeth.com/seven-agitations/women-awakening.html Vatika Shakti Peeth]

==References==
{{reflist}}

[[Category: History]]
[[Category: Economics]]
[[Category: Societal altruism]]

Shatata-Unnati

2026-06-07T06:11:30Z

Himanshu Bhatt: /* Shahu's royal authority to implement reforms */

{{Author|Himanshu Bhatt}}
'Shatata-Unnati' is ''continual change'', 'abhyas' means improvement, 'kram-parivartanam' is ''incremental reformation'', while 'shodhanam' is ''refinement''. All of these terms are descriptive of Hindu society throughout the ages.

Continual social betterment has been one of the defining characteristics of Hindu society. All major cultures have had evils in their histories, including Hindu societies, but the shining examples to enforce positive changes and adaptability to a changing world are the Hinduism, Christianity, and Judaism.

In an era wherein colonial norms meant imprisonment or executions for speaking out against imperial rule, Mahatma Gandhi challenged the ideas of forcing nations to be subservient, fighting oppression by violence, and purging one's own nation of evils (i.e., inequality and superstition.) Today, much of the world still looks to Gandhi's perseverance to bring positive change into society.

Transformation of India's political systems made India into the world's largest democracy, and for accomplishing that, [[Indian Freedom Fighters#INC's Hindu activist roots|Hindu doctrines were rationalize to promote democracy]]. Even in India's political spectrum, Hindu principles were used to make liberalism and communism resonate with people, like Ram Rajya being a communist utopia. Some of the Communist Party of India's [[Indian Freedom Fighters#CPI's Hindu activist roots|founders were idealogues for both communism and Hinduism]], such as Swami Kumaranand, Swami Satyabhakt, and Swami Sahajanand Saraswati, as well as Keezhedathu Damodaran, Radhamohan Gokulji, and Rahul Sankrityayan.

==Comparison in societal reformation (India and Europe)==
:''See also: [[Contribution of Hindu Diaspora]]''
Whereas even in modern times, in most European Christian societies, witch-hunts and slavery were the norm, in Indian Hindu societies, widow-burning was the norm among certain communities (usually northwestern) and caste prejudice was prevalent. Both the Christian and Hindu communities worked to extinguish these and other evils.

Historical societal injustices have been acknowledged and reconciled. Even today, the lasting legacy of important Hindu reformers is visible wherein quotas employment and educational quotas are implemented for social upward mobility to ensure poorer castes and women do not fall behind.

During the colonial era, as human rights improved in Western societies as results from agricultural/economic advancements, Western writers of non-Christian societies took a chauvinistic, parochialist, and Eurocentric approach towards Hindu societies, claiming that they:
#Would never improve in human rights, morality, or rationality
#Are permanently stagnant
#Cannot produce modern or political economic institutions

Critics of the colonial era were proven wrong in these concrete ways:
#Large-scale societal reforms led by Hindu activists themselves improved Hindu societies — i.e., promoting window remarriage and caste integration while also creating quotas for females and historically-disadvantaged castes
#Rapid expansion of education and intellectual mobility — i.e., growth of global Hindu academic presence
#Global economic and corporate leadership — i.e., entrepreneurship and CEOs of major multinational companies like Adobe, Google, and Microsoft
#Democratic political evolution — i.e., maintaining electoral democracies like Hindu-majority nations, providing peaceful transfers of power, and granting significant autonomy to judiciary, press, and civil societies
#Religious and philosophical continuity + adaptation
#Ritual practice has diversified massively by religion and class — i.e., clerics ([[Rta and Spiritual Authority|priests]] and [[ascetics|monks]]) are from many backgrounds
#Reinterpretation of scriptures became internationally influential — i.e., Aldous Huxley loved the perennialism of Upanishads, Erwin Schrödinger the idea of aikatmyam, and Henry David Thoreau that of Ishavasyam
#Non-Hindus from outside of the Indian Subcontinent have converted to Sanatan Dharm and have promoted the religion — James Donald Walters who founded Ananda Sangha, Richard Alpert who founded Hanuman Foundation, John Edwin Favors who founded iFast[https://ifastdc.com/][https://ifastglobal.com/], and Robert Hansen who founded Saiva Siddhanta Church[https://www.himalayanacademy.com/]
#Hindu-based intellectual practices have popularized globally — i.e., [[Ayurveda|Ayurvedic medicine]], divination, political activism, [[Animal rights#Influence upon Westerners|animal rights]], [[Animal_rights#Vegetarianism|vegetarianism]], and [[yoga]]

==Hindu-led social betterment==
What is extraordinary in the case of India is that it was the religious institutions ([[Organizations|Hindu organizations]] and [[Hindu Post-Secondary Institutes|schools]]) that made revolutionary changes, not normally secular or non-Hindu ones. Practicing Hindus saw that superstitious and chauvinistic practices had become institutionalized (caste system and misogyny) within Hindu society, so they formed associations to help, uplift, educate the destitute. They would even go steps further to privilege the marginalized through reservations.

Even women who were more exploratory and not members of specific religions engaged with Hinduism positively. The best example might be Annette Beveridge, an Englishwoman who was the daughter of a Unitarian Christian herself became affiliated with Keshub Chandra Sen in England. She was drawn to his lectures and this fascination with his philosophy inspired her to begin life in India, where she even established<ref>Its expenses were financed by Ananda Mohan Bose and Durga Mohan Das, Dwarkanath Ganguly was its headmaster, and others Brahmos involved with the school were Sibnath Sastri and Monomohun Ghose.</ref> the Hindu Mahila Vidyalaya (''Hindu Women's School''.) Her husband Henry Beveridge was an orientalist (westerners intrigued with Asian cultures) working in India, meaning they were not Westerners critical of Hindu identity. Mrs. Emily Phear was an honorary teacher, and she too was involved in Brahmo Samaji circles for societal development. (Her husband Sir John Budd Phear helped Brahmo Samaj legally.) A non-Hindu that likewise began a girls school (Hindu Female School[https://www.bethunecollegiateschool.com/]) with Brahmos and other Hindus was John Bethune, whose accomplices were Dakshinaranjan Mukherjee, Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar, Ramgopal Ghosh, and Madanmohan Tarkalanka (the last even taught at the school without pay.) Others foreign women in India that engaged positively with Hindu activist organizations were Mary Carpenter[https://southasianbritain.org/people/mary-carpenter/] and Sophia Dobson Collet with Brahmo Samaj, Alma B.R.A. with Arya Samaj, and Mary Hobson with Prarthana Samaj[https://puneprarthanasamaj.org/].

Hindu women that set women's rights activism into motion were Arya Samaj's Lajwanti Sood and Satyavati Devi, and Brahmo Samaj's Kadambini Ganguly and Sarala Devi Chaudhurani. Swarnakumari Devi was both an Arya Samaji and a Brahmo Samaji.

===Female upliftment===
:''See also: [[Indian Freedom Fighters]] 
;Theosophical Society wing
[[image:Paris Women's Congress.jpg|right|thumb|200px|Dr. Reddy and 3 Indian women at the Paris Women's Congress (1926.)]]
The top 3 champions who politically improved Indian women's rights in the modern era were foreigners — Dr. Annie Besant, Dorothy Jinarajadasa, and Margaret Cousins. They did not tell Indian women to leave Hinduism but rather they themselves became Hindu in practice and Indian in habit. They then sought to restore the Vedic-era of womanhood wherein women had authority (i.e., to become clerics, scholars, and leaders.) Emma Mitchell (American) and Francesca Arundale (English) greatly contributed to building of Hindu educational institutions (i.e., Central Hindu College.)

Dr. Muthulakshmi Reddy is a big name in female rights, and she was influenced by Dr. Besant in her college years (1907-1912) and was guided by Dr. Besant in both her social reform and political work. She worked with Dr. Besant and others to establish the Women's Indian Association (1917.) After Dr. Besant's death, she took over the presidency of the WIA. Gandhi was another major mentor but Reddy never formally joined the INC but sometimes protested colonial injustices (i.e., Gandhi's arrest.)

;Ramakrishna Mission wing
[[image:Nivedita & Vivekanand.jpg|right|thumb|200px|Nivedita with Vivekanand.]]
[[Niveditā, Sister|Sister Nivedita (Margaret Noble)]], a convert from Ireland became a disciple of [[Swami Vivekananda|Swami Vivekanand]] and joined Aurobindo's Dawn Society and had also founded and ran girls' schools in Kolkata (i.e., Ramakrishna Sarada Mission Sister Nivedita Girls' School[https://www.sisterniveditagirlsschool.org/home.html] in Baghbazar) to educate girls who had little to no access to education (i.e., poorest of the poor.) She advocated for women's intellectual and moral development, influenced by Vivekanand's vision of strong Indian womanhood. Her work included lectures, fundraising (India, England, and U.S.), and writings that promoted gender equality in access to knowledge and opportunities. She had worked with Dr. Annie Besant at times. Likewise, Sister Christine, disciple of Vivekanand, is another example of a Westerner who utilized the Ramakrishna Mission and Vivekanand's circles as vehicles for improving female rights in India.

;INC wing
:''See also: [[Indian Freedom Fighters#INC's Hindu activist roots|INC's Hindu activist roots]] 
[[image:Nellie Sen Gupta.jpg|right|thumb|100px|N.S. Gupta.]]
Nellie Sen Gupta[https://www.thedailystar.net/in-focus/news/deshpriya-jatindra-mohan-nellie-sengupta-2036981] (nee Edith Ellen Gray) had married freedom fighter Jatindra Mohan Sen Gupta, and both joined the INC — she also founded Deepali Sangha, a women's organization aimed at promoting social and political awareness, leadership, training, and empowerment among women. Her husband passed away but she was advised to stay in the-then East Pakistan to take care of Hindu rights, which she did. Umadevi (born Wanda Dynowska), a Polish convert to Sanatan Dharm too championed women's rights in India and translated ''[[Bhagavad Gita]]'', ''[[Mahabharata]]'', ''[[Ramayana]]'', and other [[Hindu Scriptures|Hindu and Bauddh literature]] into Polish. Mira Behn (born Madeleine Slade), the daughter of a British Royal Navy admiral, gave up her affluent lifestyle to become Gandhi's servant in India.
[[image:Sarla Behn Chipko Movement.jpg|right|thumb|200px|Sarla Behn's Chipko act[https://www.adda247.com/school/chipko-movement/].]]
Sarla Behn[https://growbilliontrees.com/blogs/knowledge/sarla-behn-tree-nurturing-nature-and-empowering-communities-for-a-sustainable-future?srsltid=AfmBOoq4h0d0skQBNr4w4zOvISuhYz02_EXtPvD3pUoQYjTlcvNHEbQ-#fullcontent] (born Catherine Mary Heilman) from England setup the Lakshmi Ashram Kausani in 1946 within Uttarakhand to uplift women, after having lived in the Sevagram Ashram[https://gandhiashramsevagram.org/] in Maharashtra. The organization educated rural hill girls academically, trained women of self-reliance and industrial skills (i.e., khadi weaving), taught personal care (i.e., literacy, hygiene, anti-liquor campaigns), and promoted [[Environmentalism|ecological awareness]] (Chipko Movement.) It also worked with the INC to encourage nationalist fervour. Lakshmi Ashram individual units were known as Mahila Mandals. This ashram attracted foreign residents intrigued with Sanatan Dharm even after independence, like David Hopkins, who relocated to there in the 1990's.
[[image:Durgabai Deshmukh.jpg|right|thumb|100px|Dr. D.D.]]
Dr. Durgabai Deshmukh, pupil of Gandhi and freedom fighter in the colonial era, established the Central Social Welfare Board (1953.) She later became president of the All India Women's Conference (1931.) Taraben Premchand is an important mention, as she was an important member of this organization, as well as the Jain Mahila Parishad[https://www.dbjainsabha.com], Jyoti Sangh[https://jyotisangh.org/about-us/] (local women's advancement group in Gujarat), and Shraddhanand Ashram[https://shraddhanandmahilashram.org/].

Madeleine Rolland was Women's International League for Peace and Freedom's[https://www.wilpf.org/] French section and never settled in India. However, upon engaging with Hindu culture in the 1920's, she translated Ananda Coomaraswamy's ''[[Nataraja Dasakam|The Dance of Shiva]]'' into French, introducing Hinduism to the-then residents of France. She also translated Rabindranath Tagore's writings of Sanatan themes and universal humanism, helping popularize them in Europe. She welcomed Gandhi on his visit to Marseille, France. [[image:Kanuparti Varalakshmamma.jpg|right|thumb|100px|'Sarada'.]]
Kanuparti Varalakshmamma (alias 'Sarada'), a devout Gandhian, used Hindu themes like providing ethical refences (i.e., Savitri, Sita) to depict women's morality, dignity, and conduct. She often engaged with the idea of a grihalakshmi (idea woman of the household.) She also founded the Stree Hitaishini Mandali for uplifting women. She used ''Andhra Patrika'', a newspaper created by a promoter of the ''Bhagavad Gita'', Kasinathuni Nageswara Rao, to preach her ideas.
[[image:Vijaya Lakshmi Pandit.jpg|right|thumb|100px|'Vijaya Lakshmi Pandit'.]]
It is also noteworthy that the 1st female head of government in the world was a [[Bauddh Dharm|Bauddh]] (Sirimavo Bandaranaike of Sri Lanka, non-INC member), and 2nd was a Hindu (Indira Gandhi, INC member.) Also Vijaya Lakshmi Pandit[https://news.un.org/en/story/2024/03/1147327] (born Swaroop Rani Nehru) played a significant role in global representation of women, particularly in the United Nations. She was the first woman to serve as the President of the UN General Assembly (1953-1954), a position she held to advocate for decolonization and the independence of countries in Asia and Africa. Hansa Mehta[https://india.un.org/en/311450-hansa-mehta%E2%80%99s-life-story-continues-inspire] had an impact on the UN's constitution wording wherein "''all human beings''" instead of "all men" in the Universal Declaration of Human Rights. (She was also one of only 2 women delegates working alongside Eleanor Roosevelt in the UN Human Rights Commission 1946-48.)
[[image:Nilla Cram Cook.jpg|right|thumb|100px|'Nilla Nagini Devi'.]]
Nilla Cram Cook, an American who settled at Gandhi's ashrams, had [[Conversion|converted to Hinduism]] in the 1930's but identified with the '[[Samyag Darshan#Samadarshan|sarva dharma sambhava]]' ideal, so considered herself a [[Bhakta|devotee]] of not only [[Krishna]] but of Jesus too, and so she later also translated the Quran and engaged with Islamic practices in a syncretic way with her Hindu and Christian customs. Her final literary work was ''The Way of the Swam: Poems of Kashmir'' (1958), which was mostly focused around the [[Saiva|Shaiv]] mystic poetess Lal Ded[https://hindupost.in/society-culture/lal-ded-her-life-and-works/#][https://homegrown.co.in/homegrown-voices/the-poetry-of-lal-ded-mysticism-resistance-the-female-voice-in-14th-century-kashmir] and others from Kashmir syncretic Sanatan-[[Bauddh Dharm|Bauddh]]-[[Sufism with Vaishnavism|Sufi]] tradition. She dedicated the book to Pandit. She didn't work on women's upliftment directly but did participate with Gandhi's Harijan Sevak Sangh. She had also written about Sarojini Naidu.

;Other associations
[[image:Maharani Chimnabai Gaekwad II.jpg|right|thumb|100px|Maharani Chimnabai.]]
[[image:Sethu Parvathi Bayi.jpg|right|thumb|100px|Junior Queen Bayi.]]
The National Council of Women in India[https://www.ncwi.in/], founded 1925, was also a monumental organization to make progress for women — it mainly focused on female literacy, vocational training, public participation, and legal reform. It was primarily the initiative of Lady Meherbai Tata, a Mazdaean icon, and its first president was Maharani Chimnabai Gaekwad II, born Gajrabai Ghatge, a princess of Dewas (M.P.) She supported societal progress of women that did not compromise on Hindu identity (i.e., traditional customs like wearing sari and sindhoor or like celebrating Raksha Bandhan), which is how she framed her ''The Position of Women in Indian Life'' book. She financed schools for girls, as well as Hindu charities and temples. The Gaekwad family also funded libraries and women's institutions and social reform initiatives. She discussed the eradication or the purdah, child marriage, women's restrictions (i.e., obtaining education and employment), and other obstacles towards advancement. Following her presidentship, Sethu Parvathi Bayi took over. She was from the royal family of Travancore (Kerala), and her family was deeply connected to the Padmanabhaswamy Temple[https://spst.in/][https://www.padmanabhaswamytemple.com/]. She financed Hindu institutions as well. It is notable that Sucharu Deo, daughter of Brahmo leader K.C. Sen was a prominent member and she had also helped build the Maharani Girls' High School[https://school.banglarshiksha.gov.in/ws/website/index/19013701705] in Darjeeling (W.B.) together with her sister (Suniti) and Hemlata Sarkar, daughter of Brahmo leader Sibnath Sastri.

From Hindu-based institutions like sociopolitical organizations and schools came a number of philanthropic associations.
;Most influential persons for women's upliftment
{| class="wikitable sortable"
|-
! Area of Contribution
! Meaning
! Steps Taken
! Activists
! Organizations
! Founder's Affiliation(s)
|-
|Political rights and visibility
|1. Women appearing in public political spaces 2. Women being recognized as leaders (not just participants) 3. Changing social norms about women's public roles 4. Symbolic representation
|Helped institutionalize women's leadership through bodies like Women's Indian Association
|Dr. Annie Besant (women's political rights + organizational leadership), Kamaladevi Chattopadhyay (political participation, economic empowerment, cooperatives), Margaret Cousins[https://www.womensmuseumofireland.ie/exhibits/margaret-elizabeth-cousins] (Suffarage, WIA), Sarojini Naidu (mass mobilization of women in politics)
|
|
|-
|Modern institutional equality
|
|Helped institutionalize institutional equality through contributing policy influence (Hansa Mehta) and constitutional rights (Dr. Durgabai Deshmukh)
|Dr. Durgabai Deshmukh (welfare systems), Hansa Mehta
|
|
|-
|Foundational legal reform
|
|
|Raja Ram Mohan Roy (abolition of sati), Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar (widow remarriage)
|
|
|-
|Education
|
|
|Raja Ram Mohan Roy, Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar
|
|
|-
|}

===Hindu influence internationally===
Even outside of India during the 20th century, women's rights were not perfect, and so many women incorporated Hindu symbolism (i.e., worship) and concepts towards promoting societies where women would have equal rights.
[[image:M.J. Gage.jpg|right|thumb|200px|Matilda Joslyn Gage.]]
[[image: Charlotte Despard.jpg|right|thumb|200px|Charlotte Despard, an Anglo-Irish suffragist who supported Indian independence.]]
As [[Worship of God as Mother|worship of God as a female or mother]] has been common in Sanatan Dharm since its foundation, that made validating female upliftment in India quicker. Even in Western nations, prominent women's rights organizations implemented imagery of goddesses from pertinent ancient cultures, like U.K.'s Women's Freedom League and National Union of Women's Suffrage Societies, and the global International Woman Suffrage Alliance, to legitimize female equality and women being in positions of power. Some Western feminists and women's rights activists, like Matilda Joslyn Gage<ref>"''While the sale of daughters was practiced in England for seven hundred years after the introduction of Christianity, we note that by the ancient law of India, a father was forbidden to sell his daughter in marriage, or receive the smallest present therefor.''" - P. 79-82 ''Woman, Church and State'' (1893) By Matilda Joslyn Gage</ref> (U.S. suffragist) and Helena Petrovna Blavatsky<ref>"''The pre- and post-Vedic woman was as free as man; and no impure terrestrial thought was ever mixed with the religious symbology of the early Aryans.''" 
"''This is proven by the fact that in the Vedic period their women were not placed apart from men in penetralia, or ‘Zenanas.’ Their seclusion began when the Mahomedans … had conquered the land and gradually enforced their ways and customs upon the Hindus.''" 
- P. 379-380 ''The Secret Doctrine: Volume I'' By Helena Blavatsky </ref> (European feminist), even used the examples of [[Worship of God as Mother|Hindu goddess-worship]] and Hindu queens to support their examples. (M.J. Gage[https://www.smithsonianmag.com/history/the-feminist-inspired-witches-of-oz-180985334/] in her ''Woman, Church, and State'' even highlighted Hindu texts to counter the male-centric theology of the West and referenced ''[[Bhagavad Gita]]'' to validate the concept of a female [[divinity]].) Even feminists of the colonial era like Victoria Woodhull that was skeptical of organized religion, respected "''Christna and Buddha''" (Krishna and Gautama.) Mary Lowe Dickinson at the World's Parliament Circles (1893) was so impressed by [[Swami Vivekananda|Swami Vivekanand]]'s speech, that she developed a fascination with female divinity of Hinduism, and in her editorials and public circles, argued that Hinduism's recognition of a feminine aspect within the divine was spiritually superior to the rigidly patriarchal, all-male Trinity of mainstream American Christianity. Emily Pitts Stevens and Charlotte LeMoyne Wills (wrote about the genderless [[Brahm]]) became disciples of Vivekanand. Laura de Force Gordon wrote about the immortal soul and continuous cycle of life. Alice Moore McComas wrote about the interconnectedness (aikatmyam) of all things. In U.K., Charlotte Despard's specific pamphlets linked [[karma]] to political activism. Margaret Louise Sanger was influenced by Vivekanand and Rabindranath Tagore. Sarah Bull<ref> P. 483 ''Western Admirers of Ramakrishna and His Disciples'' By Gopal Stavig, Swami Shuddhidananda </ref>, who particularly focused on women's education and reform was connected to both Vivekanand and Sister Nivedita. Josephine MacLeod was a major promoter of Vivekanand in the West and was involved in transatlantic reform-intellectual networks. Viktoria Ocampo of Argentina was deeply influenced by Tagore, even hosting him in Argentina and promoting his ideas widely. Gabriela Mistral of Chile was too, and she applied Tagore's ideas to women's education, child welfare, and cultural reform. Mabel Dodge Luhan was fascinated with Sanatan philosophy and influenced by Vivekanand. Mentionable is Emma Calve of France, who wasn't a political feminist leader but influential in women's intellectual-cultural circles, and she was deeply influenced by Vivekanand.
[[image:Carol Patrice Christ.jpg|right|thumb|200px|Carol Patrice Christ.]]
After suffragists had attained complete institutional equality, they them progressed to the next stage of female liberation by ensuring that their own spiritual faith wasn't male-chauvinistic or making them subordinates of males. Feminists were inspired by goddess deity of Hinduism to then promote it within generic spirituality. Valerie Saiving, Isaac Bonewits and Naomi Goldenberg founded in the 1970's, Thealogy, a feminine-specific theology. Carol Patrice Christ launched the Goddess Movement, which provided 4 aspects of Goddess symbolism as reasons to needing a goddess in women's lives; 1) the Goddess as affirmation of female power, 2) the female body, 3) the female will, and 4) women's bond and heritage. She specifically used the Shakti concept to prove that a major global religion (Hinduism) explicitly defined the [[Brahmanda|material universe]]/nature/change ([[Darshana#Sankhya|Prakriti]]) as an inherently active, female, and sacred force. She was an ecofeminist, as were Charlene Spretnak and Miriam Simos were ecofeminists too. Merlin Stone wrote ''Ancient Mirrors of Womanhood: Our Goddess and Heroine Heritage'' (1979) and in a chapter analyzes goddesses like [[Durga]], [[Kali]], [[Lakshmi Puja|Lakshmi]], Parvati, and Saraswati. Devout Christian women feminists too drew on Hindu practices and ideas to support women's advocacy, and they include Ivone Gebara, Pearl Sydenstricker Buck, and Sally McFague.

'Matriarchal religion' is a philosophy stating that societies were Goddess worshippers with females having the same status and rights as men before male gods began being worshipped, and the latter led to patriarchy. Goddesses being worshipped contiguously in Hindu societies for thousands of years was the backing this thought utilized, in addition to feminist archaeology (i.e., ancient idols and temples of goddesses uncovered.)

==Start of modern reforms==
In modern India, most positive social changes within Indian Hindu societies came not first as enforcement or pressure from European rulers but from advocacy of forward-thinking Hindus. Raja Ram Mohan Roy had led the campaign to purge Hindu societies of Sati and caste prejudices. Roy worked with British imperial authority, specifically Lord William Bentinck to have sati outlawed. Roy himself was a religious leader that reiterated Upanishads for their principles.

Other institutions of positive social changes were mainly Hindu ones or were governed by Hindu religious leaders, not secular ones.

The Indian National Social Conference of 1887 was organized by Justice Ranade, Rai Raghunath Rao, Narendra Nath Sen Gupta, and Janki Nath Ghoshal. Ranade was founder of the Prarthana Samaj, a religious group.

Arya Samajis, Brahmo Samajis, and Prarthana Samajis were the most vocal and active forces advocating: 
#Widow Remarriage (i.e., Widow Remarriage Act 1856—initiative of Brahmo Samaj)
#Women's right to divorce (i.e., Native Marriage Act 1872—initiative of Brahmo Samaj) 
#Property rights for women 
#Opposition to child marriages (i.e., Age of Consent Act 1891—initiative of Brahmo Samaj and Prarthana Samaj, Child Marriage Restraint Act 1929—initiative of Arya Samaj) 
#Universal accessible education (built schools, including colleges and gurukuls) 
#Caste-based reservations
[[image:Justice Ranade.jpg|right|thumb|200px|Mahadev Govind Ranade (alias 'Justice Ranade'.)]]
[[image:Jagannath Shankarshet.jpg|right|thumb|200px|Jagannath Shankarshet (alias 'Architect of Modern Mumbai'.)]]
The Indian Factories Act 1881's ratification was a landmark in workers' rights and the credit goes mainly to Sorabjee Shapoorjee Bengalee, and then Prarthana Samaj. He did work alongside the Prarthana Samaj to lobby the British authority through the First Factory Commission in 1875 (made to investigate the brutal conditions of Indian labour.) Prarthana Samaj's ''Subodh Patrika'' newspaper specifically critiqued mill owners. Rahnumai Mazdayasnan Sabha, its newspaper ''Rast Goftar'', and Bengalee himself referenced labour reformers Sasipada Banerji and Protap Chunder Mozumdar, and used the former's methods of worker upliftment as a blueprint for their own legislative arguments. Collaboration between the Sabha and Prarthana Samaj began with the latter's creation of the Theistic Association, on which the Parsi Naoroji Furdonji was its 1st Chairman. Ranade and Bhandarkar drove the Association from discussing only theism to improving society through finding solutions of work hardships. The Night School Initiative was launched, helping workers receive adequate training, particularly in labourer-heavy neighborhoods Byculla, Dongri, Khetwadi, and Thakurdwar. (From 1886-1890 alone, over 2,750 industrial workers successfully studied through this initiative.)

Brahmo Samaj's K.C. Sen’s first visit to Mumbai in March-April 1864 engaged him with Bengalee, Furdonji, Ranade, and Bhandarkar (all then members of Young India.) They all discussed ways to develop India. They also shared strategies on how to bypass orthodox religious resistance—Furdonji within Zoroastrianism and Sen within Sanatan Dharm. Bengalee's First Labor Bill (1878) laid the groundwork for the later Indian Factories Act.

Prior to all of this, Jagannath Shankarshet[https://www.vishwakonkani.org/hall-of-fame/hon-jagannath-shankar-sheth/] spent the 1850s petitioning the British Parliament for local governance. As a result, it codified the Indian Councils Act of 1861, thus creating the Bombay Legislative Council as a political body to better govern the-then Bombay Presidency. Shankarshet was the main founder of Bombay Association. In its first leadership were also Dr. Ramachandra Vitthal Lad (alias 'Dr. Bhau Daji'), a Hindu intellectual who used his Sanskrit knowledge to decipher inscriptions, preserve manuscripts, and help reconstruct the forgotten timelines of ancient Guptas and Western Kshatrapa dynasties. Mentionable is the Parsi Sir Jamsetjee Jeejeebhoy of the group. Shankarshet was a wealthy philanthropist that constructed and financed Sanatan and secular infrastructure, most notably the Bhavani Shankar Mandir[https://www.mcgm.gov.in/irj/go/km/docs/documents/D%20Ward/Heritage-Sites/73_Legacy%20of%20D%20Ward_Article_Bhavani%20Shankar%20Temple.pdf] (Mumbai), Sanskrit Seminary and Sanskrit Library (both in Mumbai too.) Elphinstone Educational Institution[https://elphinstone.ac.in/index.php] and Grant Medical College[https://gmcjjh.edu.in/] were his creations too. (Jeejeebhoy contributed to constructing the Grant Medical College.)

===Shahu's royal authority to implement reforms===
[[image:Shahu adoption.jpg|right|thumb|200px|Prince Yeshwantrao Ghatge being adopted by the royal family of Kohlapur.]]
[[image:Rajarshi.jpg|right|thumb|200px|Rajarshi Chhatrapati Shahu Maharaj.]]
[[image:School foundation.jpg|right|thumb|200px|Foundation of Shri Shahu Chhatrapati Shikshan Sanstha.]]
The greatest champion on all of these sections for reforms was Chhatrapati Shahu Maharaj[https://aissms.org/breaking-barriers-chhatrapati-shahu-maharaj-and-his-enduring-impact-on-progress-and-modernity/] (born Yeshwantrao Ghatge), '[[Rta and Spiritual Authority#Rishis|Rajarshi]]', the ruler of Kohlapur Kingdom who affiliated with organizations but probably the Arya Samaj[https://thearyasamaj.org] more than any other. Shahu definitely was not shy to publicly perform prayers, as he famously attended temples of goddesses Ambabai[https://www.mahalaxmikolhapur.com/home] and Bhavani[https://shrituljabhavani.org/] when having returned from his Europe trip in 1902. Also in 1902, Pratap Singh Maharaj of Idhar (Gujarat) introduced and educated him about the Arya Samaj. He provided patronage to the Arya Samaj.[https://navjyot.net/wp-content/uploads/2022/12/10.pdf]

The king passed many policies for for the upliftment of untouchable, nomadic, non-Brahmin communities and for females.<ref>Act of Free and Compulsory Primary Education (1917), Widow remarriage Act (1917), End of Balutedari (1918), Repeal of Kulkarni Watan (1918), Intercaste and Interreligious Marriages and Sanctioning of Registered Marriage Act (1919), Act relating to protection of Harassment of Women (1919), Divorce act (1919), Order on prohibition of Untouchability practice (1919), Illegitimate Children's Rights and Devadasi Prohibition Act (1920); 
[https://www.indiejournal.in/article/rajarshi-shahu-maharaj-and-his-tryst-with-the-arya-samaj "Rajarshi Shahu Maharaj & his tryst with the Arya Samaj Lessons for our times"] By Devkumar Ahire (Jun 26, 2023 6:42 PM)</ref>

;Prejudiced disgruntled castists promoting anti-Brahman hate, not universalism
While Shahu was affiliated with the Satyashodhak Samaj (SS) because it wanted to uplift the non-dwija castes, he did not feel they had any religious foundations, whereas the Arya Samaj was encompassed both a spiritual and social movement.<ref>"Beyond Reformism: Chhatrapati Shahu and Hinduism Reimagined" By Surajkumar Thube P. 124-144 ''Nidān: International Journal for Indian Studies, Volume 8'', Issue 1 (July 2023)</ref> Also, the SS of Pune was antithetical to social cohesion because it targeted the Brahman caste as an enemy, and while its main founder (Jyotirao Phule) made absurd claims like 'Shiv-Dharma'<ref>"''The real Shiv-Dharma that is ours, we are re-establishing it as Sarvajanik Satya Dharma.''" Chapter 4, ''Sarvajanik Satya Pustak''</ref> or 'Mahadev-Dharma' (worship of [[Shiva|Shiv]] as God and some local gods like Khandoba as avatars) being the true religion of Indians whereas every other Hindu belief and practice was an imposition by 'non-Indian Brahman invaders'. Being a chauvinist, he also criticized freedom fighter martyrs Lakshmi Bai, Nana Sahib, Tantia Tope for being Brahmans. He also wrote positively that freedom fighters lost the 1857 War of Independence against the British colonialists. He was also openly criticized by his own relative Baburao Phule, who accused the former of being a Christian convert who destroyed the Hindu religion.<ref>P. 58-59 ''The Caste Question: Dalits and the Politics of Modern India'' (2009) By Anupama Rao </ref>

;Satyashodhak Samaj becoming less anti-Brahman
"''All Hindus are equal. No one is superior, no one is inferior. Let all flesh and blood be one. Four varnas are a real deceit. It's a tool to keep the non-Brahmins in slavery. There is no difference among the Hindus. Hindu is the only varna. If a Hindu eats or marries with another Hindu that's not ''[[adharma]].'' In contrast, what divide Hindus in the name of religion is not a dharma, but a trick by Brahmins. One who calls themselves a Hindu, whether they are Europeans or Africans, they are our coreligionists.''" - P. 39 ''Deshache Dushman'' (1925) By Dinkarrao Javalkar
[[image:Sasipada Banerji.jpg|right|thumb|100px|Sasipada Banerji (alias 'Sevabrata'.)]]
Notable is that Phule's friend Narayan Meghaji Lokhande, a labour organization leader, was close friends with Phule and used Khandoba-worship and the reverence of Sundays for Khandoba in his petition to British authority to achieve Sunday as a holiday for factory labourers. Phule and Lokhande emulated Brahmans, like forming the political lobby group Deenbandhu Sarvajanik Sabha after Ranade's Poona Sarvajanik Sabha and forming the Bombay Mill Hands Association based and its mouthpiece ''Deenbandhu'' on the Working Men's Club (India's 1st labour welfare platform) and its mouthpiece ''Bharat Sramajibi'' (India's 1st labour journal) of Sasipada Banerji (Brahmo Samaji.)

Though Dinkarrao Javalkar portrayed himself as pan-Hindu when discussing the specific topic of Hindu unity, he still prejudicially criticized the Brahman caste in general<ref>"''This day will be counted among the most important days in the history of Hindus. There is no reason for you to fear jail. The Brahmans who eat ghee and roti should have that fear. To make the touchable people behave is in your hands. You are the sons of Hindus. You capture the tank saying 'har har Mahadev' and follow the advice of your leader Dr. Ambedkar Saheb. This is my own position.''" -Dinkarrao Javalkar at satyagraha with Keshavrao Jedhe and Dr. Ambedkar among a Mahar crowd</ref> and targeted some prominent Brahmans like Lokmanya Tilak. (Javalkar and Keshavrao Jedhe also portrayed themselves as pro-woman but derogatory remarks about women from the Brahman and certain other castes<ref>P. 44 ''19th Century Maharashtra: A Reassessment'' (2020) By Shraddha Kumbhojkar </ref> and both appealed to Dr. B.R. Ambedkar in 1927 to exclude Brahmans from the Mahad Satyagraha<ref> P. 27 ''Social Reform Movements in India: A Historical Perspective'' (1991) By V.D. Divekar</ref>.) Jedhe did protest with other activists (including Brahmans like Narhar Vishnu Gadgil, Seshdas Ranade, Shreedhar Mahadev Joshi, and members of Arya Samaj) for the right of Dalits to worship at Pune's Devdeveshwar Mandir[https://devdeveshwarsanthan.org/home.html]. Javalkar did write favourably about some like Ranade, Gopal Ganesh Agarkar, and Krishna Gopal Gokhale but even they were rarely mentioned. He rightfully partook in the Kalaram Mandir[https://www.shrikalaramsansthannasik.org/] Satyagraha in Nasik that protested for Dalits to be able to enter the temple. He was a communist and 10 years after his death, the Peasants and Workers Party (PWP) was formed.

SS branches outside of Pune were less hateful of Brahmans. It is also noteworthy, however, is that Nana Patil, a founder of the PWP, was affiliated with both the Satyashodhak and Prarthana associations [meaning that he, like most other Satyashodhaks didn't believe in Phule's religious ideology.] Some other PWP founders like Jedhe and Madhavrao Bagal were Satyashodhaks, they popularized Shiv Jayanti and Ganesh Chathuri. The latter and his son Vasantrao even wrote devotional pieces inspired from Bhakti Era saints (i.e., [[Tukaram]], [[Eknath]]) and valourizing pieces about Shahu. Tulshidas Jadhav, a Gandian within the PWP, championed the Bhakti Era's Warkari Movement, which was still popular in his time, because it was based on social equality and public seva. Also noteworthy is, that even some prominent members supported the Arya Samaj, like Krishnarao Bhalekar (1 of the founders of SS with Phule) defended Dayanand Saraswati (Arya Samaj’s founder), when the latter’s procession was opposed by some orthodox Hindus in Pune, and Bhalekar organized a speech to be delivered by Saraswati at a dharmshal near a Rokdoba Temple in Pune.

Bhalekar himself made the claim that the SS is the true follower of Sant Tukaram's Bhagwat Dharma (Krishnaite Vaishnavism.) His son was Mukundrao Patil, who made the claim, "''The Satyasodhak Samaj is the true heir of the Hindu religion. Brahmanism is not Hinduism.''"<ref>''Dinmitra'' newspaper (1920s)</ref> Javalkar claimed SS is the true representative of the Hindu religion and that SS members are liberating Hinduism from the supremacy of the Brahmins. Shivram Janma Kamble stated the SS is a revival movement of the true Hinduism. Kisan Faguji Bansode argued "Shivdharma" was the true Hindu religion and that the SS advocates that version.

There were those in his organization that promoted about how in ancient Sanatan society, there were no caste distinctions and that people were recognized by their merits. Their view was promoted by Tukaram Tatya Padval, who wrote ''Jatibhed Vivekshar'' (1861) after being inspired by Ashwaghosha's ''Vajrasuchi''. Phule republished copies of Padval's books, and the 2 developed a friendship. He did write at that in ancient India, certain sages were had Sudra or Avarna status but rose to the rank of a Brahman through their intellect, and used examples of Valmiki (wrote a ''Ramayan''), Sankhya, and Kabilar rishis. He also published copies of the ''Bhagavad Gita'', ''Yogasutra'', and compilations of the ''Rajayoga'' and ''Sankhya Karika.'' He further compiled the ''Tukarambaba ani Tyanche Shisya Yanchi Abhanga Gatha'' (1889) and ''Eknath Maharajancha Abhangachi Gatha'' (1903.) Padval, however, never became a member of Phule's organization and instead became a member of the Theosophical Society.

;Shahu forming his own Satyashodhak Samaj focused on upliftment (free of anti-Brahman distractions)
As a result of the Satyashodhak Samaj of Pune being too antagonistic of Brahmans, Shahu had instead founded his own branch in 1911 — Shri Shahu Satyashodhak Samaj. By an order, Shahu replaced the Brahman priests in the Patgaon Sansthan (Mauni Maharaj Math[https://durgbharari.in/maunibaba-patgaon/]) and Jyotiba Devasthan[https://shreejyotiba.com/?lang=E][https://maharashtratourism.gov.in/temple/jyotiba/] with Maratha priests. Bhaskarrao Jadhav and Anna Babaji Latthe were leaders of Shahu's Kolhapur Satyashodhak Samaj. Whereas Phule mostly only wrote positively of Shiva and local-born gods, Jadhav in his ''Marathas and their Religion'' wrote positively about Krishna and the ''Bhagavad Gita''. He further worked with Shahu to aid Arya Samaj in its activities and goals (i.e., train non-Brahmans to become priests too.) Noteworthy is that Latthe, who worked personally with Shahu Maharaj, was its first VP and that he worked to dismantle priestly intermediation within the Jain clergy. (He was a big-time activist for general upliftment and for reform within the Jain community (i.e., wrote ''Jain Dharmacha Parichay''.) He also founded the Dakshin Bharat Jain Sabha, of which Bhaurao Patil (from a Jain family) became a member and through he wasn't a member of any SS branch, he did sometimes participate in its activities and himself founded the Rayat Shikshan Sansthan, which educated students in a multitude of topics, including Sanskrit.

;Shahu distancing himself formally from Satyashodhak Samaj
The SS had earned a bad reputation in Maharashtra with the general public, particularly for the outright anti-Brahman vitriol spewed in the SS's publications and events. Because the goal of Shahu and true reformers was to achieve a harmonious society with all people cooperating, it would not make sense to support an organization that's known for abusing persons (i.e., Brahmans) specifically over their caste identity.

In 1921, Shahu made a public statement in a Baroda newspaper that even though he granted significant support to the non-Brahman movement and introduced measures to eliminate Brahman dominance, he had never been affiliated with Phule's SS, and that he always accepted [[Rta and Spiritual Authority#Rishis|Vedic ritual authority]].

;Granting, accommodating, and expanding Arya Samaj
Shahu attended Arya Samaj sessions like the one at Navsari in 1918 and another at Bhavnagar in 1920<ref>P. 6. ''People's Raj Volume 30'' (1974) By Directorate-General of Information and Public Relations </ref>. He provided funding for Gurukul Boarding House to be built at Kerle, wherein large buildings and well-irrigated lands were granted to the Arya Samaj. Later, the Rajaram Anathalaya orphanage was added to this grant. He also brought educational institutions in his domain under the leadership of Arya Pratinidhi Sabha. Rajaram College's administration was also granted to the Arya Samaj.

;Spiritual Authority as Rajarshi
Shahu Maharaj, being a devout Sanatan wanted to proclaim the rights that warriors of history had and so participated in important ceremonies and worked with priests (i.e., Brahmans) to achieve the rights to learn and perform Vedic ceremonies. He established the Vedokta Committee for Marathas to be able to perform Vedic rites without requiring priests. In 1905, the Karveer Peeth's (or Kolhapur Math's) Shankaracharya declared full rights of Vedokta to Chhatrapati Shahu.

Tatyarao Joshirao was appointed by Shahu Maharaj as new royal purohit, replacing the Rajopadhye (creator of the infamous 'Vedokta Controversy'), who denied the Maharaj to perform Vedic rites. Joshirao was from a family that had traditional ownership of the historic Binkhambi Ganapati Mandir in Kolhapur.

Rajaram Shastri (alias 'Bhagavata'), a Brahman scholar, linguist, and researcher, openly challenged the religious orthodoxy, arguing from scripture that Shahu Maharaj had full rights to the Vedas. Vishnu Topkhane was another Brahman who greatly helped the Chhatrapati with his progressive reforms. Topkhane the educationalist helped the latter establish the Vidyapeeth High School near the Shri Karveer Niwasini Ambabai Mahalakshmi Temple. Freedom fighter Gokhale was someone who worked with Shahu. When the Vedokta Controversy broke out and the conservative press attacked the Maharaja, Gokhale privately and publicly validated Shahu Maharaj's stance, recognizing that social reform was a prerequisite for true political freedom. Ranade, though passed away before much Shahu's reforms began, was admired by the latter for his progressive ideals and actions.

Chhatrapati Shahu founded the Satyashodhak School for spiritual training in 1913, in which seminarians (predominantly from castes such as Marathas, Mahars, and Chambhars) were taught to recite and preach the poems (i.e., abhangs of Tukaram) of sants. He also created the Shivaji Vedic School (aliases 'Shahu Vedic School', 'Shahu Vedic Pathshala', 'Shri Shahu Vaidik Vidyalay') in 1920 and had invited scholars from Varanasi (spiritual capital of Sanatan Dharm) to ensure the highest standard of scriptural and linguistic training. The school trained seminarians (of all castes) to learn Sanskrit and become priests and conduct ceremonies. He further established and financed the office of the Kshatra Jagadguru (''Warrior Universal Teacher''), a pontiff seat open to anyone of any caste. The first Kshatra Jagadguru was Sadashivrao Lakshmanrao Sankpal Patil Benadikar, was an accomplished Sanskrit scholar who received his formal higher education at Rajaram College in Kolhapur. The Kshatra Jagadguru Peeth was the pontiff's seat at Patgaon (in the Bhudargad region of Kolhapur.) Patgaon was chosen because it was the historic site of the Mauni Maharaj Math, a highly respected spiritual center that had historically blessed Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj[https://pilgrimdata.in/temple/mouni-maharaj-math-temple-patgaon-bhudargarh-dist-kolhapur/]. The Kshatra Jagadguru had the Shri Sadashivrao Patil Shikshan Sanstha educationalist association named after him, and it runs schools[https://www.mwssm.org/][https://sspiop.com/] in Maharashtra still. Other organizations too use his name for schools like Sadashivrao Mandlik Mahavidyalaya (Kolhapur) of the ⁠Jay Shivray Education Society.

===Successive associations===
From Hindu-based institutions like sociopolitical organizations and schools came a number of philanthropic associations. Even other humanitarian associations that were not established by Hindu activists, were established by their influence. For example, Krishna Gopal Gokhale had participated in many sessions of the Prarthana Samaj as he was Ranade's pupil, and he later joined the Deccan Education Society, which he left to establish the Servants of India Society. Narayan Malhar Joshi was a member of Gokhale's group and later formed his own Social Service League[https://socialserviceleague.org.in/]. Hriday Nath Kunzru too was part of Gokhale's group and left to establish the Seva Samiti.

{| class="wikitable sortable"
|-
! Organization
! Demographic of Focus
! Region(s)
! Founder
! Founder's Affiliation(s)
! Achievement
|-
|Anath Balikashram Society
|Widows
|Maharashtra
|Dhondo Keshav Karve
|Educated at BHU
|
|-
|Andhra Mahila Sabha
|Females
|Andhra Pradesh
|Durgabai Deshmukh
|
|
|-
|Bharat Stree Mahamandal
|Females
|Bengal, Bihar, Punjab, Sindh, U.P.
|Sarala Devi Chaudhurani
|Arya Samaji, Brahmo Samaji, accepted Bijoy Krishna Chattopadhyaya as her guru
|
|-
|Central Social Welfare Board
|Females and children
|
|Dr. Durgabai Deshmukh
|
|
|-
|Hindu Widow Marriage Association
|Females
|Maharashtra
|Dhondo Keshav Karve
|Educated at BHU
|
|-
|Hindustani Seva Dal
|Females
|Every province
|Dr. Narayan Subbarao Hardikar
|
|Established the Hindustani Seva Mandal (later became Rashtriya Seva Dal) in 1923, established the Arya Bala Sabha, taught the Gita during his student days in Kolkata, was a fan of Lokmanya Tilak, and had enthusiastically worked with Lala Rai
|-
|Indian Reform Association
|Females
|West Bengal
|Keshub Chandra Sen
|
|Brahmo Samaji, founded ''Sulabh Samachar'' as weekly newspaper of group
|-
|Kasthurbha Gandhi Kanya Gurukulam[http://www.kgkgurukulam.org/]
|Girls
|Tamil Nadu (Vedaranyam)
|Vedaratnam Pillai
|
|Involved in temple-based philanthropy and donated to Sri Ramakrishna Mission too
|-
|Lakshmi Ashram
|Females
|Uttarakhand
|Sarla Behn
|
|Established individual Mahila Mandals throughout Uttarakhand and promoted important skills as well as ecological awareness
|-
|Lokahitawadi Mandal
|Females and males
|Maharashtra
|Vishnu Vaman Shirwadkar
|
|Wrote about Hindu themes, including persons from scriptures and about Shivaji poetically, philosophically, and nationally
|-
|Maharshi Karve Stree Shikshan Samstha
|Females
|Maharashtra
|Dhondo Keshav Karve
|Educated at BHU
|
|-
|Mahila Vidyalaya (Pune)
|Females
|Maharashtra
|Dhondo Keshav Karve
|Educated at BHU
|
|-
|Nishkam Karma Math
|Females
|Maharashtra
|Dhondo Keshav Karve
|Educated at BHU
|
|-
|Poona Seva Sadan
|Females
|Maharashtra (at its peak, included M.P. and T.N.)
|Ramabai Ranade
|
|
|-
|Samata Sangh
|Men and Women
|Maharashtra
|Dhondo Keshav Karve
|Educated at BHU
|
|-
|Self Employed Women's Association (SEWA)
|Females
|18 states
|Ela Bhatt
|Gandhian Textile Labour Association
|Established: own bank (Shri Mahila Sewa Sahakari Bank, or 'SEWA Cooperative Bank'), SEWA Mahila Housing Trust
|-
|Servants of the People Society
|Females
|Kerala, Maharashtra, M.P., Odisha T.N., Uttarakhand U.P.
|
|
|
|-
|Shraddhanand Ashram[https://shraddhanandmahilashram.org] (alias Hindu Women's Welfare Society)
|Females and boys
|Maharashtra (Mumbai)
|Swami Shraddhanand
|
|Has cared for thousands of destitute women and orphans, and educated them and provided skills development, as well as fostered personal development
|-
|Stree Hitaishini Mandali
|Females
|Andhra Pradesh
|Kanuparti Varalakshmamma
|
|Educated many females
|-
|Widow Marriage Association
|Females
|Maharashtra
|Dhondo Keshav Karve
|Educated at BHU
|
|-
|}

==Inspiration to Madras Presidency==
[[image:M.C. Rajah.jpg|right|thumb|200px|Mylai Chinna Thambi Pillai Rajah (the real 'Periyar'.)]]
While the Arya Samaj, Brahmo Samaj, Prarthana Samaj, and a host of other Hindu-based humanitarian and sociopolitical institutions existed in the-then Madras Presidency of southern India, they inspired local organizations as well. Shahu Maharaj had friends in the-then Justice Party (JP, est. 1916), like Arcot Ramasamy Mudaliar and Panaganti Ramarayaningar. While some ethnic groups, like certain castes even falsely supported the idea of an 'Aryan Invasion Theory' and themselves (Dravidian-languages speakers) as indigenous, they still appreciated Hinduism and did not consider it alien.

The biggest uplifter of the party was M.C. Rajah, who had the highest influence upon the policies that improved the lives of the Dalits in Madras Presidency. The party itself was founded primarily by 3 individuals — Sir Pitti Theagaraya Chetty (political founder who built the political machine), Dr. Taravath Madhavan Nair (ideological co-founder), and Dr. Chintadripet Natesa Mudaliar (cultural/grassroots mobilizer who helped shape cultural legitimacy.) Dr. Nair had said that Hindu society had originally possessed broader equality before caste dominance hardened it. Chetty occasionally used dharm-based ethical framing. He is consistently described as arguing that governance must align with "''dharma and justice''". The Dr. Mudaliar was a devout Shaiva that infused into the party Shaivism as a cultural identity for southerners.
[[image:P.T. Rajan.jpg|right|thumb|200px|P.T. Rajan (centre-right, wearing glasses next to priest), touring with the idol of [[Ayyappan|Ayyappa]] he had made at Swamimalai Temple[https://swamimalaiswaminathar.hrce.tn.gov.in/] and it was placed in the Sabarimala Temple[https://www.sabarimalauptodate.in/].]]
An ideologue of influence to the JP and Self-Respect Movement was Maraimalai Adigal, a Shaiv preacher and writer, who claimed that both the JP and Self-Respect Movement were from his teachings and that militant atheist Erode Venkatappa Ramasami Naicker had hijacked them. JP founder Dr. Nair died in 1919 and Chetty in 1925, so had no interaction Naicker. Ponnambala Thiaga Rajan was an active party member and disagreed with Naicker's ideology, so joined Congress-aligned politics. Mudaliar died in 1935 around the time Naicker entered the JP. Naicker was also a prejudiced castist that criticized but did not contribute to build schools and shelters for women and children, as Rajah[https://www.news18.com/opinion/opinion-m-c-rajah-the-forgotten-hindu-mahasabha-dalit-8937192.html][https://vskbharat.com/m-c-rajah-a-staunch-hindu-leader/?lang=en][https://thecommunemag.com/m-c-rajah-the-hindu-mahasabha-dalit/], a practicing Hindu of the party did. Rajah even once formed a political alliance with the Hindu Mahasabha, was the contributor. Before Rajah, the party's caste disparity was mainly about civil service occupations and education access for underprivileged castes. Rajah was recommended by Ambedkar to convert but Rajah replied there's no religion better than Hinduism.<ref>P. 92 ''The Political Evolution of Muslims in Tamilnadu and Madras, 1930-1947'' By J.B. Prashant More (1997) </ref><ref> In a public meeting of the All India Adi Dravida Mahajana Sabha in Nungambakkam, Chennai he said, "''The president (of this meeting) mentioned that no other community other than us has more right to be called Hindus. Conversion will not bring about any good. By saying so, I am not undermining or wishing away the oppression and ills we have faced. We need to fight for our rights. The speed at which reforms are happening might be slow. But think about our current situation and how much it has improved. I beseech you to please abandon any move that will weaken us. I request the government to bring about the Untouchability Abolition Bill and pass it quickly. The Harijans are proud Hindus. That is the only reason why even after years of oppression by higher castes and a barrage of proselytization efforts by other religions hasn't changed their resolve being Hindus.''" P. 123 ''Evolution of Hindu Nationalism - Icons of HMS, RSS & BJS'' By Sankara Narayanan T (2025)</ref> Adigal's writings had a profound impact on Subramania Ramanathan, the founder of the Self-Respect Movement, and on the Naicker but the latter only wanted pro-Tamil and castist societal changes, not promotion of Shaivism. Naicker would later break away from the party and form his own Dravidar Kazhagam, a title he copied from Adigal's Shaiv association (Podhunilak Kazhagam.) (His own pupil, Conjeevaram Natarajan Annadurai, would eventually disown him after he married his own adopted daughter, and Annadurai would leave his group.)
[[image:Alamelu.jpg|right|thumb|200px|Alamelu Mangai Thayarammal, a Brahmo Samaji, was co-founder of the party among 29 others (all men.)]]
The Hindu sentiment was definitely present in the JP. Many left after Naicker's hijacking. Important members bothered by Naicker's rhetoric apart from Rajan were Ananda Prasad Patro, Arunachalam Thamaraiselvam Panneerselvam, Muthiah Annamalai Chettiar, Ramasamy Kandasamy Shanmukham Chetty, and Subbarayalu Kumaraswami Reddiar. Chettiar even personally regularly donated to temple renovations, endowing temple lands or festivals, supporting pilgrimage facilities, and Hindu-managed schools. Rajan, the last leader of the JP, was the head-of-government of the Presidency, and was a big devotee a [[Ayyappan|Swami Ayyappa]]. Rajan even solemnized a marriage of a German couple converted to Hinduism in Coimbatore (Oct 31, 1962.) He further discouraged conversion of Dalits from Hinduism to another religion<ref>"''If by mass conversion you expect to achieve your object, you will be disappointed, because of a mere change of religion it will not give you all that you want.''" 
P. 147 ''Sir P. T. Rajan's Eighty Second Birthday Souvenir, 1973'' By P.T. Rajan and K. Paramasivam</ref> while encouraging caste-Hindus to better treat Dalits. His family had deep ties to the Meenakshi Amman Temple[https://maduraimeenakshi.hrce.tn.gov.in/] in Madurai, with his son (Palanivel Rajan), serving as a minister, and his daughter-in-law (Rukmani), serving as the first female chairperson of the temple's board of trustees. His predecessor Ramakrishna Ranga Rao denied that the JP was anti-Hindu and declared that it aimed to purify Hindu society from "''absurdities''" and return "''Hinduism greater and more glorious than it was in the past...''"<ref>"''As I understand it, the Self-Respect movement stands for certain great ideals to make Hinduism greater and more glorious than it was in the past, to rid it of all those absurdities which are the accretions of an unfortunate era of the past, and unite us in a solid federation so that all those who profess to follow the Hindu faith may feel that they are brethren following one of the most ancient and glorious religions of the world. No longer should the foreigner point his finger of scorn at this or that particular phase of Hinduism which belies its cosmopolitan tendency by inflicting personal hardship on classes or communities. If a few youths in their exuberant enthusiasm have been carried away beyond the bounds of Hinduism it will not do to fight shy of the new movements, but political wisdom and sagacity lie in taking them into our fold and guiding them aright along the paths of duty and rectitude.''" 
P. 289 ''The Indian Annual Register An Annual Digest of Public Affairs of India Recording the Nation's Activities Each Year in Matters Political, Economic, Industrial, Educational, Social, Etc · Volume 2'' By Nipendra Nath Mitra (1934)</ref> Alamelu Mangai Thayarammal, conferred 'Pandithai' title by Saiva Sabha in Palamcottah, was a JP co-founder [with 29 co-founders being men] who was a Brahmo Samaji, meaning the influence of the Hindu-based organizations wasn't insignificant. Paramasivan Subbarayan Gounder, while not technically a JP member, worked with it closely, and both he and his women's rights activist wife Kailash Radhabai Kulmud were Brahmos. It is also noteworthy that [[Ascetics|ascetic]] Swamiyar Kaivalyar who supported the party without being a member wrote pro-Shaiv material. Cattamanchi Ramalinga Reddy, an ex-member who formed his own party in 1923 was a close friend of Dr. Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan, and he himself engaged with Hindu texts on a literary artistic level. As Hinduism isn't a scripture-dependent religion, some JP members like A.R. Mudaliar heavily criticized certain scriptures but were devout Hindus ([[Vaiśnava|Vaishnav]] in his case.) And while orthodox opposition was present, the majority of Indians, including religious leaders, supported reforms, like when Shankaracharya of Kanchi[https://www.kamakoti.org/] supported the "Hindu Religious Endowments Bill" (1921) even while voicing some concerns in within. Mentionable is that [[Shatata-Unnati#Female upliftment|Dr. Muthulakshmi Reddy]] wasn't part of the JP but it still nominated her in 1926 for the Madras Legislative Council to bring about positive changes.

==Related articles==
*[[Women]]
*[[Women as Rishikas in the Vedas]]
*[[Worship of God as Mother]]

==External resources==
*[https://www.ijhsss.com/files/08.-ABHISEK-KARMAKAR_6813z4a4.pdf "Changing status of women in Indian politics (1917-1947): the role of civil society"], P. 42-45 ''International Journal of Humanities & Social Science Studies'' Volume-I, Issue-II (September 2014) By Abhisek Karmakar
*[https://www.besanthill.org/about/history-heritage/annie-besant/ Besant Hill School of Happy Valley in Ojai, California]
*[https://www.anniebesant.org Annie Besant Women's College in Hyderabad, Telangana]
*[https://www.aryasabha.mu/cultural-programme-arya-mahila-mandal-in-the-context-of-the-200th-birth-anniversary-of-swami-dayananda-saraswati/ Arya Mahila Mandal (Mauritius)]
*[https://www.thearyasamaj.org/ammkarolbagh Arya Mahila Mandal Karol Bagh]
*[https://vatikashaktipeeth.com/seven-agitations/women-awakening.html Vatika Shakti Peeth]

==References==
{{reflist}}

[[Category: History]]
[[Category: Economics]]
[[Category: Societal altruism]]

Talk:Indian Freedom Fighters

2026-06-07T05:47:20Z

Himanshu Bhatt: /* Later members of INC */

==INC==
===Founders of INC===
{| class="wikitable sortable"
|-
! Freedom Fighter
! Home Region
! Ethnicity
! Ahimsa
! Role
! Symbolism
|-
|Ananda Mohan Bose (alias 'Saint Bose')
|E.B.
|Bengali
|
|
|Brahmo Samaji
|-
|Sir Ashutosh Mukherjee (alias 'Bengali Tiger')
|W.B.
|Bengali
|
|
|Influenced by Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar and Vivekananda, taught Pali and [[Sanskrit]] (as well as Bengali and Hindi), his Dr. S.P. Mukherjee would found the Jana Sangh party
|-
|Dr. Atmaram Pandurang Tarkhadkar
|Maharashtra
|Marathi
|
|
|Founded Prarthana Samaji
|-
|Bal Gangadhar Tilak (alias 'Lokmanya', 'Father of the Indian Unrest')
|Maharashtra
|Marathi
|Not strictly
|Member (Leader)
|Of the 'extremist' faction within the INC, he established institutions, including the Deccan Education Society and its Fergusson College, popularized Ganesh Chathurti and Shiv Jayanti, as well as wrote important historical works.
|-
|Dadoba Pandurang Tarkhadkar (alias 'Ek Hindu')
|Maharashtra
|Marathi
|
|
|Paramahansa Mandali, member and key associate of Prarthana Samaj
|-
|Durga Mohan Das
|E.B.
|Bengali
|
|
|Brahmo Samaji
|-
|Durgaram Manchharam Dave (alias 'Durgaram Mehta')
|Gujarat
|Gujarati
|
|
|Founded Manav Dharm Sabha and Paramahansa Mandali
|-
|Dwarkanath Ganguly
|E.B.
|Bengali
|
|
|Brahmo Samaji
|-
|Ganapathy Subramania Iyer
|T.N.
|Tamil
|
|
|Member of Theosophical Society and of Madras Native Association that opposed Christian missionary work
|-
|Janki Nath Ghoshal
|W.B.
|Bengali
|
|
|Engaged with Brahmo Samjis, including Keshub Chunder Sen, and with Rabindranath Tagore, Vivekanand, and Sister Nivedita[https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/kolkata/japanese-scholar-traces-history-of-kolkata/articleshow/45127933.cms] regular contributor of Brahmo-affiliated pro-freedom ''Indian Mirror'' newspaper[https://www.getbengal.com/home/story_detail/the-mecca-of-journalism-lies-in-neglect], father of Subhas Chandra Bose and Sarat Chandra Bose
|-
|Sir Jotindra Mohan Tagore
|W.B.
|Bengali
|
|
|Founded an endowment for the benefit of Hindu widows and setup an annual fund towards a gold keyur to be annually presented to the best student in Sanskrit literature in Calcutta University
|-
|Kandukuri Veeresalingam Pantulu (alias 'Raja Ram Mohan Roy of Andhra')
|Andhra Pradesh
|Telugu
|
|
|Brahmo Samaji, Prarthana Samaji (popularized the Prarthana Samaj in southern India), established Madras Hindu Social Reform Association (alias 'Madras Hindu Association')
|-
|Kashinath Trimbak Telang (alias 'Justice Telang')
|Maharashtra
|Marathi
|
|
|Translated the ''Bhagavad Gita'', and his other important publication (1884) was the historical Sanskrit play ''Mudrarakshasa'' of Vishakhadatta
|-
|Krishna Kumar Mitra
|E.B.
|Bengali
|
|
|Brahmo Samaji
|-
|Rangachari Balaji Rao
|T.N.
|Marathi
|
|
|Member of Madras Mahajana Sabha who opposed Christian missionary work, follower of Vivekanand[https://biographies.rkmm.org/s/sb/m/companions-and-followers/a/balaji-rao-d-r]
|-
|Lalmohan Ghosh
|W.B.
|Bengali
|
|
|Brahmo Samaji
|-
|Madan Mohan Malaviya (alias 'Mahaman', 'Pandit')
|U.P.
|Malwi
|
|
|4-time INC president, founded Bharat Dharma Mahamandala and Hindu Mahasabha
|-
|Mahadev Govind Ranade (alias 'Justice Ranade', 'Nyayamurti Ranade')
|Maharashtra
|Marathi
|Usually
|Member (Leader)
|Member and key associate of Prarthana Samaj
|-
|Monomohun Ghose
|E.B.
|Bengali
|
|
|Sanskritist, Brahmo Samaji
|-
|Mudumbai Veeraraghavachariar
|T.N.
|Tamil
|
|
|Member of Theosophical Society and of Madras Native Association that opposed Christian missionary work
|-
|Nabagopal Mitra (alias 'National Mitra')
|W.B.
|Bengali
|
|
|Brahmo Samaji
|-
|Sir Narayan Ganesh Chandavarkar (alias 'Mr. Justice')
|Karnataka
|Marathi
|Usually
|Member (Leader-National President)
|Prarthana Samaj member
|-
|Narendra Nath Sen Gupta (alias 'Father of Indian Psychology')
|E.B.
|Bengali
|
|
|Established Theosophical Society of Bengali, had close friendship with Keshab Chunder Sen, wrote ''Mechanisms of Ecstasy'', which drew ideas from Hindu [and Christian] classics from his passionate study of the psychology of religions and their scriptures
|-
|Nyapati Subba Rao Pantulu (alias 'Andhra Bhishma')
|Andhra Pradesh
|Telugu
|
|
|Inspired by Vivekanand's speeches, he began Hindu Samajam in Rajahmundry (1903) for propagating the Gita and Sanatan Dharm[https://www.thehindu.com/features/friday-review/history-and-culture/Subba-Rao-Pantulu-remembered/article16837335.ece#:~:text=Subba%20Rao%20Pantulu%20was%20born,Swami%20Vivekananda%27s%20speeches%2C%20he%20started]
|-
|Panapakkam Ananda Charlu
|T.N.
|Tamil
|
|
|Member of Theosophical Society and of Madras Native Association that opposed Christian missionary work
|-
|Rai Raghunath Rao
|T.N.
|Marathi
|
|
|Member of Theosophical Society, statue of Krishna was constructed for him in front of Kumbakonam Town Hall in Kudanthai
|-
|Sir Ramakrishna Gopal Bhandarkar
|Maharashtra
|Marathi
|
|
|Member and key associate of Prarthana Samaj
|-
|Romesh Chunder Dutt (alias 'Arcydae', 'Babu Dewan', 'Hindu')
|W.B.
|Bengali
|Usually
|Member (Leader-National President)
|Wrote ''Early Hindu Civilisation, B.C. 2000 to 320'' (1927)
|-
|Romesh Chunder Mitter
|W.B.
|Bengali
|
|
|Established Sanskrit Chatuspathi in Bhawanipur, and translated ''Valmimi Ramayana'' and ''Mahabharata'' into English
|-
|Satyendranath Tagore
|W.B.
|Bengali
|
|
|Brahmo Samaji, member of Hindu Mahamela
|-
|Shankar Vishnu Patankar
|Maharashtra
|Marathi
|
|
|Prarthana Samaji
|-
|Shib Chandra Deb
|W.B.
|Bengali
|
|
|Brahmo Samaji
|-
|Sir Subbier Subramania Iyer (alias 'Lion of South India')
|T.N.
|Tamil
|
|
|President of the Dharma Rakshana Sabha, established 2 Vedic Schools (Madurai and Thiruparankundram), VP of Theosophical Society (1907-1911), established Suddha Dharma Mandala (1915)
|-
|Subodh Chandra Mallick (alias 'Raja')
|W.B.
|Bengali
|
|
|Funded ''Bande Mataram'' and ''Karmayogin'' newspapers, was a member in Jugantar, and financed Aurobindo's revolutionary activities
|-
|Surendranath Banerjee (alias 'Rashtraguru')
|W.B.
|Bengali
|Usually
|Member (Leader)
|Brahmo Samaji
|-
|Umesh Chandra Dutta
|W.B.
|Bengali
|
|
|Brahmo Samaji
|-
|Vishwanath Narayan Mandlik (alias 'Rao Saheb')
|Maharashtra
|Marathi
|
|
|Wrote several works on [[Ethics of Hinduism|Hindu Law]] in English, including translations of ''Yajnyawalkya Smriti'', the ''Manu Smriti'' and Nilakantha's ''Vyvahara Mayukha'', Prarthana Samaji
|-
|Vishnu Bhikaji Sule
|Maharashtra
|Marathi
|
|
|Prarthana Samaji
|-
|Womesh Chunder Bonnerjee
|W.B.
|Bengali
|Usually
|Member (Leader-National President)
|His maternal lineage traced to the Sanskrit scholar and philosopher Pandit Juggonath Turkopunchanun, linking him to the tradition of Hindu saints, studied at Hindu School at Kolkata, a major institution for blending Western and Sanskrit learning, authored Reform of the Hindu Marriage Laws (1868), which critiqued and proposed changes to Hindu marriage customs to be more ethical
|-
|}

===Later members of INC===
{| class="wikitable sortable"
|-
! Freedom Fighter
! Home Region
! Ethnicity
! Ahimsa
! Role
! Symbolism
|-
|Ambikagiri Raichoudhury (alias 'Assam Kesari')
|Assam
|Assami
|Yes
|Member (Leader, Detector)
|Established Sankardeva Sarcharkas organization to promote Assamese folk songs and cultural elements, including those influenced by Vaishnava traditions (e.g., devotional music and reformist ideas) — work emphasized Assami identity, which Ekasarana Dharm helped shape, criticized British authority for banning puja at Kamakhya Temple (centre of plots against British rule)
|-
|Ambujammal Desikachari (alias 'Akkamma')
|T.N.
|Tamil
|Yes
|Member (Leader-Local VP)
|Member of WIA, referenced Hindu scriptures in her nationalist and feminist work, translated ''Tulsi Ramayana'' into Tamil
|-
|Annie Besant
|England
|English
|Yes
|Member (Leader)
|Founded Madras Hindu Association "''to promote Hindu social and religious advancement on national lines with the spirit of Hindu civilization.''"
|-
|Arunachalam Vaidyanatha Iyer (alias 'Madurai A.')
|T.N.
|Tamil
|
|
|
|-
|Avinashilingam Chettiar
|T.N.
|Tamil
|
|
|
|-
|Awadhesh Pratap Singh
|M.P.
|Bagheli
|Yes
|Member (Leader-Local President)
| 
|-
|Baba Kanshi Ram (alias 'Pahari Gandhi', 'Paharan-Da-Bulbul', 'Siyahposh Jarnail')
|H.P.
|Kangri Pahari
|Not strictly
|Member
|Incorporated Hindu symbols into his speeches and writings, emphasized dharma
|-
|Badri Datt Pandey (alias 'Kumaon Kesari', 'Pandit')
|Uttarakhand
|Kumaoni
|Yes
|Member
|Blended anti-imperialism with Hindu cultural revival, founded Shakti, wrote about history referencing scriptures, glorified temple patronage, supported maths (i.e., Sanskrit schools like Shivaraj Sanskrit Pathshala) and ashrams (i.e., Sanatan Dharm Maha Mandal), Kuli Begar Movement's first oath was in 1921 at Haru Mandir
|-
|Bal Krishna Sharma (alias 'Lion of Kanpur', 'Naveen')
|M.P.
|Malwi
|Yes
|Member (Leader)
|His poetry often evokes India's ancient glory rooted in Hindu themes like in "Kumkum", "Rashmirekha", "Apalak", and revolutionary verses, wrote ''Urmila'' (version of Ramayana)
|-
|Balasaheb Gangadhar Kher
|Maharashtra
|Marathi
|
|Member (Leader)
|Wrote ''The Art of Life in the Bhagavad Gita'' and in prison made notes of books like ''Essays on the Gita'' and ''The Philosophy of the Upanishads''
|-
|Dr. Bhagwan Das
|U.P.
|Hindi
|Yes
|Member (Leader)
|Theosophy Society member, founded Kashi Vidya Peeth, wrote commentaries in English and Hindi on scriptures and concepts (i.e., Pranava-Vada), received Bharat Ratna
|-
|Bhag Mal Sautha
|H.P.
|Mahasuvi Pahari
|
|Member (Secretary)
|Founding member of Prem Pracharini Sabha, which encouraged recitation of devotional songs, prayers, and moral conduct as a means of social upliftment and unity among subjects, and Hindu principles like dharm
|-
|Bhausaheb Santuji Thorat (alias 'Dada', 'Sahakarmaharshi')
|Maharashtra
|Marathi
|Yes
|
|Philanthropic educationalist that established ⁠Amrutvahini Sheti & Shikshan Vikas Sanstha[https://assvs.org/] and Sahyadri Bahujan Vidya Prasarak Samaj[https://smbstcollege.edu.in/page/255/about-sbvp-samaj], performed Karma Yoga, particularly and service to humanity (Manav Seva.)
|-
|Bheemanna Khandre
|Karnataka
|Kannadiga
|Yes
|Member (Leader)
|President of Akhil Bharata Veerashaiva Lingayat Mahasabha, imprisoned for activism in liberation of Hyderabad from nizam
|-
|Bipin Chandra Pal
|W.B.
|Bengali
|
|
|Part of the Lal-Bal-Pal trio that promulgated the Swadeshi movement, was a Brahmo Samaji
|-
|Biju Patnaik
|Odisha
|Odia
|
|
|Had declared in his interview by reporter of ''Ajkal'' dated 9.8.1984, "''Hindus are not Communal. Muslims are communal.''", Was a Brahmo Samaji
|-
|Birama (alias 'Swami Keshwanand')
|Rajasthan
|Marwari
|
|
|Organized celebrations to honour Sikh, Namdhari-Sikh, Bishnoi-Vaishnav, and Jain gurus, was Udasin member himself, founded 300 schools (including a Sanskrit one), 50 hostels and social centres
|-
|Bhogaraju Pattabhi Sitaramayya
|Andhra Pradesh
|Telugu
|
|Member (Leader)
| Wrote positively about Hindu heritage and civilizational continuity, including of Shivaji
|-
|Dr. Bidhan Chandra Roy
|Bihar
|Bengali
|
|Member (Leader)
|Supported movements framed around Hindu protection and social organization (e.g., relief efforts tied to Hindu communities)
|-
|Bishnu Prasad Rabha (alias 'Kalaguru')
|Assam
|Assami
|Not strictly
|Member
|Drew an imaginary portrait of Sankardev, sang Borgeets (Vaishnava devotional songs), drew cultural inspiration from him for Assami identity
|-
|Chakravarti Rajagopalacari (alias 'Rajaji')
|T.N.
|Tamil
|Yes
|Member (Leader)
|Retold Rama in ''Chakravarti Thirumagan'' portraying Ram as the ideal upholder of righteousness/dharma, viewed Hindu principles as moral foundations for nationalism
|-
|Chinnaswami Subramaniyan (alias 'Subbayya Bhartiyar', 'Mahakavi')
|T.N.
|Tamil
|Not strictly
|Member
|
|-
|Chittaranjan Das (alias 'Deshbandhu')
|W.B.
|Bengali
|
|
|Quoted the Gita, occasionally praised Shivaji, influenced by Brahmo Samajis
|-
|Cunjen Kesavan
|Kerala
|Malayali
|
|Member (Leader)
|Used Hindu principles to argue that caste discrimination contradicted Hindu philosophical ideals
|-
|Devanahalli Venkataramanaiah Gundappa
|Karnataka
|Kannada
|
|
|Wrote ''Srimad Bhagavad Geeta Tatparya'' (alias ''Jeevana Dharma Yoga''), poetic works like ''Srirama Pareekshanam'', ''Srikrishna Pareekshanam'', and others, created Gokhale Institute of Public Affairs[https://www.gipa-bng.org/], which promoted Hindu literature and philosophical discourse
|-
|Diwan Rajagopala Balaji Rao
|T.N.
|Tamil
|
|
|Member of Madras Mahajana Sabha who opposed Christian missionary work
|-
|Dorothy Jinarajadasa
|England
|English
|Mainly
|Non-Member (Event Attendant)
|Worked closely with Gandhi and attended INC events like its Session at Kolkata (1917) and Malabar District Conference (1918)
|-
|Duggirala Gopalakrishnayya (alias 'Chirala Rama Das', 'Andhra Ratna')
|Andhra Pradesh
|Telugu
|Yes
|Member (Leader)
|Established the Rama Dandu (''Rama's Army'') to promote swaraj and its members wore saffron clothes, rudraksha beads, and vermillion, and established in 1921 Ramanagara as a Ram Rajya utopian settlement of 13,000 residents (religious idiom used to mobilize Congress mass politics)
|-
|Durgabai Deshmukh (alias 'Iron Lady of Andhra')
|Andhra Pradesh
|Telugu
|Yes
|Member (Leader-Local Chairperson)
|Emphasized dharm as duty, service, and moral responsibility, especially in public life and social reform
|-
|Dwarka Prasad Mishra
|M.P.
|Malwi
|Yes
|Member (Leader)
|Wrote ''Krishnayana'' and emphasized Krishna's struggle against tyrant Kamsa akin to Indians fighting for independence against British imperialists, other writings (i.e., ''Living an Era'') and speeches occassionally invoked India's ancient Hindu heritage
|-
|Ela Bhatt
|Gujarat
|Gujarati
|Yes
|Member
|Founder of SEWA and women’s rights activist, mentioned Hindu law in academic contexts (e.g., her gold medal in Hindu law studies).
|-
|Gangadharrao Deshpande
|Karnataka
|Kannadiga
|Yes
|Member (Leader-Local Chairperson)
|Expressed admiration of Savarkar and RSS, wrote letter to V.J. Patel in December 1947 actively participated in Shiv Jayanti, used Shivaji as a symbol of national resistance
|-
|Ganesh Shankar Vidyarthi
|U.P.
|Hindi
|
|Member (Leader, Journalist)
|Martyred when rescuing Hindus from a Muslim mob during a riot in Kanpur (1931), protested with other INC members against Islamic communalism to Moolgang Mosque in retaliation for its Muslims having attacked a Hindu procession's musical band, used Hindu symbolism like Ram Rajya as a just and moral society in speeches and writings
|-
|Garimella Satyanarayana
|Andhra Pradesh
|Telugu
|
|
|Translated ''Thirukkural'' into Telugu, used devotional imagery and dharmic-national language in many of his works, including Sanatan cultural symbolism in patriotic songs
|-
|Ghanshyam Das Birla
|Rajasthan
|Marwari
|
|
|Funded Hindu institutions like temples and Harijan Sevak Sangh, and funded INC and educational institutions, wrote June 1924 letter to Gandhi supporting conversions of Muslims to Hinduism
|-
|Gogineni Ranga Nayukulu (alias 'Acharya Ranga')
|Andhra Pradesh
|Telugu
|
|Member (Leader)
|His autobiography and writings refer to Gandhi’s religious philosophy and its Hindu roots, discussed Indian village life through the lens of dharmic ethics
|-
|Gopabandhu Das (alias 'Utkalmani')
|Odisha
|Odia
|
|Member (Leader-Local President)
|Founded institutions rooted in service (seva), dharma, and Hindu ethics
|-
|Gorur Ramaswamy Iyengar
|Karnataka
|Kannada
|Yes
|Member (Leader)
|Referenced Hindu philosophical ideas, especially in his writings (i.e., ''Americadalli Gorur'', wherein he referenced Upanishads and living by dharma), including essays that invoked Hindu principles for moral nationalism and social reform
|-
|Govind Ballabh Pant
|U.P.
|Marathi
|Yes
|Member (Leader)
|Reference to Ram Rajya like in Constituent Assembly debate (1948), to Krishna for issues like cow protection, supported Hindu Code Bill reforms, first U.P. CM of independent India, "''Real Swaraj means Ram Rajya. If secular State means that our children will not know about the Ramayana or listen to the Gita or the Koran or the Granth what is the political freedom worth? Sir, by 'Ram' I mean Hindu God and also Christian God.''" 1939: "''We want Ram Rajya, we want Sarvodaya. But for achieving them it is necessary that every...''"
|-
|Gulzarilal Nanda[https://www.mkgandhi.org/selectedletters/58gulzarilal_nanda.php]
|Punjab
|Punjabi
|
|Member (Leader)
|"''Nanda ji developed the great cultural and religious heritage of Kurukshetra by facilitating it for 22 years,...''" says Kurukhshetra University. He wrote "A Sacred Legacy" about Baba Sitaramdas Omkarnath[https://themotherdivine.com/01/a_sacred_legacy.shtml#:~:text=He%20offered%20Kirtan%20and%20Naam,whole%20course%20of%20his%20life.], founded the Bharat Sadhu Samaj along with other persons
|-
|Haladhar Bhuyan
|Assam
|Assami
|Yes
|Member
|Established Srimanta Sankardev Sangha to protect Sankardev's Ekasarana Vaishnava sect from adopting unethical traits and to promulgate the sect's teachings, was jailed for participation in freedom struggle
|-
|Hansa Mehta (alias 'A founding mother of the Indian republic')
|Gujarat
|Gujarati
|
|Member
|Translated the ''Valmiki Ramayana's'' chapters "Aranyakanda", "Balakanda" and "Sundarakanda", and ensured MS University Baroda undertook projects to publish other scriptures of ancient India
|-
|Hanuman Prasad Poddar
|Rajasthan
|Marwari
|Not strictly
|Non-Member (Attendant, Rally Protestor)
|Founder of Gita Press (provided more accurate translations of Hindu texts) and ''Kalyan'' magazine, affiliated with Hindu Mahasabha and RSS
|-
|Hardekar Manjappa (alias 'Gandhi of Karnataka')
|Karnataka
|Kannadiga
|Yes
|Non-Member (Volunteer)
|Used Basava's teachings as a symbol against British rule, promoted Basava's teachings through celebrations (i.e., starting Basava Jayanti festival) and writings (wrote over 40 books, like ''Basava Charithre''), presented a book on Basava to Gandhi, was part of Basweshara Seva Dala, organized first Ganesh Chaturthi in Belgaum (1905), which inspired Tilak to nationalize festival and utilize it for freedom struggle
|-
|Haribhau Upadhyaya (alias 'Pandit')
|M.P.
|Malwi
|Yes
|Member (Leader)
|Wrote works on Hindu scriptures, such as ''Bhagwat Geeta'', ''Sadhana ke Path Par'', and ''Yug Dharm''
|-
|Himmatlal Ramchandra Dave (alias 'Swami Anand')
|Gujarat
|Gujarati
|Yes
|Member (Administrator)
|A swami and Joint Secretary of the Bharat Sadhu Samaj, which he founded along with other persons
|-
|Indulal Yagnik
|Gujarat
|Gujarati
|
|
|Used Shivaji as anti-imperialist symbol, used folk-Sanatan imagery in mobilization contexts
|-
|Jagat Narain Lal
|Bihar
|Bhojpuri
|
|Member (Leader)
|His ''Light Unto a Cell'' references ''Mahabharata'', ''Bhagavad Gita'', ''Isha Upanishad'', among others
|-
|Jayaprakash Narayan Srivastava (alias 'Loknayak')
|Bihar
|Bhojpuri
|Yes
|Member (Leader-National GS)
|Frequently invoked Ram Rajya as an ideal of moral, decentralized, and just governance in his later writings and the Total Revolution Movement (1970s), describing it as a society based on dharm, equality, and ethical rule, reference Hindu ethical concepts of dharm, ahimsa, and selfless action positively while blending them with social ideals
|-
|Jhinabhai Ratanji Desai (alias 'Snehrashmi')
|Gujarat
|Gujarati
|
|
|Used spiritual symbolism, which occasionally included Sanatan devotional-cultural imagery
|-
|Jhaverchand Meghani (alias 'Rashtriya Shayar')
|Gujarat
|Gujarati
|Yes
|Non-Member (Rally Protestor)
|A poet and folklorist that mentioned Hindu figures, including Rajput resistance heroes and Bhakti Era sants, in patriotic literature, his works invoked cultural nationalism and religious-cultural imagery
|-
|Jivatram Bhagwandas Kripalani (alias 'Acharya Kripalani')
|Sindh
|Sindhi
|Yes
|Member (Leader-National President)
|
|-
|Jugal Chandra Ghosh
|W.B.
|Bengali
|
|Member
|Worked with groups mobilizing around Hindu protection and identity, including during the pro-Pakistan Direct Action Day riots in Kolkata
|-
|Jugal Kishore Birla
|Maharashtra
|Marwari
|
|
|Funded both INC and Hindu groups like HM and RSS, and funded Kolkata Medical College, Marwadi Balika Vidyalaya in Kolkata and other such institutions
|-
|Kailashpati Mishra
|Bihar
|Bhojpuri
|
|
|Was member of RSS from 1943, joined Bharatiya Jana Sangh
|-
|Kamaladevi Chattopadhyay
|Karnataka
|Kannadiga
|Yes
|Member (Leader)
|Promoted Hindu arts (theatre), crafts (handicrafts), and civilizational heritage
|-
|Kamalapati Tripathi
|U.P.
|Awadhi
|
|
|Wrote historical-nationalist essays and speeches referencing Shivaji, Hindu political resurgence, and anti-Mughal resistance, frequently invoked Ram Rajya, Hindu civilizational continuity, pilgrimage symbolism, and Sanskrit heritage
|-
|Kanaiyalal Maneklal Munshi
|Gujarat
|Gujarati
|Shifting view
|Member (Leader)
|Promoted Hindu cultural revival, founded Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan, mentioned figures like Shivaji for nationalism, used pro-Hindu symbolism in writings
|-
|Kanhiyalal Mishra Prabhakar
|U.P.
|Hindi
|
|
|Wrote Hindu cultural essays and referenced dharm/Indian spiritual traditions, and sants
|-
|Kanuparti Varalakshmamma
|Andhra Pradesh
|Telugu
|
|
|His writings included: Sanatan social themes, references to epics and ethical-cultural traditions
|-
|Karnad Sadashiva Rao
|Karnataka
|Kannadiga
|
|
|Used Shivaji as a symbol of national resistance
|-
|Karumuttu Thiagarajan Chettiar
|T.N.
|Tamil
|
|
|Involved in temple-based philanthropy
|-
|Kasinathuni Nageswara Rao (alias 'Desabandhu', 'Desoddhaaraka')
|Andhra Pradesh
|Telugu
|
|
|Wrote exposition of ''Bhagavad Gita'' in prison, promoted the Gita, stating the scripture belongs to the whole world for its spiritual enlightenment and prosperity (not only for Hinduism)
|-
|Keshava Pillai (alias 'Bodheswaran')
|Kerala
|Malayali
|Yes
|Member
|Disciple of Narayana Guru and Swamikal, promoted Hindu values, especially for reform
|-
|Kodumudi Balambal Sundarambal (alias 'Queen of the Indian Stage')
|T.N.
|Tamil
|
|
|Disciple of Satyamurthy, produced devotional songs, performed devotional concerts (katcheris) to Murugan at temples
|-
|Konda Venkata Ranga Reddy
|Telangana
|Telugu
|
|
|Supported demands involving: civil rights for Hindu populace of Telangana under Nizam Islamofascist, protection of Hindu social institutions
|-
|Konda Venkatappayya (alias 'Lion of Andhra')
|Andhra Pradesh
|Telugu
|
|Member
|His journalism framed Indian nationalism as rooted in Sanatan cultural continuity
|-
|Koyapalli Kelappan (alias 'Gandhi of Kerala', 'Dakshin ka Gandhi')
|Kerala
|Malayali
|Yes
|Member (Leader-Local President)
|Lived in Brahmacharya, and spoke of Hindu principles like dharm and sarvoday and worked to restore the historically-ruined Tali Temple
|-
|Krishna Ballabh Sahay
|Bihar
|Magahi
|
|
|Would quote extensively couplets by renowned Vaishnav poets like Chaube, Surdas, and Tulsidas in parliament
|-
|Krishna Mehta
|J&K
|Kashmiri
|
|
|Publicly acknowledged and honoured Magan Baba, and she spent over 10 years at his ashram, wrote in her ''Kashmir 1947: A Survivor's Story'' memoirs book of eyewitness testimony from the 1947 atrocities against non-Muslims in Kashmir
|-
|Krishna Nath Sarmah
|Assam
|Assami
|Yes
|Member (Secretary)
|Prominent Gandhian freedom fighter, social reformer, and participant in movements like the Dandi March and Civil Disobedience, actively referenced and utilized Vaishnava institutions by inviting Mahatma Gandhi in 1934 to inaugurate/open his family namghar
|-
|Krishnalal Shridharani[https://asianamericanedu.org/south-asian-influence-nonviolence.html]
|Gujarat
|Gujarati
|Yes
|
|A writer, mentioned Hindu figures in nonviolence discussions
|-
|Krishnanand Swami
|H.P.
|Mandyali Pahari
|
|
|A swami
|-
|Kushal Konwar
|Assam
|Assami
|
|Member
|Influenced by reading the Gita near death
|-
|Lajpat Rai (alias 'Lala Rai', 'Punjab Kesari')
|Punjab
|Punjabi
|Not strictly
|Member (Leader)
|Arya Samaj member
|-
|Dr. Lakshmi Narayan (alias 'Sudhanshu')
|Bihar
|Maithili
|
|
|Used Hindu/Sanskritic vocabulary in his works, and wrote the book ''Pracheen Bharatiya Arya Raj Vans'' ("''Ancient Indian Arya Royal Lineage''"), Government of Bihar constituted an award after him (Laxmi Narayan Sudhanshu Prize)
|-
|Lal Bahadur Srivastava (Shastri) (alias 'Shastriji', 'Man of Peace')
|U.P.
|Bhojpuri
|
|
|Quoted Gita, spoke of Ram Rajya, occasionally praised Shivaji
|-
|Lal Chand Prarthi
|H.P.
|Kullavi Pahari
|Not strictly
|Member (Leader)
|Documented Hindu folklore, village deities, and rituals, portraying them as symbols of cultural resistance against imperial and feudal oppression, supported Hindu institutions by advocating for preservation of local temples and festivals as part of regional identity
|-
|Laxman Vasudev Paranjape
|Maharashtra
|Marathi
|
|Member
|Involved in organizations promoting Hindu cultural and social revival
|-
|Laxminarayan Das
|Chhattisgarh
|Chhattisgarhi
|Yes
|Member
|Was mahant of Jaitu Sao Math in Raipur, used symbolisms like saffron robes, spoke of Ram in devotional contexts
|-
|Madhavrao Sapre
|M.P.
|Marathi
|Usually
|Member (Leader)
|Translated into Hindi Tilak's ''Gita Rahasya'', Samarth Ramdas' ''Dasbodh'', Chintamani Vinayak Vaidya's ''Mahabharat Mimansa'', and other Marathi works (i.e., ''Shri Ram Charitra'', ''Ekanath Charitra'', ''Atma Vidya'')
|-
|Maganlal Gandhi
|Gujarat
|Gujarati
|
|
|Used Gita-centered ethics, and was associated with Ramnam recitation, apart from the regular Gandhian vocabulary
|-
|Mahadev Desai
|Gujarat
|Gujarati
|Yes
|Member (Personal Assistant, Journalist)
|Gandhi’s secretary, mentioned Hindu figures like Krishna [in Gita translations], his statements promoted Gandhian Hinduism as tolerant and inclusive, used Shivaji as anti-imperialist symbol
|-
|Makhanlal Chaturvedi (alias 'Pandit Ji', 'Yug Charan', 'Ek Bhartiya Atma')
|M.P.
|Hindi
|
|Non-Member (Rally Protestor)
|Used Hindu imagery, including of Ram and Krishna, in his literature, and drew on spiritual themes to foster nationalism against British rule
|-
|Dr. Maithilisharan Gupt (alias 'Rashtrakavi')
|U.P.
|Bundeli
|
|
|Used Hindu and Bauddh persons in his stories, like Urmila (wife of Lakshman) in ''Saket'' and Yashodhara (wife of Gautam Buddha) in ''Yashodhara'', his ''Bharat Bharati'' book was widely quoted by freedom fighters
|-
|Malangi Shivalingiah Gurupadaswamy
|Karnataka
|Kannada
|Yes
|Member
|Referenced Hindu culture and scriptures positively context of "Indianisation," suggesting in a Constituent Assembly speech that Muslims should respect Hindu scriptures and culture for national unity
|-
|Malati Choudhury
|Odisha
|Odia
|
|
|Brahmo Samaji that made positive statements about the Samaj
|-
|Margaret Cousins
|Ireland
|Irish
|Usually
|Non-Member (Attendant)
|Worked closely with Gandhi and attended INC events like INC Session at Kolkata (1917) and Gandhi's meetings and campaigns
|-
|Manikya Lal Verma (alias 'Gandhi of Mewar')
|Rajasthan
|Mewari
|Yes
|Member (Leader)
|Worked closely with Arya Samaj
|-
|Manubhai Pancholi
|Gujarat
|Gujarati
|
|
|Cultural-literary engagements with Hindu ethical traditions, apart from using the regular Gandhian vocabulary
|-
|Maurice Frydman (alias 'Swami Bharatanand')
|Poland
|Polish
|
|
|Jewish convert to Hinduism, became rajyaguru to Anudh princely state's Raja Bala Sahib and drafted a constitution for the kingdom, lived at Gandhi's ashram and worked with him, worked with fellow Pole Gandhian Umadevi
|-
|Morarji Desai
|Gujarat
|Gujarati
|Not strictly
|Member (Leader)
|Made pro-Hindu statements like "''Hinduism is the most tolerant religion''" and emphasized Hindu moral values, referenced Hindu philosophy in governance but balanced with secularism
|-
|Mylai Ponnuswamy Sivagnanam (alias 'Sivagnanam Gramani', 'Silambu Chelvar')
|T.N.
|Tamil
|
|
|Influenced by Subramanya Bharathi and wrote 10 books on him (i.e., ''Vallalarum Bharathiyum''), wrote books on ''Silapathikaram'', wrote books on V.O.C. Pillai, wrote books on Veerapandiya Kattabomman, wrote books on Sant Thiruvalluvar, wrote ''The Universal Vision of Saint Ramalinga''
|-
|Nanabhai Bhatt
|Gujarat
|Gujarati
|Yes
|
|Educationist and Nai Talim pioneer, promoted Hindu ethical values like simplicity and self-reliance in education but without sectarian pro-Hindu statements, referenced Hindu cultural inheritance in educational philosophy
|-
|Nand Lal (alias 'Master Ji')
|Punjab
|Punjabi
|
|Member
|He wrote the ''Ramayan'' in a drama form and organized a play on the same on Navratras and Dussehra festivals (he played Dasrath in the play)
|-
|Narayan Desai
|Gujarat
|Gujarati
|
|
|Referenced bhajans and Gita ethics, apart from the regular Gandhian vocabulary like Ram Rajya
|-
|Dr. Narayan Subbarao Hardikar
|Karnataka
|Marathi
|Yes
|Member (Leader-Local GS)
|Established the Hindustani Seva Mandal (later became Rashtriya Seva Dal) in 1923, established the Arya Bala Sabha, taught the Gita during his student days in Kolkata<ref>''Dr. N.S. Hardiker'' By Ranganath Ramachandra Diwakar</ref>, was a fan of Lokmanya Tilak, and had enthusiastically worked with Lala Rai
|-
|Narendra Dev (alias 'Acharya Dev')
|U.P.
|Hindi
|Shifting view
|Member (Leader)
|Referenced Ram Rajya as socialist utopia, and Hindu ethical traditions and figures like Krishna as sources of moral inspiration for selfless action and justice
|-
|Narhari Dwarkadas Parikh
|Gujarat
|Gujarati
|Yes
|Non-Member (Attendant, Rally Protestor, Volunteer)
|Referenced Hindu ethics in satyagraha
|-
|Naurang Rai (alias 'Swami Sahajanand Saraswati')
|U.P.
|Bhojpuri
|Not strictly
|Member
|Wrote books in Sanskrit and Hindi, on Hinduism and independence, helped form All India Kisan Sabha, in which he was its first President, worked with INC, Swatantra (N.G. Ranga ), and CPI (E.M.S. Namboodiripad), organized Bakasht Movement in Bihar in 1937–1938, built ashram at Bihta, Bihar
|-
|Nautamlal Bhagavanji Mehta (alias 'Nagar Seth of Jetpur')
|Gujarat
|Gujarati
|Yes
|Non-Member
|Supporter of Gandhi — coined 'Mahatma' for him, invoking Hindu reverence, promoted Hindu unity in nationalism
|-
|Nilakantha Das (alias 'Pandit', 'Veritable Father of Orissa')
|Odisha
|Odia
|
|
|While imprisoned, he wrote ''Interpretation of the Gita (Hazaribagh Jail)'', and outside of jail wrote ''Gita Prabesha'' also on the Gita, and wrote books of other spiritual topics; ''Arya Jeeban'', ''Bhaktigatha'', ''Pilanka Bhagabata'', and ''Sanskruta O Sanskruti''
|-
|Padam Dev (alias 'Pandit', 'Kaviraj')
|H.P.
|Mahasuvi Pahari
|Yes
|Member (Leader-Local GS)
|Arya Samaj preacher — promoted shuddhi (even converting American Samuel Evans Stokes), referenced Hindu scriptures in his campaigns (i.e., against Begar or forced labour and reet or feudal tax, speeches invoked figures like Dayanand
|-
|Pandurang Mahadev Bapat ('Senapati Bapat')
|Maharashtra
|Marathi
|No (revolutionary)
|Non-Member (Attendant)
|Hindu symbolism (Shivaji, dharma) in speeches, including religious symbolism in anti-colonial struggle
|-
|Pandurang Sadashiv Khankhoje
|Maharashtra
|Marathi
|No (revolutionary)
|
|
|-
|Pandurang Sadashiv Sane (alias 'Sane Guruji', 'Gandhi of Maharashtra')
|Maharashtra
|Marathi
|Yes
|Member
|Wrote the ''Geeta Hridaya'', from his notes on the lectures in prison that Acharya Bhave delivered in the same jail, the latter compiled the ''Gita Pravachane'' book, orgaqnizations Akhil Bharatiya Sane Guruji Kathamala, Antar Bharati, and Rashtriya Smarak Samiti were modelled on Guruji's teachings
|-
|Pandurang Vitthalapanta Valame (alias 'Rang Avadhoot'[https://www.rangavadhoot.us/])
|Gujarat
|Marathi
|
|
|A mystic sant, mentioned Hindu figures like Dattatreya, used devotional slogans like "Jai Guru", teachings were spiritual
|-
|Puripanda Appala Swamy
|Andhra Pradesh
|Telugu
|
|
|Worked extensively with: Telugu literal renderings of epics, Hindu cultural literature, Ramayan/Mahabharata themes Some works include: ''Mahabharatam'', ''Sridevi Bhagavatam'', ''Srimadbhagavatam'', ''Valmiki Ramayanam'', ''Jagadguru Shankaracharya''
|-
|Potti Sreeramulu
|Andhra Pradesh
|Telugu
|
|
|Promoted ascetic-sacrificial ideals, used spiritualized language
|-
|Phanishwar Nath Mandal (alias 'Renu')
|Bihar
|Maithili
|
|
|Used Hindu imagery in his works, including references to gods and devotional songs, as well as ritual life and village customs, attended Kashi Hindu Vishvavidyalay
|-
|Prabhavati Devi
|Bihar
|Bhojpuri
|
|
|Lived ascetically like Gandhi in his ashram, practiced social work as part of spiritual lifestyle, spiritualized public ethics
|-
|Purushottam Das Tandon
|U.P.
|Hindi
|Yes
|Member (Leader-National President)
|Advocated for Hindu militarism to fight perceived threats in India, used Hindu cultural symbolism (i.e., Ram Rajya), worked with K.M. Munshi in the Constituent Assembly against forced or induced conversions, was Sanskrit scholar, supported education in Vedas, Upanishads and Gita
|-
|Sir Puttige Sivaswami Subramania Iyer (alias 'Grand Old Man of South India')
|T.N.
|Tamil
|Usually
|Member
|
|-
|Rajendra Shah
|Gujarat
|Gujarati
|
|
|Used spiritual themes, particularly devotional undertones influenced by Sanatan literary culture
|-
|Ramaswamy Aiyer Krishnamurthy (alias 'Kalki Krishnamurthy')
|T.N.
|Tamil
|Yes
|Member
|Adopted the name Kalki, his works like ''Ponniyin Selvan'' and ''Sivagamiyin Sapatham'' drew heavily from Tamil/Hindu epics and they used Hindu themes to evoke modern nationalism
|-
|Raghunath Vinayak Dhulekar
|U.P.
|Marathi
|Yes
|Member
|Wrote commentaries about shastras and ideas, like ''Shweta-Shwatrupanishad Bhasya'' on ''Shvetashvatara Upanishad'' and Shaivism, ''Prashnapanishad Saral Bhashya'' on the ''Prashna Upanishad'', ''Atmadarshi Geeta Bhashya'' on the Gita, ''Chaturvedanugami Bhashya'' on Vedas, and ''Pillars of Vedant'' on Vedanta
|-
|Dr. Rajendra Prasad
|Bihar
|Bhojpuri
|Yes
|Member (Leader-National President)
|Strongly defended traditional Hindu dharm and personal laws against the Hindu Code Bill, arguing to Nehru that changes would undermine core Hindu scriptural and cultural traditions (i.e., family structure rooted in shastras and dharm), referenced Hindu concepts like dharm positively as the ethical foundation of Indian society and expressed respect for figures like Ram and Krishna as moral ideals
|-
|Dr. Ram Manohar Lohia
|U.P.
|Marwari
|Shifting view
|Member (Leader-National Secretary)
|Wrote essay "Ram, Krishna, aur Shiva" as "''India's three great dreams''", invoked Ram Rajya positively, engaged positively with Gita and Hindu ethical concepts like dharm, and praised Krishna's call for nishkam karma as model for selfless struggle and social change, used Hindu figures to foster cultural confidence and mass mobilization (i.e., Ramayana Mela at Chitrakoot, U.P.) to connect with tural and traditional audiences, argued Hindu symbols could transcend narrow religious boundaries and promote unity
|-
|Ram Prasad (alias 'Agyat', 'Bismil', 'Pandit')
|U.P.
|Hindi
|No (revolutionary)
|Non-Member (Attendant, Volunteer)
|Arya Samaj member that encouraged shuddhi for Muslims
|-
|Rambriksh Benipuri
|Bihar
|Magadhi
|
|
|Wrote of Sanatan and Bauddh themes, like his play ''Ramrajya'' and his book ''Amipure'' based on a Bauddh convert and ''Netradaan'' on Samrat Ashok
|-
|Ramdhari Singh Dinkar
|Bihar
|Magadhi
|
|
|Wrote nationalistic literature with Hindu imagery/references (i.e., ''Kurukshetra'' and ''Rashmirathi''), was influenced by Rabindranath Tagore and translated his works from Bengali to Hindi
|-
|Ramesh Chandra Jha
|Bihar
|Magadhi
|
|
|Used light Sanatan themes in his patriotic poetry, like ''Murlika'' referencing Krishna but a metaphor for the human voice, expressing the inner music, longing, and dreams of ordinary citizens, and wrote ''Meera Nachi Re'' to depict Sant Meera Bai as someone who positively broke social chains, and wrote works like ''Kaling Ka Lahu'' on Samrat Ashok ''Chalo-Dilli'' (referenced Dharm-Yuddh), freedom fighter Kanhiyalal Mishra Prabhakar wrote a biography of him
|-
|Ravishankar Shukla
|M.P.
|Hindi
|Yes
|Member (Leader-Premier)
|Headed Kanyakubja Sabha and collaborated with Malaviya to mobilize Brahmans, joined Theosophical Society to explore vastness of Hindu canon, 1st CM of independent M.P.
|-
|Ravishankar Vyas (alias 'Maharaj', 'Father of Gujarat')
|Gujarat
|Gujarati
|Yes
|Non-Member (Rally Protestor)
|Mentioned Hindu dharma in both devotional culture and Gandhian contexts
|-
|Saroj Kumari Gaurihar
|U.P.
|Bundeli
|
|
|Used devotional-national imagery, feminine-sacred symbolism, and traditional Hindu motifs
|-
|Sarojini Naidu
|Telangana
|Bengali
|Yes
|Member (Leader-National President)
|Used women like Sita, Savitri, Gargi, and Damayanti as ideals for women's empowerment, used Hindi ideas of tolerance for harmony between communities
|-
|Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan (alias 'Philosopher President', 'Bridge Builder')
|T.N.
|Telugu
|Usually
|
|Authored a highly influential commentary called ''The Bhagavad Gita'' (1948, praising it as the pinnacle of Hindu philosophy and a universal guide to ethics, dharm, and spiritual realization, celebrated Hindu scriptures (Gita, Vedanta, Upanishads) as profound expressions of eternal truth, dharm as moral order, and Krishna as a symbol of divine wisdom and action within his works ''Indian Philosophy'' and ''The Hindu View of Life''
|-
|Savalai Ramaswami Mudaliar
|Puducherry
|Tamil
|Usually
|Member (Leader)
|
|-
|Seshadri Srinivasa Iyengar (alias 'Lion of the South')
|T.N.
|Tamil
|
|
|Devout Sri Vaishnava that authored a book on Mayne's Hindu Laws, became monk (Swami Anvananda) later in life
|-
|Seth Govind Das (alias 'Mahakoshal Kesari')
|M.P.
|Hindi
|Yes
|Member (Leader-Local President)
|Invoked Hindu scriptures (including Vedas, Upanishads, ''Vishnu Purana'', and ''Brahma Purana'') and figures in Constituent Assembly, wrote drama plays and texts of Hindu subject matter, partook in demonstration against cow slaughter in 1966 led by RSS, VHP, and RRP
|-
|Shankarrao Trimbak Dharmadhikari (alias 'Dada Dharmadhikari')
|M.P.
|Marathi
|Yes
|Non-Member
|Mentioned Hindu figures like Krishna in philosophical contexts, was studying Shankaracharya's works for about a year before joining independence movement
|-
|Shankarlal Banker
|Gujarat
|Gujarati
|Yes
|Non-Member (Rally Protestor)
|Referenced Hindu ethics in labor reforms
|-
|Shiv Prasad Gupta
|U.P.
|Hindi
|Yes
|Member (Financier)
|Founded Kashi Vidya Peeth for Indian and Hindu studies, funded Hindu institutions like BHU, built Bharat Mata Mandir, held the First National Congress at his residence, Gandhi called him Rashtra Ratna
|-
|Shyamlal Gupta
|U.P.
|Awadhi
|
|
|Wrote ''Vijayi Vishwa Tiranga Pyara'', a nationalistic book that often invoked Shivaji, Rajput resistance, and Hindu martial heroes
|-
|Sohan Lal Dwivedi (alias 'Rashtrakavi')
|U.P.
|Hindi
|Yes
|Non-Member
|Mentioned Ram Rajya, like in Bharavi collection of poems, used both Krishna and Rama in patriotic poetry to describe India as the privilaged land they lived in
|-
|Sonaram Sutiya
|Assam
|Assami
|Yes
|
|Vaishnav pandit that [through the Srimanta Sankardev Sangha] promoted nam-kirtan, satras and namghars, and Sankardev's teachings
|-
|Subhadra Kumari Chauhan
|U.P.
|Awadhi
|
|
|Mentions Hindu figures in her poetry, like Ram in" Vijayadashmi", and Krishna in a few like "Ye Kadamb Ka Ped", "Vida", "Bhaiya Krishna!", "Krishna-Yashoda"
|-
|Sundara Sastri Satyamurti (alias 'Firebrand of South India', 'Dheerar')
|T.N.
|Tamil
|Yes
|Member (Leader-National President)
|Engaged with Hindu scriptures, sometimes invoked dharma for moral nationalism
|-
|Dr. Sampurnanand
|U.P.
|Hindi
|Yes
|Member (Leader-Local Secretary)
|Wrote books like ''Yogadarshan'' and commentaries on Vedic texts, portrayed Hinduism as the nationalistic force for strengthening India, mentioned Ram Rajya, openly discussed the threats of Muslim disloyalty
|-
|Sir Subramania Iyer
|T.N.
|Tamil
|
|
|Activist in Besant's Hindu organizational circles
|-
|Subramaniya Siva
|T.N.
|Tamil
|
|
|Used Tamil-Hindu cultural imagery in poetry
|-
|Swami Purnanand
|H.P.
|Mandyali Pahari
|
|Member (Leader)
|A swami
|-
|Tanguturi Prakasam (alias 'Andhra Kesari', 'Prakasam Pantulu')
|Andhra Pradesh
|Telugu
|
|Member (Leader)
|His public rhetoric frequently invoked dharma and the moral authority of Hindu epics, quoted Gita, occasionally invoked Krishna and Ram as moral exemplar in speeches, occasionally praised Shivaji, supported protection of Hindu religious institutions and saw them as part of national heritage
|-
|Tara Chand (alias 'Kashyap Bandhu')
|J&K
|Kashmiri
|
|
|Became an Arya Samaji and an editor of ''Arya Gazette'' in Lahore, where he also performed social service for the association
|-
|Uchharangrai Navalshankar Dhebar
|Gujarat
|Gujarati
|
|
|Used spiritual-national vocabulary shaped by Sanatan idioms
|-
|Vaidyanath Mishra (alias 'Nagarjun', 'Yatri')
|Bihar
|Maithili
|
|
|Was disciple of Rahul Sankrityayan, and like him, became a Bauddh monk and wrote works (i.e., essays like "Ayodhya ka raja" and "Bum Bholenath", poems like "Harijan Gatha" and "Mantra Kavita") using a high amount of Sanatan imagery (i.e., ''Ramayana''), references (i.e., ''Mahabharata''), gods
|-
|Valangaiman Sankaranarayana Srinivasa Sastri
|T.N.
|Tamil
|
|Member
|Public lectures frequently praised Sanskrit literature and ethical universality of Hindu scriptures, presented Hindu philosophy to Western audiences as one of India’s greatest contributions to world civilization
|-
|Vallabhbhai Patel (alias 'Sardar')
|Guajrat
|Guajrati
|
|
|Supported rebuilding of Somnath Temple
|-
|Vallinayagam Olaganathan Chidambaram Pillai (alias 'Kappalottiya Tamizhan')
|T.N.
|Tamil
|Not strictly
|Member
|Met Swami Ramakrishnananda (Vivekanand’s brother) in Chennai and was advised by him to serve the nation as a form of dharm (spiritual duty), became a member of the militant Bharatha Matha Sangam, his literature includes the commentaries ''Thirukural'' (1917) and ''Tolkappiam'' (1928), memorials to him exist in places like Theni district, erected by the Shaiv Vellalar community, his promotion of Tamil literature often intersected with Shaiv devotional texts (''Tirumurai'', ''Periya Puranam''), was active in organizations like the Shaiva Siddhanta Sangam (Madurai)
|-
|Dr. Vavilala Gopalakrishnayya (alias 'Andhra Gandhi', 'Telugu Bhishma')[https://vavilalasamstha.com/index.html]
|Andhra Pradesh
|Telugu
|Yes
|
|Spoke of Ram Rajya in the context of democratic accountability, welfare state ideals ("''land of dharma and a real of peace''"), and political morality (nonviolence to achieve goals)
|-
|Vedaratnam Pillai (alias 'Sardar')
|T.N.
|Tamil
|
|
|Involved in temple-based philanthropy (donations to schools attached to temple towns, supported annadanams near temples, helped build hospitals, hostels, or schools on temple-endowed lands), promoted ethical Gandhian vocabulary in public life
|-
|Dr. Venkata Subrahmaniam[https://maharishibharati.org/centre/anglais/Association/DrShuddhananda.html] (alias 'Shuddhananda Bharati')
|T.N.
|Tamil
|
|
|Edited the journal ''Bharata Shakti'' wrote novels ''Kasturi'' and ''Viduthalai'' that contained both spirituality and politics
|-
|Vijay Singh Pathik
|U.P.
|Hindi
|
|
|His revolutionary rhetoric drew from Rajput resistance memory and heroic anti-imperial traditions
|-
|Vinayak Narahar Bhave (alias 'Acharya Vinoba')
|Gujarat
|Marathi
|Yes
|Non-Member
|Bhoodan leader, mentioned Hindu figures like Krishna in philosophical contexts, used slogans like "Jai Jagat" (''Victory to the World''), his statements emphasized spiritual equality and non-violence, drawing from Hindu texts for universal humanism, spoke of Ram Rajya like in Bhoodan movement discourse
|-
|Vyenkatesh Bhagvanrao Khedgikar (alias 'Swami Ramanand Tirtha')
|Karnataka
|Kannada
|Yes
|Member (Leader)
|Was an Arya Samaj monk, drew from scriptures like Gita, rallied people against Nizam, became first President of the Hyderabad State Congress in 1947
|-
|Wanda Dynowska (alias 'Umadevi')
|Poland
|Polish
|
|
|Established Polish-Indian Library (translated Hindu and Bauddh scriptures into Polish to share with fellow Poles), worked with fellow Pole Gandhian Swami Bharatanand
|-
|}

==Non-aligned==
{| class="wikitable sortable"
|-
! Freedom Fighter
! Home Region
! Ethnicity
! Ahimsa
! Role
! Symbolism
|-
|Alluri Sitarama Raju
|Telangana
|Telugu
|
|
|Took sanyas, used to teach Gita to people
|-
|Ayodhya Prasad Upadhyay
|U.P.
|
|
|
|Volunteered lecturing Hindi at the Banaras Hindu University, wrote important works
|-
|Arani Subramaniya Sastri
|T.N.
|Tamil
|
|
|
|-
|Akkur Ananthachari
|T.N.
|Tamil
|
|
|
|-
|Bandopadhyaya (Acharya Buddharakkhita)
|Manipur
|Bengali
|
|
|Opposed Christian missionaries wanting to converting Bauddhs and Sanatans, monk who founded Maha Bodhi Society[http://mahabodhi.info/] of Bengaluru, translated ''Dhammapada'' into English
|-
|Belagere Krishna Shastry
|Karnataka
|Kannada
|
|
|Member of Gokhale Institute of Public Affairs[https://www.gipa-bng.org/], which promoted Hindu literature and philosophical discourse
|-
|Chatursen Shastri
|U.P.
|
|
|Yes
|Wrote works both religious and sociopolitical, even critiquing Gandhi's nonviolent stance and in independent India, Nehru attempted to ban his books
|-
|Sir Chetput Pattabhirama Ramaswami Aiyar
|T.N.
|Tamil
|
|
|
|-
|Kattamuthu Ocha Thevar (alias 'Pappapatti Kattamuthu Mookiah')
|T.N.
|Tamil
|
|
|Was disciple of Ukkirapandi Muthuramalinga Thevar
|-
|Natesa Iyer (alias 'Father Gangadhara Shastri')
|T.N.
|Tamil
|
|
|
|-
|Gazulu Lakshminarasu Chetty
|T.N.
|Tamil
|
|
|
|-
|George Arundale
|England
|English
|
|
|Close friend of Besant, wrote ''Nirvana'', which contained Hindu beliefs and terminology, and wrote other works
|-
|Sakkottai Krishnaswamy Iyengar
|T.N.
|Tamil
|
|
|
|-
|Kallidaikurichi S. Subramaniya Iyer
|T.N.
|Tamil
|
|
|
|-
|Mandayam Parthasarathi Tirumal Acharya
|T.N.
|Tamil
|
|
|
|-
|Nanak Bheel
|
|Bhili
|
|
|Propagated the movement of Govind Guru (disciple of Swami Dayanand) among tribals, organized public gatherings that incorporated bhajans and patriotic songs, and was martyred by British imperialist forces
|-
|Pothiram Upadhyay ('Swaroopanand Saraswati', 'Revolutionary Sadhu')
|M.P.
|
|
|Yes
|A participant in 1942 Quit India Movement, he later 1st president of ABRRP, supported reclaiming Ram Janmabhumi and including shastras in curriculum, was Shankaracharya of Dwarka Sharada Peeth from 1982 and before that of Jyotir Math, Badrinath (1973), mentioned Hindu figures like Ram, Krishna, Hanuman, and Shiva in speeches
|-
|Ramanathapuram Sankara Venkatarama Iyer
|T.N.
|Tamil
|
|
|
|-
|Rangaswami Iyengar (alias 'Alathur')
|T.N.
|Tamil
|
|
|
|-
|Seshayengar Srinivasa Raghavaiyangar
|T.N.
|Tamil
|
|
|
|-
|Dr. Swaminatha Sastri
|T.N.
|Tamil
|
|
|
|-
|Thakur Akshay Singh Ratnu
|M.P.
|
|
|
|Renovated the Karni Mata temple, wrote devotional works like "Maa Karni Vandana Stotram", in his family memoirs is credited with instilling "Sanskaras of Sanatan Hindu Dharma", wrote about Maharana Pratap, known as Sahityabhushana
|-
|Tiruppur Subrahmanya Avinashilingam Chettiar
|T.N.
|Tamil
|
|
|Ramakrishna Mission member
|-
|Ukkirapandi Muthuramalinga Thevar (alias 'Pasumpon')
|T.N.
|Tamil
|
|
|Lived as a sadhu, combined political activism with Hindu spirituality and community leadership, kept strong links to Hindu religious networks in T.N., had temple-centered authority
|-
|Varahaneri Venkatesa Subramaniam Aiyar
|T.N.
|Tamil
|
|
|
|-
|Veer Narayan Singh
|Chhattisgarh
|Chhattisgarhi
|
|
|
|-
|}

Talk:Indian Freedom Fighters

2026-06-07T05:46:49Z

Himanshu Bhatt: /* Later members of INC */

==INC==
===Founders of INC===
{| class="wikitable sortable"
|-
! Freedom Fighter
! Home Region
! Ethnicity
! Ahimsa
! Role
! Symbolism
|-
|Ananda Mohan Bose (alias 'Saint Bose')
|E.B.
|Bengali
|
|
|Brahmo Samaji
|-
|Sir Ashutosh Mukherjee (alias 'Bengali Tiger')
|W.B.
|Bengali
|
|
|Influenced by Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar and Vivekananda, taught Pali and [[Sanskrit]] (as well as Bengali and Hindi), his Dr. S.P. Mukherjee would found the Jana Sangh party
|-
|Dr. Atmaram Pandurang Tarkhadkar
|Maharashtra
|Marathi
|
|
|Founded Prarthana Samaji
|-
|Bal Gangadhar Tilak (alias 'Lokmanya', 'Father of the Indian Unrest')
|Maharashtra
|Marathi
|Not strictly
|Member (Leader)
|Of the 'extremist' faction within the INC, he established institutions, including the Deccan Education Society and its Fergusson College, popularized Ganesh Chathurti and Shiv Jayanti, as well as wrote important historical works.
|-
|Dadoba Pandurang Tarkhadkar (alias 'Ek Hindu')
|Maharashtra
|Marathi
|
|
|Paramahansa Mandali, member and key associate of Prarthana Samaj
|-
|Durga Mohan Das
|E.B.
|Bengali
|
|
|Brahmo Samaji
|-
|Durgaram Manchharam Dave (alias 'Durgaram Mehta')
|Gujarat
|Gujarati
|
|
|Founded Manav Dharm Sabha and Paramahansa Mandali
|-
|Dwarkanath Ganguly
|E.B.
|Bengali
|
|
|Brahmo Samaji
|-
|Ganapathy Subramania Iyer
|T.N.
|Tamil
|
|
|Member of Theosophical Society and of Madras Native Association that opposed Christian missionary work
|-
|Janki Nath Ghoshal
|W.B.
|Bengali
|
|
|Engaged with Brahmo Samjis, including Keshub Chunder Sen, and with Rabindranath Tagore, Vivekanand, and Sister Nivedita[https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/kolkata/japanese-scholar-traces-history-of-kolkata/articleshow/45127933.cms] regular contributor of Brahmo-affiliated pro-freedom ''Indian Mirror'' newspaper[https://www.getbengal.com/home/story_detail/the-mecca-of-journalism-lies-in-neglect], father of Subhas Chandra Bose and Sarat Chandra Bose
|-
|Sir Jotindra Mohan Tagore
|W.B.
|Bengali
|
|
|Founded an endowment for the benefit of Hindu widows and setup an annual fund towards a gold keyur to be annually presented to the best student in Sanskrit literature in Calcutta University
|-
|Kandukuri Veeresalingam Pantulu (alias 'Raja Ram Mohan Roy of Andhra')
|Andhra Pradesh
|Telugu
|
|
|Brahmo Samaji, Prarthana Samaji (popularized the Prarthana Samaj in southern India), established Madras Hindu Social Reform Association (alias 'Madras Hindu Association')
|-
|Kashinath Trimbak Telang (alias 'Justice Telang')
|Maharashtra
|Marathi
|
|
|Translated the ''Bhagavad Gita'', and his other important publication (1884) was the historical Sanskrit play ''Mudrarakshasa'' of Vishakhadatta
|-
|Krishna Kumar Mitra
|E.B.
|Bengali
|
|
|Brahmo Samaji
|-
|Rangachari Balaji Rao
|T.N.
|Marathi
|
|
|Member of Madras Mahajana Sabha who opposed Christian missionary work, follower of Vivekanand[https://biographies.rkmm.org/s/sb/m/companions-and-followers/a/balaji-rao-d-r]
|-
|Lalmohan Ghosh
|W.B.
|Bengali
|
|
|Brahmo Samaji
|-
|Madan Mohan Malaviya (alias 'Mahaman', 'Pandit')
|U.P.
|Malwi
|
|
|4-time INC president, founded Bharat Dharma Mahamandala and Hindu Mahasabha
|-
|Mahadev Govind Ranade (alias 'Justice Ranade', 'Nyayamurti Ranade')
|Maharashtra
|Marathi
|Usually
|Member (Leader)
|Member and key associate of Prarthana Samaj
|-
|Monomohun Ghose
|E.B.
|Bengali
|
|
|Sanskritist, Brahmo Samaji
|-
|Mudumbai Veeraraghavachariar
|T.N.
|Tamil
|
|
|Member of Theosophical Society and of Madras Native Association that opposed Christian missionary work
|-
|Nabagopal Mitra (alias 'National Mitra')
|W.B.
|Bengali
|
|
|Brahmo Samaji
|-
|Sir Narayan Ganesh Chandavarkar (alias 'Mr. Justice')
|Karnataka
|Marathi
|Usually
|Member (Leader-National President)
|Prarthana Samaj member
|-
|Narendra Nath Sen Gupta (alias 'Father of Indian Psychology')
|E.B.
|Bengali
|
|
|Established Theosophical Society of Bengali, had close friendship with Keshab Chunder Sen, wrote ''Mechanisms of Ecstasy'', which drew ideas from Hindu [and Christian] classics from his passionate study of the psychology of religions and their scriptures
|-
|Nyapati Subba Rao Pantulu (alias 'Andhra Bhishma')
|Andhra Pradesh
|Telugu
|
|
|Inspired by Vivekanand's speeches, he began Hindu Samajam in Rajahmundry (1903) for propagating the Gita and Sanatan Dharm[https://www.thehindu.com/features/friday-review/history-and-culture/Subba-Rao-Pantulu-remembered/article16837335.ece#:~:text=Subba%20Rao%20Pantulu%20was%20born,Swami%20Vivekananda%27s%20speeches%2C%20he%20started]
|-
|Panapakkam Ananda Charlu
|T.N.
|Tamil
|
|
|Member of Theosophical Society and of Madras Native Association that opposed Christian missionary work
|-
|Rai Raghunath Rao
|T.N.
|Marathi
|
|
|Member of Theosophical Society, statue of Krishna was constructed for him in front of Kumbakonam Town Hall in Kudanthai
|-
|Sir Ramakrishna Gopal Bhandarkar
|Maharashtra
|Marathi
|
|
|Member and key associate of Prarthana Samaj
|-
|Romesh Chunder Dutt (alias 'Arcydae', 'Babu Dewan', 'Hindu')
|W.B.
|Bengali
|Usually
|Member (Leader-National President)
|Wrote ''Early Hindu Civilisation, B.C. 2000 to 320'' (1927)
|-
|Romesh Chunder Mitter
|W.B.
|Bengali
|
|
|Established Sanskrit Chatuspathi in Bhawanipur, and translated ''Valmimi Ramayana'' and ''Mahabharata'' into English
|-
|Satyendranath Tagore
|W.B.
|Bengali
|
|
|Brahmo Samaji, member of Hindu Mahamela
|-
|Shankar Vishnu Patankar
|Maharashtra
|Marathi
|
|
|Prarthana Samaji
|-
|Shib Chandra Deb
|W.B.
|Bengali
|
|
|Brahmo Samaji
|-
|Sir Subbier Subramania Iyer (alias 'Lion of South India')
|T.N.
|Tamil
|
|
|President of the Dharma Rakshana Sabha, established 2 Vedic Schools (Madurai and Thiruparankundram), VP of Theosophical Society (1907-1911), established Suddha Dharma Mandala (1915)
|-
|Subodh Chandra Mallick (alias 'Raja')
|W.B.
|Bengali
|
|
|Funded ''Bande Mataram'' and ''Karmayogin'' newspapers, was a member in Jugantar, and financed Aurobindo's revolutionary activities
|-
|Surendranath Banerjee (alias 'Rashtraguru')
|W.B.
|Bengali
|Usually
|Member (Leader)
|Brahmo Samaji
|-
|Umesh Chandra Dutta
|W.B.
|Bengali
|
|
|Brahmo Samaji
|-
|Vishwanath Narayan Mandlik (alias 'Rao Saheb')
|Maharashtra
|Marathi
|
|
|Wrote several works on [[Ethics of Hinduism|Hindu Law]] in English, including translations of ''Yajnyawalkya Smriti'', the ''Manu Smriti'' and Nilakantha's ''Vyvahara Mayukha'', Prarthana Samaji
|-
|Vishnu Bhikaji Sule
|Maharashtra
|Marathi
|
|
|Prarthana Samaji
|-
|Womesh Chunder Bonnerjee
|W.B.
|Bengali
|Usually
|Member (Leader-National President)
|His maternal lineage traced to the Sanskrit scholar and philosopher Pandit Juggonath Turkopunchanun, linking him to the tradition of Hindu saints, studied at Hindu School at Kolkata, a major institution for blending Western and Sanskrit learning, authored Reform of the Hindu Marriage Laws (1868), which critiqued and proposed changes to Hindu marriage customs to be more ethical
|-
|}

===Later members of INC===
{| class="wikitable sortable"
|-
! Freedom Fighter
! Home Region
! Ethnicity
! Ahimsa
! Role
! Symbolism
|-
|Ambikagiri Raichoudhury (alias 'Assam Kesari')
|Assam
|Assami
|Yes
|Member (Leader, Detector)
|Established Sankardeva Sarcharkas organization to promote Assamese folk songs and cultural elements, including those influenced by Vaishnava traditions (e.g., devotional music and reformist ideas) — work emphasized Assami identity, which Ekasarana Dharm helped shape, criticized British authority for banning puja at Kamakhya Temple (centre of plots against British rule)
|-
|Ambujammal Desikachari (alias 'Akkamma')
|T.N.
|Tamil
|Yes
|Member (Leader-Local VP)
|Member of WIA, referenced Hindu scriptures in her nationalist and feminist work, translated ''Tulsi Ramayana'' into Tamil
|-
|Annie Besant
|England
|English
|Yes
|Member (Leader)
|Founded Madras Hindu Association "''to promote Hindu social and religious advancement on national lines with the spirit of Hindu civilization.''"
|-
|Arunachalam Vaidyanatha Iyer (alias 'Madurai A.')
|T.N.
|Tamil
|
|
|
|-
|Avinashilingam Chettiar
|T.N.
|Tamil
|
|
|
|-
|Awadhesh Pratap Singh
|M.P.
|Bagheli
|Yes
|Member (Leader-Local President)
| 
|-
|Baba Kanshi Ram (alias 'Pahari Gandhi', 'Paharan-Da-Bulbul', 'Siyahposh Jarnail')
|H.P.
|Kangri Pahari
|Not strictly
|Member
|Incorporated Hindu symbols into his speeches and writings, emphasized dharma
|-
|Badri Datt Pandey (alias 'Kumaon Kesari', 'Pandit')
|Uttarakhand
|Kumaoni
|Yes
|Member
|Blended anti-imperialism with Hindu cultural revival, founded Shakti, wrote about history referencing scriptures, glorified temple patronage, supported maths (i.e., Sanskrit schools like Shivaraj Sanskrit Pathshala) and ashrams (i.e., Sanatan Dharm Maha Mandal), Kuli Begar Movement's first oath was in 1921 at Haru Mandir
|-
|Bal Krishna Sharma (alias 'Lion of Kanpur', 'Naveen')
|M.P.
|Malwi
|Yes
|Member (Leader)
|His poetry often evokes India's ancient glory rooted in Hindu themes like in "Kumkum", "Rashmirekha", "Apalak", and revolutionary verses, wrote ''Urmila'' (version of Ramayana)
|-
|Balasaheb Gangadhar Kher
|Maharashtra
|Marathi
|
|Member (Leader)
|Wrote ''The Art of Life in the Bhagavad Gita'' and in prison made notes of books like ''Essays on the Gita'' and ''The Philosophy of the Upanishads''
|-
|Dr. Bhagwan Das
|U.P.
|Hindi
|Yes
|Member (Leader)
|Theosophy Society member, founded Kashi Vidya Peeth, wrote commentaries in English and Hindi on scriptures and concepts (i.e., Pranava-Vada), received Bharat Ratna
|-
|Bhag Mal Sautha
|H.P.
|Mahasuvi Pahari
|
|Member (Secretary)
|Founding member of Prem Pracharini Sabha, which encouraged recitation of devotional songs, prayers, and moral conduct as a means of social upliftment and unity among subjects, and Hindu principles like dharm
|-
|Bhausaheb Santuji Thorat (alias 'Dada', 'Sahakarmaharshi')
|Maharashtra
|Marathi
|Yes
|
|Philanthropic educationalist that established ⁠Amrutvahini Sheti & Shikshan Vikas Sanstha[https://assvs.org/] and Sahyadri Bahujan Vidya Prasarak Samaj[https://smbstcollege.edu.in/page/255/about-sbvp-samaj] performed Karma Yoga, particularly and service to humanity (Manav Seva.)
|-
|Bheemanna Khandre
|Karnataka
|Kannadiga
|Yes
|Member (Leader)
|President of Akhil Bharata Veerashaiva Lingayat Mahasabha, imprisoned for activism in liberation of Hyderabad from nizam
|-
|Bipin Chandra Pal
|W.B.
|Bengali
|
|
|Part of the Lal-Bal-Pal trio that promulgated the Swadeshi movement, was a Brahmo Samaji
|-
|Biju Patnaik
|Odisha
|Odia
|
|
|Had declared in his interview by reporter of ''Ajkal'' dated 9.8.1984, "''Hindus are not Communal. Muslims are communal.''", Was a Brahmo Samaji
|-
|Birama (alias 'Swami Keshwanand')
|Rajasthan
|Marwari
|
|
|Organized celebrations to honour Sikh, Namdhari-Sikh, Bishnoi-Vaishnav, and Jain gurus, was Udasin member himself, founded 300 schools (including a Sanskrit one), 50 hostels and social centres
|-
|Bhogaraju Pattabhi Sitaramayya
|Andhra Pradesh
|Telugu
|
|Member (Leader)
| Wrote positively about Hindu heritage and civilizational continuity, including of Shivaji
|-
|Dr. Bidhan Chandra Roy
|Bihar
|Bengali
|
|Member (Leader)
|Supported movements framed around Hindu protection and social organization (e.g., relief efforts tied to Hindu communities)
|-
|Bishnu Prasad Rabha (alias 'Kalaguru')
|Assam
|Assami
|Not strictly
|Member
|Drew an imaginary portrait of Sankardev, sang Borgeets (Vaishnava devotional songs), drew cultural inspiration from him for Assami identity
|-
|Chakravarti Rajagopalacari (alias 'Rajaji')
|T.N.
|Tamil
|Yes
|Member (Leader)
|Retold Rama in ''Chakravarti Thirumagan'' portraying Ram as the ideal upholder of righteousness/dharma, viewed Hindu principles as moral foundations for nationalism
|-
|Chinnaswami Subramaniyan (alias 'Subbayya Bhartiyar', 'Mahakavi')
|T.N.
|Tamil
|Not strictly
|Member
|
|-
|Chittaranjan Das (alias 'Deshbandhu')
|W.B.
|Bengali
|
|
|Quoted the Gita, occasionally praised Shivaji, influenced by Brahmo Samajis
|-
|Cunjen Kesavan
|Kerala
|Malayali
|
|Member (Leader)
|Used Hindu principles to argue that caste discrimination contradicted Hindu philosophical ideals
|-
|Devanahalli Venkataramanaiah Gundappa
|Karnataka
|Kannada
|
|
|Wrote ''Srimad Bhagavad Geeta Tatparya'' (alias ''Jeevana Dharma Yoga''), poetic works like ''Srirama Pareekshanam'', ''Srikrishna Pareekshanam'', and others, created Gokhale Institute of Public Affairs[https://www.gipa-bng.org/], which promoted Hindu literature and philosophical discourse
|-
|Diwan Rajagopala Balaji Rao
|T.N.
|Tamil
|
|
|Member of Madras Mahajana Sabha who opposed Christian missionary work
|-
|Dorothy Jinarajadasa
|England
|English
|Mainly
|Non-Member (Event Attendant)
|Worked closely with Gandhi and attended INC events like its Session at Kolkata (1917) and Malabar District Conference (1918)
|-
|Duggirala Gopalakrishnayya (alias 'Chirala Rama Das', 'Andhra Ratna')
|Andhra Pradesh
|Telugu
|Yes
|Member (Leader)
|Established the Rama Dandu (''Rama's Army'') to promote swaraj and its members wore saffron clothes, rudraksha beads, and vermillion, and established in 1921 Ramanagara as a Ram Rajya utopian settlement of 13,000 residents (religious idiom used to mobilize Congress mass politics)
|-
|Durgabai Deshmukh (alias 'Iron Lady of Andhra')
|Andhra Pradesh
|Telugu
|Yes
|Member (Leader-Local Chairperson)
|Emphasized dharm as duty, service, and moral responsibility, especially in public life and social reform
|-
|Dwarka Prasad Mishra
|M.P.
|Malwi
|Yes
|Member (Leader)
|Wrote ''Krishnayana'' and emphasized Krishna's struggle against tyrant Kamsa akin to Indians fighting for independence against British imperialists, other writings (i.e., ''Living an Era'') and speeches occassionally invoked India's ancient Hindu heritage
|-
|Ela Bhatt
|Gujarat
|Gujarati
|Yes
|Member
|Founder of SEWA and women’s rights activist, mentioned Hindu law in academic contexts (e.g., her gold medal in Hindu law studies).
|-
|Gangadharrao Deshpande
|Karnataka
|Kannadiga
|Yes
|Member (Leader-Local Chairperson)
|Expressed admiration of Savarkar and RSS, wrote letter to V.J. Patel in December 1947 actively participated in Shiv Jayanti, used Shivaji as a symbol of national resistance
|-
|Ganesh Shankar Vidyarthi
|U.P.
|Hindi
|
|Member (Leader, Journalist)
|Martyred when rescuing Hindus from a Muslim mob during a riot in Kanpur (1931), protested with other INC members against Islamic communalism to Moolgang Mosque in retaliation for its Muslims having attacked a Hindu procession's musical band, used Hindu symbolism like Ram Rajya as a just and moral society in speeches and writings
|-
|Garimella Satyanarayana
|Andhra Pradesh
|Telugu
|
|
|Translated ''Thirukkural'' into Telugu, used devotional imagery and dharmic-national language in many of his works, including Sanatan cultural symbolism in patriotic songs
|-
|Ghanshyam Das Birla
|Rajasthan
|Marwari
|
|
|Funded Hindu institutions like temples and Harijan Sevak Sangh, and funded INC and educational institutions, wrote June 1924 letter to Gandhi supporting conversions of Muslims to Hinduism
|-
|Gogineni Ranga Nayukulu (alias 'Acharya Ranga')
|Andhra Pradesh
|Telugu
|
|Member (Leader)
|His autobiography and writings refer to Gandhi’s religious philosophy and its Hindu roots, discussed Indian village life through the lens of dharmic ethics
|-
|Gopabandhu Das (alias 'Utkalmani')
|Odisha
|Odia
|
|Member (Leader-Local President)
|Founded institutions rooted in service (seva), dharma, and Hindu ethics
|-
|Gorur Ramaswamy Iyengar
|Karnataka
|Kannada
|Yes
|Member (Leader)
|Referenced Hindu philosophical ideas, especially in his writings (i.e., ''Americadalli Gorur'', wherein he referenced Upanishads and living by dharma), including essays that invoked Hindu principles for moral nationalism and social reform
|-
|Govind Ballabh Pant
|U.P.
|Marathi
|Yes
|Member (Leader)
|Reference to Ram Rajya like in Constituent Assembly debate (1948), to Krishna for issues like cow protection, supported Hindu Code Bill reforms, first U.P. CM of independent India, "''Real Swaraj means Ram Rajya. If secular State means that our children will not know about the Ramayana or listen to the Gita or the Koran or the Granth what is the political freedom worth? Sir, by 'Ram' I mean Hindu God and also Christian God.''" 1939: "''We want Ram Rajya, we want Sarvodaya. But for achieving them it is necessary that every...''"
|-
|Gulzarilal Nanda[https://www.mkgandhi.org/selectedletters/58gulzarilal_nanda.php]
|Punjab
|Punjabi
|
|Member (Leader)
|"''Nanda ji developed the great cultural and religious heritage of Kurukshetra by facilitating it for 22 years,...''" says Kurukhshetra University. He wrote "A Sacred Legacy" about Baba Sitaramdas Omkarnath[https://themotherdivine.com/01/a_sacred_legacy.shtml#:~:text=He%20offered%20Kirtan%20and%20Naam,whole%20course%20of%20his%20life.], founded the Bharat Sadhu Samaj along with other persons
|-
|Haladhar Bhuyan
|Assam
|Assami
|Yes
|Member
|Established Srimanta Sankardev Sangha to protect Sankardev's Ekasarana Vaishnava sect from adopting unethical traits and to promulgate the sect's teachings, was jailed for participation in freedom struggle
|-
|Hansa Mehta (alias 'A founding mother of the Indian republic')
|Gujarat
|Gujarati
|
|Member
|Translated the ''Valmiki Ramayana's'' chapters "Aranyakanda", "Balakanda" and "Sundarakanda", and ensured MS University Baroda undertook projects to publish other scriptures of ancient India
|-
|Hanuman Prasad Poddar
|Rajasthan
|Marwari
|Not strictly
|Non-Member (Attendant, Rally Protestor)
|Founder of Gita Press (provided more accurate translations of Hindu texts) and ''Kalyan'' magazine, affiliated with Hindu Mahasabha and RSS
|-
|Hardekar Manjappa (alias 'Gandhi of Karnataka')
|Karnataka
|Kannadiga
|Yes
|Non-Member (Volunteer)
|Used Basava's teachings as a symbol against British rule, promoted Basava's teachings through celebrations (i.e., starting Basava Jayanti festival) and writings (wrote over 40 books, like ''Basava Charithre''), presented a book on Basava to Gandhi, was part of Basweshara Seva Dala, organized first Ganesh Chaturthi in Belgaum (1905), which inspired Tilak to nationalize festival and utilize it for freedom struggle
|-
|Haribhau Upadhyaya (alias 'Pandit')
|M.P.
|Malwi
|Yes
|Member (Leader)
|Wrote works on Hindu scriptures, such as ''Bhagwat Geeta'', ''Sadhana ke Path Par'', and ''Yug Dharm''
|-
|Himmatlal Ramchandra Dave (alias 'Swami Anand')
|Gujarat
|Gujarati
|Yes
|Member (Administrator)
|A swami and Joint Secretary of the Bharat Sadhu Samaj, which he founded along with other persons
|-
|Indulal Yagnik
|Gujarat
|Gujarati
|
|
|Used Shivaji as anti-imperialist symbol, used folk-Sanatan imagery in mobilization contexts
|-
|Jagat Narain Lal
|Bihar
|Bhojpuri
|
|Member (Leader)
|His ''Light Unto a Cell'' references ''Mahabharata'', ''Bhagavad Gita'', ''Isha Upanishad'', among others
|-
|Jayaprakash Narayan Srivastava (alias 'Loknayak')
|Bihar
|Bhojpuri
|Yes
|Member (Leader-National GS)
|Frequently invoked Ram Rajya as an ideal of moral, decentralized, and just governance in his later writings and the Total Revolution Movement (1970s), describing it as a society based on dharm, equality, and ethical rule, reference Hindu ethical concepts of dharm, ahimsa, and selfless action positively while blending them with social ideals
|-
|Jhinabhai Ratanji Desai (alias 'Snehrashmi')
|Gujarat
|Gujarati
|
|
|Used spiritual symbolism, which occasionally included Sanatan devotional-cultural imagery
|-
|Jhaverchand Meghani (alias 'Rashtriya Shayar')
|Gujarat
|Gujarati
|Yes
|Non-Member (Rally Protestor)
|A poet and folklorist that mentioned Hindu figures, including Rajput resistance heroes and Bhakti Era sants, in patriotic literature, his works invoked cultural nationalism and religious-cultural imagery
|-
|Jivatram Bhagwandas Kripalani (alias 'Acharya Kripalani')
|Sindh
|Sindhi
|Yes
|Member (Leader-National President)
|
|-
|Jugal Chandra Ghosh
|W.B.
|Bengali
|
|Member
|Worked with groups mobilizing around Hindu protection and identity, including during the pro-Pakistan Direct Action Day riots in Kolkata
|-
|Jugal Kishore Birla
|Maharashtra
|Marwari
|
|
|Funded both INC and Hindu groups like HM and RSS, and funded Kolkata Medical College, Marwadi Balika Vidyalaya in Kolkata and other such institutions
|-
|Kailashpati Mishra
|Bihar
|Bhojpuri
|
|
|Was member of RSS from 1943, joined Bharatiya Jana Sangh
|-
|Kamaladevi Chattopadhyay
|Karnataka
|Kannadiga
|Yes
|Member (Leader)
|Promoted Hindu arts (theatre), crafts (handicrafts), and civilizational heritage
|-
|Kamalapati Tripathi
|U.P.
|Awadhi
|
|
|Wrote historical-nationalist essays and speeches referencing Shivaji, Hindu political resurgence, and anti-Mughal resistance, frequently invoked Ram Rajya, Hindu civilizational continuity, pilgrimage symbolism, and Sanskrit heritage
|-
|Kanaiyalal Maneklal Munshi
|Gujarat
|Gujarati
|Shifting view
|Member (Leader)
|Promoted Hindu cultural revival, founded Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan, mentioned figures like Shivaji for nationalism, used pro-Hindu symbolism in writings
|-
|Kanhiyalal Mishra Prabhakar
|U.P.
|Hindi
|
|
|Wrote Hindu cultural essays and referenced dharm/Indian spiritual traditions, and sants
|-
|Kanuparti Varalakshmamma
|Andhra Pradesh
|Telugu
|
|
|His writings included: Sanatan social themes, references to epics and ethical-cultural traditions
|-
|Karnad Sadashiva Rao
|Karnataka
|Kannadiga
|
|
|Used Shivaji as a symbol of national resistance
|-
|Karumuttu Thiagarajan Chettiar
|T.N.
|Tamil
|
|
|Involved in temple-based philanthropy
|-
|Kasinathuni Nageswara Rao (alias 'Desabandhu', 'Desoddhaaraka')
|Andhra Pradesh
|Telugu
|
|
|Wrote exposition of ''Bhagavad Gita'' in prison, promoted the Gita, stating the scripture belongs to the whole world for its spiritual enlightenment and prosperity (not only for Hinduism)
|-
|Keshava Pillai (alias 'Bodheswaran')
|Kerala
|Malayali
|Yes
|Member
|Disciple of Narayana Guru and Swamikal, promoted Hindu values, especially for reform
|-
|Kodumudi Balambal Sundarambal (alias 'Queen of the Indian Stage')
|T.N.
|Tamil
|
|
|Disciple of Satyamurthy, produced devotional songs, performed devotional concerts (katcheris) to Murugan at temples
|-
|Konda Venkata Ranga Reddy
|Telangana
|Telugu
|
|
|Supported demands involving: civil rights for Hindu populace of Telangana under Nizam Islamofascist, protection of Hindu social institutions
|-
|Konda Venkatappayya (alias 'Lion of Andhra')
|Andhra Pradesh
|Telugu
|
|Member
|His journalism framed Indian nationalism as rooted in Sanatan cultural continuity
|-
|Koyapalli Kelappan (alias 'Gandhi of Kerala', 'Dakshin ka Gandhi')
|Kerala
|Malayali
|Yes
|Member (Leader-Local President)
|Lived in Brahmacharya, and spoke of Hindu principles like dharm and sarvoday and worked to restore the historically-ruined Tali Temple
|-
|Krishna Ballabh Sahay
|Bihar
|Magahi
|
|
|Would quote extensively couplets by renowned Vaishnav poets like Chaube, Surdas, and Tulsidas in parliament
|-
|Krishna Mehta
|J&K
|Kashmiri
|
|
|Publicly acknowledged and honoured Magan Baba, and she spent over 10 years at his ashram, wrote in her ''Kashmir 1947: A Survivor's Story'' memoirs book of eyewitness testimony from the 1947 atrocities against non-Muslims in Kashmir
|-
|Krishna Nath Sarmah
|Assam
|Assami
|Yes
|Member (Secretary)
|Prominent Gandhian freedom fighter, social reformer, and participant in movements like the Dandi March and Civil Disobedience, actively referenced and utilized Vaishnava institutions by inviting Mahatma Gandhi in 1934 to inaugurate/open his family namghar
|-
|Krishnalal Shridharani[https://asianamericanedu.org/south-asian-influence-nonviolence.html]
|Gujarat
|Gujarati
|Yes
|
|A writer, mentioned Hindu figures in nonviolence discussions
|-
|Krishnanand Swami
|H.P.
|Mandyali Pahari
|
|
|A swami
|-
|Kushal Konwar
|Assam
|Assami
|
|Member
|Influenced by reading the Gita near death
|-
|Lajpat Rai (alias 'Lala Rai', 'Punjab Kesari')
|Punjab
|Punjabi
|Not strictly
|Member (Leader)
|Arya Samaj member
|-
|Dr. Lakshmi Narayan (alias 'Sudhanshu')
|Bihar
|Maithili
|
|
|Used Hindu/Sanskritic vocabulary in his works, and wrote the book ''Pracheen Bharatiya Arya Raj Vans'' ("''Ancient Indian Arya Royal Lineage''"), Government of Bihar constituted an award after him (Laxmi Narayan Sudhanshu Prize)
|-
|Lal Bahadur Srivastava (Shastri) (alias 'Shastriji', 'Man of Peace')
|U.P.
|Bhojpuri
|
|
|Quoted Gita, spoke of Ram Rajya, occasionally praised Shivaji
|-
|Lal Chand Prarthi
|H.P.
|Kullavi Pahari
|Not strictly
|Member (Leader)
|Documented Hindu folklore, village deities, and rituals, portraying them as symbols of cultural resistance against imperial and feudal oppression, supported Hindu institutions by advocating for preservation of local temples and festivals as part of regional identity
|-
|Laxman Vasudev Paranjape
|Maharashtra
|Marathi
|
|Member
|Involved in organizations promoting Hindu cultural and social revival
|-
|Laxminarayan Das
|Chhattisgarh
|Chhattisgarhi
|Yes
|Member
|Was mahant of Jaitu Sao Math in Raipur, used symbolisms like saffron robes, spoke of Ram in devotional contexts
|-
|Madhavrao Sapre
|M.P.
|Marathi
|Usually
|Member (Leader)
|Translated into Hindi Tilak's ''Gita Rahasya'', Samarth Ramdas' ''Dasbodh'', Chintamani Vinayak Vaidya's ''Mahabharat Mimansa'', and other Marathi works (i.e., ''Shri Ram Charitra'', ''Ekanath Charitra'', ''Atma Vidya'')
|-
|Maganlal Gandhi
|Gujarat
|Gujarati
|
|
|Used Gita-centered ethics, and was associated with Ramnam recitation, apart from the regular Gandhian vocabulary
|-
|Mahadev Desai
|Gujarat
|Gujarati
|Yes
|Member (Personal Assistant, Journalist)
|Gandhi’s secretary, mentioned Hindu figures like Krishna [in Gita translations], his statements promoted Gandhian Hinduism as tolerant and inclusive, used Shivaji as anti-imperialist symbol
|-
|Makhanlal Chaturvedi (alias 'Pandit Ji', 'Yug Charan', 'Ek Bhartiya Atma')
|M.P.
|Hindi
|
|Non-Member (Rally Protestor)
|Used Hindu imagery, including of Ram and Krishna, in his literature, and drew on spiritual themes to foster nationalism against British rule
|-
|Dr. Maithilisharan Gupt (alias 'Rashtrakavi')
|U.P.
|Bundeli
|
|
|Used Hindu and Bauddh persons in his stories, like Urmila (wife of Lakshman) in ''Saket'' and Yashodhara (wife of Gautam Buddha) in ''Yashodhara'', his ''Bharat Bharati'' book was widely quoted by freedom fighters
|-
|Malangi Shivalingiah Gurupadaswamy
|Karnataka
|Kannada
|Yes
|Member
|Referenced Hindu culture and scriptures positively context of "Indianisation," suggesting in a Constituent Assembly speech that Muslims should respect Hindu scriptures and culture for national unity
|-
|Malati Choudhury
|Odisha
|Odia
|
|
|Brahmo Samaji that made positive statements about the Samaj
|-
|Margaret Cousins
|Ireland
|Irish
|Usually
|Non-Member (Attendant)
|Worked closely with Gandhi and attended INC events like INC Session at Kolkata (1917) and Gandhi's meetings and campaigns
|-
|Manikya Lal Verma (alias 'Gandhi of Mewar')
|Rajasthan
|Mewari
|Yes
|Member (Leader)
|Worked closely with Arya Samaj
|-
|Manubhai Pancholi
|Gujarat
|Gujarati
|
|
|Cultural-literary engagements with Hindu ethical traditions, apart from using the regular Gandhian vocabulary
|-
|Maurice Frydman (alias 'Swami Bharatanand')
|Poland
|Polish
|
|
|Jewish convert to Hinduism, became rajyaguru to Anudh princely state's Raja Bala Sahib and drafted a constitution for the kingdom, lived at Gandhi's ashram and worked with him, worked with fellow Pole Gandhian Umadevi
|-
|Morarji Desai
|Gujarat
|Gujarati
|Not strictly
|Member (Leader)
|Made pro-Hindu statements like "''Hinduism is the most tolerant religion''" and emphasized Hindu moral values, referenced Hindu philosophy in governance but balanced with secularism
|-
|Mylai Ponnuswamy Sivagnanam (alias 'Sivagnanam Gramani', 'Silambu Chelvar')
|T.N.
|Tamil
|
|
|Influenced by Subramanya Bharathi and wrote 10 books on him (i.e., ''Vallalarum Bharathiyum''), wrote books on ''Silapathikaram'', wrote books on V.O.C. Pillai, wrote books on Veerapandiya Kattabomman, wrote books on Sant Thiruvalluvar, wrote ''The Universal Vision of Saint Ramalinga''
|-
|Nanabhai Bhatt
|Gujarat
|Gujarati
|Yes
|
|Educationist and Nai Talim pioneer, promoted Hindu ethical values like simplicity and self-reliance in education but without sectarian pro-Hindu statements, referenced Hindu cultural inheritance in educational philosophy
|-
|Nand Lal (alias 'Master Ji')
|Punjab
|Punjabi
|
|Member
|He wrote the ''Ramayan'' in a drama form and organized a play on the same on Navratras and Dussehra festivals (he played Dasrath in the play)
|-
|Narayan Desai
|Gujarat
|Gujarati
|
|
|Referenced bhajans and Gita ethics, apart from the regular Gandhian vocabulary like Ram Rajya
|-
|Dr. Narayan Subbarao Hardikar
|Karnataka
|Marathi
|Yes
|Member (Leader-Local GS)
|Established the Hindustani Seva Mandal (later became Rashtriya Seva Dal) in 1923, established the Arya Bala Sabha, taught the Gita during his student days in Kolkata<ref>''Dr. N.S. Hardiker'' By Ranganath Ramachandra Diwakar</ref>, was a fan of Lokmanya Tilak, and had enthusiastically worked with Lala Rai
|-
|Narendra Dev (alias 'Acharya Dev')
|U.P.
|Hindi
|Shifting view
|Member (Leader)
|Referenced Ram Rajya as socialist utopia, and Hindu ethical traditions and figures like Krishna as sources of moral inspiration for selfless action and justice
|-
|Narhari Dwarkadas Parikh
|Gujarat
|Gujarati
|Yes
|Non-Member (Attendant, Rally Protestor, Volunteer)
|Referenced Hindu ethics in satyagraha
|-
|Naurang Rai (alias 'Swami Sahajanand Saraswati')
|U.P.
|Bhojpuri
|Not strictly
|Member
|Wrote books in Sanskrit and Hindi, on Hinduism and independence, helped form All India Kisan Sabha, in which he was its first President, worked with INC, Swatantra (N.G. Ranga ), and CPI (E.M.S. Namboodiripad), organized Bakasht Movement in Bihar in 1937–1938, built ashram at Bihta, Bihar
|-
|Nautamlal Bhagavanji Mehta (alias 'Nagar Seth of Jetpur')
|Gujarat
|Gujarati
|Yes
|Non-Member
|Supporter of Gandhi — coined 'Mahatma' for him, invoking Hindu reverence, promoted Hindu unity in nationalism
|-
|Nilakantha Das (alias 'Pandit', 'Veritable Father of Orissa')
|Odisha
|Odia
|
|
|While imprisoned, he wrote ''Interpretation of the Gita (Hazaribagh Jail)'', and outside of jail wrote ''Gita Prabesha'' also on the Gita, and wrote books of other spiritual topics; ''Arya Jeeban'', ''Bhaktigatha'', ''Pilanka Bhagabata'', and ''Sanskruta O Sanskruti''
|-
|Padam Dev (alias 'Pandit', 'Kaviraj')
|H.P.
|Mahasuvi Pahari
|Yes
|Member (Leader-Local GS)
|Arya Samaj preacher — promoted shuddhi (even converting American Samuel Evans Stokes), referenced Hindu scriptures in his campaigns (i.e., against Begar or forced labour and reet or feudal tax, speeches invoked figures like Dayanand
|-
|Pandurang Mahadev Bapat ('Senapati Bapat')
|Maharashtra
|Marathi
|No (revolutionary)
|Non-Member (Attendant)
|Hindu symbolism (Shivaji, dharma) in speeches, including religious symbolism in anti-colonial struggle
|-
|Pandurang Sadashiv Khankhoje
|Maharashtra
|Marathi
|No (revolutionary)
|
|
|-
|Pandurang Sadashiv Sane (alias 'Sane Guruji', 'Gandhi of Maharashtra')
|Maharashtra
|Marathi
|Yes
|Member
|Wrote the ''Geeta Hridaya'', from his notes on the lectures in prison that Acharya Bhave delivered in the same jail, the latter compiled the ''Gita Pravachane'' book, orgaqnizations Akhil Bharatiya Sane Guruji Kathamala, Antar Bharati, and Rashtriya Smarak Samiti were modelled on Guruji's teachings
|-
|Pandurang Vitthalapanta Valame (alias 'Rang Avadhoot'[https://www.rangavadhoot.us/])
|Gujarat
|Marathi
|
|
|A mystic sant, mentioned Hindu figures like Dattatreya, used devotional slogans like "Jai Guru", teachings were spiritual
|-
|Puripanda Appala Swamy
|Andhra Pradesh
|Telugu
|
|
|Worked extensively with: Telugu literal renderings of epics, Hindu cultural literature, Ramayan/Mahabharata themes Some works include: ''Mahabharatam'', ''Sridevi Bhagavatam'', ''Srimadbhagavatam'', ''Valmiki Ramayanam'', ''Jagadguru Shankaracharya''
|-
|Potti Sreeramulu
|Andhra Pradesh
|Telugu
|
|
|Promoted ascetic-sacrificial ideals, used spiritualized language
|-
|Phanishwar Nath Mandal (alias 'Renu')
|Bihar
|Maithili
|
|
|Used Hindu imagery in his works, including references to gods and devotional songs, as well as ritual life and village customs, attended Kashi Hindu Vishvavidyalay
|-
|Prabhavati Devi
|Bihar
|Bhojpuri
|
|
|Lived ascetically like Gandhi in his ashram, practiced social work as part of spiritual lifestyle, spiritualized public ethics
|-
|Purushottam Das Tandon
|U.P.
|Hindi
|Yes
|Member (Leader-National President)
|Advocated for Hindu militarism to fight perceived threats in India, used Hindu cultural symbolism (i.e., Ram Rajya), worked with K.M. Munshi in the Constituent Assembly against forced or induced conversions, was Sanskrit scholar, supported education in Vedas, Upanishads and Gita
|-
|Sir Puttige Sivaswami Subramania Iyer (alias 'Grand Old Man of South India')
|T.N.
|Tamil
|Usually
|Member
|
|-
|Rajendra Shah
|Gujarat
|Gujarati
|
|
|Used spiritual themes, particularly devotional undertones influenced by Sanatan literary culture
|-
|Ramaswamy Aiyer Krishnamurthy (alias 'Kalki Krishnamurthy')
|T.N.
|Tamil
|Yes
|Member
|Adopted the name Kalki, his works like ''Ponniyin Selvan'' and ''Sivagamiyin Sapatham'' drew heavily from Tamil/Hindu epics and they used Hindu themes to evoke modern nationalism
|-
|Raghunath Vinayak Dhulekar
|U.P.
|Marathi
|Yes
|Member
|Wrote commentaries about shastras and ideas, like ''Shweta-Shwatrupanishad Bhasya'' on ''Shvetashvatara Upanishad'' and Shaivism, ''Prashnapanishad Saral Bhashya'' on the ''Prashna Upanishad'', ''Atmadarshi Geeta Bhashya'' on the Gita, ''Chaturvedanugami Bhashya'' on Vedas, and ''Pillars of Vedant'' on Vedanta
|-
|Dr. Rajendra Prasad
|Bihar
|Bhojpuri
|Yes
|Member (Leader-National President)
|Strongly defended traditional Hindu dharm and personal laws against the Hindu Code Bill, arguing to Nehru that changes would undermine core Hindu scriptural and cultural traditions (i.e., family structure rooted in shastras and dharm), referenced Hindu concepts like dharm positively as the ethical foundation of Indian society and expressed respect for figures like Ram and Krishna as moral ideals
|-
|Dr. Ram Manohar Lohia
|U.P.
|Marwari
|Shifting view
|Member (Leader-National Secretary)
|Wrote essay "Ram, Krishna, aur Shiva" as "''India's three great dreams''", invoked Ram Rajya positively, engaged positively with Gita and Hindu ethical concepts like dharm, and praised Krishna's call for nishkam karma as model for selfless struggle and social change, used Hindu figures to foster cultural confidence and mass mobilization (i.e., Ramayana Mela at Chitrakoot, U.P.) to connect with tural and traditional audiences, argued Hindu symbols could transcend narrow religious boundaries and promote unity
|-
|Ram Prasad (alias 'Agyat', 'Bismil', 'Pandit')
|U.P.
|Hindi
|No (revolutionary)
|Non-Member (Attendant, Volunteer)
|Arya Samaj member that encouraged shuddhi for Muslims
|-
|Rambriksh Benipuri
|Bihar
|Magadhi
|
|
|Wrote of Sanatan and Bauddh themes, like his play ''Ramrajya'' and his book ''Amipure'' based on a Bauddh convert and ''Netradaan'' on Samrat Ashok
|-
|Ramdhari Singh Dinkar
|Bihar
|Magadhi
|
|
|Wrote nationalistic literature with Hindu imagery/references (i.e., ''Kurukshetra'' and ''Rashmirathi''), was influenced by Rabindranath Tagore and translated his works from Bengali to Hindi
|-
|Ramesh Chandra Jha
|Bihar
|Magadhi
|
|
|Used light Sanatan themes in his patriotic poetry, like ''Murlika'' referencing Krishna but a metaphor for the human voice, expressing the inner music, longing, and dreams of ordinary citizens, and wrote ''Meera Nachi Re'' to depict Sant Meera Bai as someone who positively broke social chains, and wrote works like ''Kaling Ka Lahu'' on Samrat Ashok ''Chalo-Dilli'' (referenced Dharm-Yuddh), freedom fighter Kanhiyalal Mishra Prabhakar wrote a biography of him
|-
|Ravishankar Shukla
|M.P.
|Hindi
|Yes
|Member (Leader-Premier)
|Headed Kanyakubja Sabha and collaborated with Malaviya to mobilize Brahmans, joined Theosophical Society to explore vastness of Hindu canon, 1st CM of independent M.P.
|-
|Ravishankar Vyas (alias 'Maharaj', 'Father of Gujarat')
|Gujarat
|Gujarati
|Yes
|Non-Member (Rally Protestor)
|Mentioned Hindu dharma in both devotional culture and Gandhian contexts
|-
|Saroj Kumari Gaurihar
|U.P.
|Bundeli
|
|
|Used devotional-national imagery, feminine-sacred symbolism, and traditional Hindu motifs
|-
|Sarojini Naidu
|Telangana
|Bengali
|Yes
|Member (Leader-National President)
|Used women like Sita, Savitri, Gargi, and Damayanti as ideals for women's empowerment, used Hindi ideas of tolerance for harmony between communities
|-
|Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan (alias 'Philosopher President', 'Bridge Builder')
|T.N.
|Telugu
|Usually
|
|Authored a highly influential commentary called ''The Bhagavad Gita'' (1948, praising it as the pinnacle of Hindu philosophy and a universal guide to ethics, dharm, and spiritual realization, celebrated Hindu scriptures (Gita, Vedanta, Upanishads) as profound expressions of eternal truth, dharm as moral order, and Krishna as a symbol of divine wisdom and action within his works ''Indian Philosophy'' and ''The Hindu View of Life''
|-
|Savalai Ramaswami Mudaliar
|Puducherry
|Tamil
|Usually
|Member (Leader)
|
|-
|Seshadri Srinivasa Iyengar (alias 'Lion of the South')
|T.N.
|Tamil
|
|
|Devout Sri Vaishnava that authored a book on Mayne's Hindu Laws, became monk (Swami Anvananda) later in life
|-
|Seth Govind Das (alias 'Mahakoshal Kesari')
|M.P.
|Hindi
|Yes
|Member (Leader-Local President)
|Invoked Hindu scriptures (including Vedas, Upanishads, ''Vishnu Purana'', and ''Brahma Purana'') and figures in Constituent Assembly, wrote drama plays and texts of Hindu subject matter, partook in demonstration against cow slaughter in 1966 led by RSS, VHP, and RRP
|-
|Shankarrao Trimbak Dharmadhikari (alias 'Dada Dharmadhikari')
|M.P.
|Marathi
|Yes
|Non-Member
|Mentioned Hindu figures like Krishna in philosophical contexts, was studying Shankaracharya's works for about a year before joining independence movement
|-
|Shankarlal Banker
|Gujarat
|Gujarati
|Yes
|Non-Member (Rally Protestor)
|Referenced Hindu ethics in labor reforms
|-
|Shiv Prasad Gupta
|U.P.
|Hindi
|Yes
|Member (Financier)
|Founded Kashi Vidya Peeth for Indian and Hindu studies, funded Hindu institutions like BHU, built Bharat Mata Mandir, held the First National Congress at his residence, Gandhi called him Rashtra Ratna
|-
|Shyamlal Gupta
|U.P.
|Awadhi
|
|
|Wrote ''Vijayi Vishwa Tiranga Pyara'', a nationalistic book that often invoked Shivaji, Rajput resistance, and Hindu martial heroes
|-
|Sohan Lal Dwivedi (alias 'Rashtrakavi')
|U.P.
|Hindi
|Yes
|Non-Member
|Mentioned Ram Rajya, like in Bharavi collection of poems, used both Krishna and Rama in patriotic poetry to describe India as the privilaged land they lived in
|-
|Sonaram Sutiya
|Assam
|Assami
|Yes
|
|Vaishnav pandit that [through the Srimanta Sankardev Sangha] promoted nam-kirtan, satras and namghars, and Sankardev's teachings
|-
|Subhadra Kumari Chauhan
|U.P.
|Awadhi
|
|
|Mentions Hindu figures in her poetry, like Ram in" Vijayadashmi", and Krishna in a few like "Ye Kadamb Ka Ped", "Vida", "Bhaiya Krishna!", "Krishna-Yashoda"
|-
|Sundara Sastri Satyamurti (alias 'Firebrand of South India', 'Dheerar')
|T.N.
|Tamil
|Yes
|Member (Leader-National President)
|Engaged with Hindu scriptures, sometimes invoked dharma for moral nationalism
|-
|Dr. Sampurnanand
|U.P.
|Hindi
|Yes
|Member (Leader-Local Secretary)
|Wrote books like ''Yogadarshan'' and commentaries on Vedic texts, portrayed Hinduism as the nationalistic force for strengthening India, mentioned Ram Rajya, openly discussed the threats of Muslim disloyalty
|-
|Sir Subramania Iyer
|T.N.
|Tamil
|
|
|Activist in Besant's Hindu organizational circles
|-
|Subramaniya Siva
|T.N.
|Tamil
|
|
|Used Tamil-Hindu cultural imagery in poetry
|-
|Swami Purnanand
|H.P.
|Mandyali Pahari
|
|Member (Leader)
|A swami
|-
|Tanguturi Prakasam (alias 'Andhra Kesari', 'Prakasam Pantulu')
|Andhra Pradesh
|Telugu
|
|Member (Leader)
|His public rhetoric frequently invoked dharma and the moral authority of Hindu epics, quoted Gita, occasionally invoked Krishna and Ram as moral exemplar in speeches, occasionally praised Shivaji, supported protection of Hindu religious institutions and saw them as part of national heritage
|-
|Tara Chand (alias 'Kashyap Bandhu')
|J&K
|Kashmiri
|
|
|Became an Arya Samaji and an editor of ''Arya Gazette'' in Lahore, where he also performed social service for the association
|-
|Uchharangrai Navalshankar Dhebar
|Gujarat
|Gujarati
|
|
|Used spiritual-national vocabulary shaped by Sanatan idioms
|-
|Vaidyanath Mishra (alias 'Nagarjun', 'Yatri')
|Bihar
|Maithili
|
|
|Was disciple of Rahul Sankrityayan, and like him, became a Bauddh monk and wrote works (i.e., essays like "Ayodhya ka raja" and "Bum Bholenath", poems like "Harijan Gatha" and "Mantra Kavita") using a high amount of Sanatan imagery (i.e., ''Ramayana''), references (i.e., ''Mahabharata''), gods
|-
|Valangaiman Sankaranarayana Srinivasa Sastri
|T.N.
|Tamil
|
|Member
|Public lectures frequently praised Sanskrit literature and ethical universality of Hindu scriptures, presented Hindu philosophy to Western audiences as one of India’s greatest contributions to world civilization
|-
|Vallabhbhai Patel (alias 'Sardar')
|Guajrat
|Guajrati
|
|
|Supported rebuilding of Somnath Temple
|-
|Vallinayagam Olaganathan Chidambaram Pillai (alias 'Kappalottiya Tamizhan')
|T.N.
|Tamil
|Not strictly
|Member
|Met Swami Ramakrishnananda (Vivekanand’s brother) in Chennai and was advised by him to serve the nation as a form of dharm (spiritual duty), became a member of the militant Bharatha Matha Sangam, his literature includes the commentaries ''Thirukural'' (1917) and ''Tolkappiam'' (1928), memorials to him exist in places like Theni district, erected by the Shaiv Vellalar community, his promotion of Tamil literature often intersected with Shaiv devotional texts (''Tirumurai'', ''Periya Puranam''), was active in organizations like the Shaiva Siddhanta Sangam (Madurai)
|-
|Dr. Vavilala Gopalakrishnayya (alias 'Andhra Gandhi', 'Telugu Bhishma')[https://vavilalasamstha.com/index.html]
|Andhra Pradesh
|Telugu
|Yes
|
|Spoke of Ram Rajya in the context of democratic accountability, welfare state ideals ("''land of dharma and a real of peace''"), and political morality (nonviolence to achieve goals)
|-
|Vedaratnam Pillai (alias 'Sardar')
|T.N.
|Tamil
|
|
|Involved in temple-based philanthropy (donations to schools attached to temple towns, supported annadanams near temples, helped build hospitals, hostels, or schools on temple-endowed lands), promoted ethical Gandhian vocabulary in public life
|-
|Dr. Venkata Subrahmaniam[https://maharishibharati.org/centre/anglais/Association/DrShuddhananda.html] (alias 'Shuddhananda Bharati')
|T.N.
|Tamil
|
|
|Edited the journal ''Bharata Shakti'' wrote novels ''Kasturi'' and ''Viduthalai'' that contained both spirituality and politics
|-
|Vijay Singh Pathik
|U.P.
|Hindi
|
|
|His revolutionary rhetoric drew from Rajput resistance memory and heroic anti-imperial traditions
|-
|Vinayak Narahar Bhave (alias 'Acharya Vinoba')
|Gujarat
|Marathi
|Yes
|Non-Member
|Bhoodan leader, mentioned Hindu figures like Krishna in philosophical contexts, used slogans like "Jai Jagat" (''Victory to the World''), his statements emphasized spiritual equality and non-violence, drawing from Hindu texts for universal humanism, spoke of Ram Rajya like in Bhoodan movement discourse
|-
|Vyenkatesh Bhagvanrao Khedgikar (alias 'Swami Ramanand Tirtha')
|Karnataka
|Kannada
|Yes
|Member (Leader)
|Was an Arya Samaj monk, drew from scriptures like Gita, rallied people against Nizam, became first President of the Hyderabad State Congress in 1947
|-
|Wanda Dynowska (alias 'Umadevi')
|Poland
|Polish
|
|
|Established Polish-Indian Library (translated Hindu and Bauddh scriptures into Polish to share with fellow Poles), worked with fellow Pole Gandhian Swami Bharatanand
|-
|}

==Non-aligned==
{| class="wikitable sortable"
|-
! Freedom Fighter
! Home Region
! Ethnicity
! Ahimsa
! Role
! Symbolism
|-
|Alluri Sitarama Raju
|Telangana
|Telugu
|
|
|Took sanyas, used to teach Gita to people
|-
|Ayodhya Prasad Upadhyay
|U.P.
|
|
|
|Volunteered lecturing Hindi at the Banaras Hindu University, wrote important works
|-
|Arani Subramaniya Sastri
|T.N.
|Tamil
|
|
|
|-
|Akkur Ananthachari
|T.N.
|Tamil
|
|
|
|-
|Bandopadhyaya (Acharya Buddharakkhita)
|Manipur
|Bengali
|
|
|Opposed Christian missionaries wanting to converting Bauddhs and Sanatans, monk who founded Maha Bodhi Society[http://mahabodhi.info/] of Bengaluru, translated ''Dhammapada'' into English
|-
|Belagere Krishna Shastry
|Karnataka
|Kannada
|
|
|Member of Gokhale Institute of Public Affairs[https://www.gipa-bng.org/], which promoted Hindu literature and philosophical discourse
|-
|Chatursen Shastri
|U.P.
|
|
|Yes
|Wrote works both religious and sociopolitical, even critiquing Gandhi's nonviolent stance and in independent India, Nehru attempted to ban his books
|-
|Sir Chetput Pattabhirama Ramaswami Aiyar
|T.N.
|Tamil
|
|
|
|-
|Kattamuthu Ocha Thevar (alias 'Pappapatti Kattamuthu Mookiah')
|T.N.
|Tamil
|
|
|Was disciple of Ukkirapandi Muthuramalinga Thevar
|-
|Natesa Iyer (alias 'Father Gangadhara Shastri')
|T.N.
|Tamil
|
|
|
|-
|Gazulu Lakshminarasu Chetty
|T.N.
|Tamil
|
|
|
|-
|George Arundale
|England
|English
|
|
|Close friend of Besant, wrote ''Nirvana'', which contained Hindu beliefs and terminology, and wrote other works
|-
|Sakkottai Krishnaswamy Iyengar
|T.N.
|Tamil
|
|
|
|-
|Kallidaikurichi S. Subramaniya Iyer
|T.N.
|Tamil
|
|
|
|-
|Mandayam Parthasarathi Tirumal Acharya
|T.N.
|Tamil
|
|
|
|-
|Nanak Bheel
|
|Bhili
|
|
|Propagated the movement of Govind Guru (disciple of Swami Dayanand) among tribals, organized public gatherings that incorporated bhajans and patriotic songs, and was martyred by British imperialist forces
|-
|Pothiram Upadhyay ('Swaroopanand Saraswati', 'Revolutionary Sadhu')
|M.P.
|
|
|Yes
|A participant in 1942 Quit India Movement, he later 1st president of ABRRP, supported reclaiming Ram Janmabhumi and including shastras in curriculum, was Shankaracharya of Dwarka Sharada Peeth from 1982 and before that of Jyotir Math, Badrinath (1973), mentioned Hindu figures like Ram, Krishna, Hanuman, and Shiva in speeches
|-
|Ramanathapuram Sankara Venkatarama Iyer
|T.N.
|Tamil
|
|
|
|-
|Rangaswami Iyengar (alias 'Alathur')
|T.N.
|Tamil
|
|
|
|-
|Seshayengar Srinivasa Raghavaiyangar
|T.N.
|Tamil
|
|
|
|-
|Dr. Swaminatha Sastri
|T.N.
|Tamil
|
|
|
|-
|Thakur Akshay Singh Ratnu
|M.P.
|
|
|
|Renovated the Karni Mata temple, wrote devotional works like "Maa Karni Vandana Stotram", in his family memoirs is credited with instilling "Sanskaras of Sanatan Hindu Dharma", wrote about Maharana Pratap, known as Sahityabhushana
|-
|Tiruppur Subrahmanya Avinashilingam Chettiar
|T.N.
|Tamil
|
|
|Ramakrishna Mission member
|-
|Ukkirapandi Muthuramalinga Thevar (alias 'Pasumpon')
|T.N.
|Tamil
|
|
|Lived as a sadhu, combined political activism with Hindu spirituality and community leadership, kept strong links to Hindu religious networks in T.N., had temple-centered authority
|-
|Varahaneri Venkatesa Subramaniam Aiyar
|T.N.
|Tamil
|
|
|
|-
|Veer Narayan Singh
|Chhattisgarh
|Chhattisgarhi
|
|
|
|-
|}

Talk:Indian Freedom Fighters

2026-06-07T05:36:25Z

Himanshu Bhatt: /* Later members of INC */ added name

==INC==
===Founders of INC===
{| class="wikitable sortable"
|-
! Freedom Fighter
! Home Region
! Ethnicity
! Ahimsa
! Role
! Symbolism
|-
|Ananda Mohan Bose (alias 'Saint Bose')
|E.B.
|Bengali
|
|
|Brahmo Samaji
|-
|Sir Ashutosh Mukherjee (alias 'Bengali Tiger')
|W.B.
|Bengali
|
|
|Influenced by Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar and Vivekananda, taught Pali and [[Sanskrit]] (as well as Bengali and Hindi), his Dr. S.P. Mukherjee would found the Jana Sangh party
|-
|Dr. Atmaram Pandurang Tarkhadkar
|Maharashtra
|Marathi
|
|
|Founded Prarthana Samaji
|-
|Bal Gangadhar Tilak (alias 'Lokmanya', 'Father of the Indian Unrest')
|Maharashtra
|Marathi
|Not strictly
|Member (Leader)
|Of the 'extremist' faction within the INC, he established institutions, including the Deccan Education Society and its Fergusson College, popularized Ganesh Chathurti and Shiv Jayanti, as well as wrote important historical works.
|-
|Dadoba Pandurang Tarkhadkar (alias 'Ek Hindu')
|Maharashtra
|Marathi
|
|
|Paramahansa Mandali, member and key associate of Prarthana Samaj
|-
|Durga Mohan Das
|E.B.
|Bengali
|
|
|Brahmo Samaji
|-
|Durgaram Manchharam Dave (alias 'Durgaram Mehta')
|Gujarat
|Gujarati
|
|
|Founded Manav Dharm Sabha and Paramahansa Mandali
|-
|Dwarkanath Ganguly
|E.B.
|Bengali
|
|
|Brahmo Samaji
|-
|Ganapathy Subramania Iyer
|T.N.
|Tamil
|
|
|Member of Theosophical Society and of Madras Native Association that opposed Christian missionary work
|-
|Janki Nath Ghoshal
|W.B.
|Bengali
|
|
|Engaged with Brahmo Samjis, including Keshub Chunder Sen, and with Rabindranath Tagore, Vivekanand, and Sister Nivedita[https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/kolkata/japanese-scholar-traces-history-of-kolkata/articleshow/45127933.cms] regular contributor of Brahmo-affiliated pro-freedom ''Indian Mirror'' newspaper[https://www.getbengal.com/home/story_detail/the-mecca-of-journalism-lies-in-neglect], father of Subhas Chandra Bose and Sarat Chandra Bose
|-
|Sir Jotindra Mohan Tagore
|W.B.
|Bengali
|
|
|Founded an endowment for the benefit of Hindu widows and setup an annual fund towards a gold keyur to be annually presented to the best student in Sanskrit literature in Calcutta University
|-
|Kandukuri Veeresalingam Pantulu (alias 'Raja Ram Mohan Roy of Andhra')
|Andhra Pradesh
|Telugu
|
|
|Brahmo Samaji, Prarthana Samaji (popularized the Prarthana Samaj in southern India), established Madras Hindu Social Reform Association (alias 'Madras Hindu Association')
|-
|Kashinath Trimbak Telang (alias 'Justice Telang')
|Maharashtra
|Marathi
|
|
|Translated the ''Bhagavad Gita'', and his other important publication (1884) was the historical Sanskrit play ''Mudrarakshasa'' of Vishakhadatta
|-
|Krishna Kumar Mitra
|E.B.
|Bengali
|
|
|Brahmo Samaji
|-
|Rangachari Balaji Rao
|T.N.
|Marathi
|
|
|Member of Madras Mahajana Sabha who opposed Christian missionary work, follower of Vivekanand[https://biographies.rkmm.org/s/sb/m/companions-and-followers/a/balaji-rao-d-r]
|-
|Lalmohan Ghosh
|W.B.
|Bengali
|
|
|Brahmo Samaji
|-
|Madan Mohan Malaviya (alias 'Mahaman', 'Pandit')
|U.P.
|Malwi
|
|
|4-time INC president, founded Bharat Dharma Mahamandala and Hindu Mahasabha
|-
|Mahadev Govind Ranade (alias 'Justice Ranade', 'Nyayamurti Ranade')
|Maharashtra
|Marathi
|Usually
|Member (Leader)
|Member and key associate of Prarthana Samaj
|-
|Monomohun Ghose
|E.B.
|Bengali
|
|
|Sanskritist, Brahmo Samaji
|-
|Mudumbai Veeraraghavachariar
|T.N.
|Tamil
|
|
|Member of Theosophical Society and of Madras Native Association that opposed Christian missionary work
|-
|Nabagopal Mitra (alias 'National Mitra')
|W.B.
|Bengali
|
|
|Brahmo Samaji
|-
|Sir Narayan Ganesh Chandavarkar (alias 'Mr. Justice')
|Karnataka
|Marathi
|Usually
|Member (Leader-National President)
|Prarthana Samaj member
|-
|Narendra Nath Sen Gupta (alias 'Father of Indian Psychology')
|E.B.
|Bengali
|
|
|Established Theosophical Society of Bengali, had close friendship with Keshab Chunder Sen, wrote ''Mechanisms of Ecstasy'', which drew ideas from Hindu [and Christian] classics from his passionate study of the psychology of religions and their scriptures
|-
|Nyapati Subba Rao Pantulu (alias 'Andhra Bhishma')
|Andhra Pradesh
|Telugu
|
|
|Inspired by Vivekanand's speeches, he began Hindu Samajam in Rajahmundry (1903) for propagating the Gita and Sanatan Dharm[https://www.thehindu.com/features/friday-review/history-and-culture/Subba-Rao-Pantulu-remembered/article16837335.ece#:~:text=Subba%20Rao%20Pantulu%20was%20born,Swami%20Vivekananda%27s%20speeches%2C%20he%20started]
|-
|Panapakkam Ananda Charlu
|T.N.
|Tamil
|
|
|Member of Theosophical Society and of Madras Native Association that opposed Christian missionary work
|-
|Rai Raghunath Rao
|T.N.
|Marathi
|
|
|Member of Theosophical Society, statue of Krishna was constructed for him in front of Kumbakonam Town Hall in Kudanthai
|-
|Sir Ramakrishna Gopal Bhandarkar
|Maharashtra
|Marathi
|
|
|Member and key associate of Prarthana Samaj
|-
|Romesh Chunder Dutt (alias 'Arcydae', 'Babu Dewan', 'Hindu')
|W.B.
|Bengali
|Usually
|Member (Leader-National President)
|Wrote ''Early Hindu Civilisation, B.C. 2000 to 320'' (1927)
|-
|Romesh Chunder Mitter
|W.B.
|Bengali
|
|
|Established Sanskrit Chatuspathi in Bhawanipur, and translated ''Valmimi Ramayana'' and ''Mahabharata'' into English
|-
|Satyendranath Tagore
|W.B.
|Bengali
|
|
|Brahmo Samaji, member of Hindu Mahamela
|-
|Shankar Vishnu Patankar
|Maharashtra
|Marathi
|
|
|Prarthana Samaji
|-
|Shib Chandra Deb
|W.B.
|Bengali
|
|
|Brahmo Samaji
|-
|Sir Subbier Subramania Iyer (alias 'Lion of South India')
|T.N.
|Tamil
|
|
|President of the Dharma Rakshana Sabha, established 2 Vedic Schools (Madurai and Thiruparankundram), VP of Theosophical Society (1907-1911), established Suddha Dharma Mandala (1915)
|-
|Subodh Chandra Mallick (alias 'Raja')
|W.B.
|Bengali
|
|
|Funded ''Bande Mataram'' and ''Karmayogin'' newspapers, was a member in Jugantar, and financed Aurobindo's revolutionary activities
|-
|Surendranath Banerjee (alias 'Rashtraguru')
|W.B.
|Bengali
|Usually
|Member (Leader)
|Brahmo Samaji
|-
|Umesh Chandra Dutta
|W.B.
|Bengali
|
|
|Brahmo Samaji
|-
|Vishwanath Narayan Mandlik (alias 'Rao Saheb')
|Maharashtra
|Marathi
|
|
|Wrote several works on [[Ethics of Hinduism|Hindu Law]] in English, including translations of ''Yajnyawalkya Smriti'', the ''Manu Smriti'' and Nilakantha's ''Vyvahara Mayukha'', Prarthana Samaji
|-
|Vishnu Bhikaji Sule
|Maharashtra
|Marathi
|
|
|Prarthana Samaji
|-
|Womesh Chunder Bonnerjee
|W.B.
|Bengali
|Usually
|Member (Leader-National President)
|His maternal lineage traced to the Sanskrit scholar and philosopher Pandit Juggonath Turkopunchanun, linking him to the tradition of Hindu saints, studied at Hindu School at Kolkata, a major institution for blending Western and Sanskrit learning, authored Reform of the Hindu Marriage Laws (1868), which critiqued and proposed changes to Hindu marriage customs to be more ethical
|-
|}

===Later members of INC===
{| class="wikitable sortable"
|-
! Freedom Fighter
! Home Region
! Ethnicity
! Ahimsa
! Role
! Symbolism
|-
|Ambikagiri Raichoudhury (alias 'Assam Kesari')
|Assam
|Assami
|Yes
|Member (Leader, Detector)
|Established Sankardeva Sarcharkas organization to promote Assamese folk songs and cultural elements, including those influenced by Vaishnava traditions (e.g., devotional music and reformist ideas) — work emphasized Assami identity, which Ekasarana Dharm helped shape, criticized British authority for banning puja at Kamakhya Temple (centre of plots against British rule)
|-
|Ambujammal Desikachari (alias 'Akkamma')
|T.N.
|Tamil
|Yes
|Member (Leader-Local VP)
|Member of WIA, referenced Hindu scriptures in her nationalist and feminist work, translated ''Tulsi Ramayana'' into Tamil
|-
|Annie Besant
|England
|English
|Yes
|Member (Leader)
|Founded Madras Hindu Association "''to promote Hindu social and religious advancement on national lines with the spirit of Hindu civilization.''"
|-
|Arunachalam Vaidyanatha Iyer (alias 'Madurai A.')
|T.N.
|Tamil
|
|
|
|-
|Avinashilingam Chettiar
|T.N.
|Tamil
|
|
|
|-
|Awadhesh Pratap Singh
|M.P.
|Bagheli
|Yes
|Member (Leader-Local President)
| 
|-
|Baba Kanshi Ram (alias 'Pahari Gandhi', 'Paharan-Da-Bulbul', 'Siyahposh Jarnail')
|H.P.
|Kangri Pahari
|Not strictly
|Member
|Incorporated Hindu symbols into his speeches and writings, emphasized dharma
|-
|Badri Datt Pandey (alias 'Kumaon Kesari', 'Pandit')
|Uttarakhand
|Kumaoni
|Yes
|Member
|Blended anti-imperialism with Hindu cultural revival, founded Shakti, wrote about history referencing scriptures, glorified temple patronage, supported maths (i.e., Sanskrit schools like Shivaraj Sanskrit Pathshala) and ashrams (i.e., Sanatan Dharm Maha Mandal), Kuli Begar Movement's first oath was in 1921 at Haru Mandir
|-
|Bal Krishna Sharma (alias 'Lion of Kanpur', 'Naveen')
|M.P.
|Malwi
|Yes
|Member (Leader)
|His poetry often evokes India's ancient glory rooted in Hindu themes like in "Kumkum", "Rashmirekha", "Apalak", and revolutionary verses, wrote ''Urmila'' (version of Ramayana)
|-
|Balasaheb Gangadhar Kher
|Maharashtra
|Marathi
|
|Member (Leader)
|Wrote ''The Art of Life in the Bhagavad Gita'' and in prison made notes of books like ''Essays on the Gita'' and ''The Philosophy of the Upanishads''
|-
|Dr. Bhagwan Das
|U.P.
|Hindi
|Yes
|Member (Leader)
|Theosophy Society member, founded Kashi Vidya Peeth, wrote commentaries in English and Hindi on scriptures and concepts (i.e., Pranava-Vada), received Bharat Ratna
|-
|Bhag Mal Sautha
|H.P.
|Mahasuvi Pahari
|
|Member (Secretary)
|Founding member of Prem Pracharini Sabha, which encouraged recitation of devotional songs, prayers, and moral conduct as a means of social upliftment and unity among subjects, and Hindu principles like dharm
|-
|Bhausaheb Santuji Thorat (alias 'Sahakarmaharshi')
|Maharashtra
|Marathi
|Yes
|
|Philanthropic educationalist that established ⁠Amrutvahini Sheti & Shikshan Vikas Sanstha, performed Karma Yoga, particularly and service to humanity (Manav Seva.)
|-
|Bheemanna Khandre
|Karnataka
|Kannadiga
|Yes
|Member (Leader)
|President of Akhil Bharata Veerashaiva Lingayat Mahasabha, imprisoned for activism in liberation of Hyderabad from nizam
|-
|Bipin Chandra Pal
|W.B.
|Bengali
|
|
|Part of the Lal-Bal-Pal trio that promulgated the Swadeshi movement, was a Brahmo Samaji
|-
|Biju Patnaik
|Odisha
|Odia
|
|
|Had declared in his interview by reporter of ''Ajkal'' dated 9.8.1984, "''Hindus are not Communal. Muslims are communal.''", Was a Brahmo Samaji
|-
|Birama (alias 'Swami Keshwanand')
|Rajasthan
|Marwari
|
|
|Organized celebrations to honour Sikh, Namdhari-Sikh, Bishnoi-Vaishnav, and Jain gurus, was Udasin member himself, founded 300 schools (including a Sanskrit one), 50 hostels and social centres
|-
|Bhogaraju Pattabhi Sitaramayya
|Andhra Pradesh
|Telugu
|
|Member (Leader)
| Wrote positively about Hindu heritage and civilizational continuity, including of Shivaji
|-
|Dr. Bidhan Chandra Roy
|Bihar
|Bengali
|
|Member (Leader)
|Supported movements framed around Hindu protection and social organization (e.g., relief efforts tied to Hindu communities)
|-
|Bishnu Prasad Rabha (alias 'Kalaguru')
|Assam
|Assami
|Not strictly
|Member
|Drew an imaginary portrait of Sankardev, sang Borgeets (Vaishnava devotional songs), drew cultural inspiration from him for Assami identity
|-
|Chakravarti Rajagopalacari (alias 'Rajaji')
|T.N.
|Tamil
|Yes
|Member (Leader)
|Retold Rama in ''Chakravarti Thirumagan'' portraying Ram as the ideal upholder of righteousness/dharma, viewed Hindu principles as moral foundations for nationalism
|-
|Chinnaswami Subramaniyan (alias 'Subbayya Bhartiyar', 'Mahakavi')
|T.N.
|Tamil
|Not strictly
|Member
|
|-
|Chittaranjan Das (alias 'Deshbandhu')
|W.B.
|Bengali
|
|
|Quoted the Gita, occasionally praised Shivaji, influenced by Brahmo Samajis
|-
|Cunjen Kesavan
|Kerala
|Malayali
|
|Member (Leader)
|Used Hindu principles to argue that caste discrimination contradicted Hindu philosophical ideals
|-
|Devanahalli Venkataramanaiah Gundappa
|Karnataka
|Kannada
|
|
|Wrote ''Srimad Bhagavad Geeta Tatparya'' (alias ''Jeevana Dharma Yoga''), poetic works like ''Srirama Pareekshanam'', ''Srikrishna Pareekshanam'', and others, created Gokhale Institute of Public Affairs[https://www.gipa-bng.org/], which promoted Hindu literature and philosophical discourse
|-
|Diwan Rajagopala Balaji Rao
|T.N.
|Tamil
|
|
|Member of Madras Mahajana Sabha who opposed Christian missionary work
|-
|Dorothy Jinarajadasa
|England
|English
|Mainly
|Non-Member (Event Attendant)
|Worked closely with Gandhi and attended INC events like its Session at Kolkata (1917) and Malabar District Conference (1918)
|-
|Duggirala Gopalakrishnayya (alias 'Chirala Rama Das', 'Andhra Ratna')
|Andhra Pradesh
|Telugu
|Yes
|Member (Leader)
|Established the Rama Dandu (''Rama's Army'') to promote swaraj and its members wore saffron clothes, rudraksha beads, and vermillion, and established in 1921 Ramanagara as a Ram Rajya utopian settlement of 13,000 residents (religious idiom used to mobilize Congress mass politics)
|-
|Durgabai Deshmukh (alias 'Iron Lady of Andhra')
|Andhra Pradesh
|Telugu
|Yes
|Member (Leader-Local Chairperson)
|Emphasized dharm as duty, service, and moral responsibility, especially in public life and social reform
|-
|Dwarka Prasad Mishra
|M.P.
|Malwi
|Yes
|Member (Leader)
|Wrote ''Krishnayana'' and emphasized Krishna's struggle against tyrant Kamsa akin to Indians fighting for independence against British imperialists, other writings (i.e., ''Living an Era'') and speeches occassionally invoked India's ancient Hindu heritage
|-
|Ela Bhatt
|Gujarat
|Gujarati
|Yes
|Member
|Founder of SEWA and women’s rights activist, mentioned Hindu law in academic contexts (e.g., her gold medal in Hindu law studies).
|-
|Gangadharrao Deshpande
|Karnataka
|Kannadiga
|Yes
|Member (Leader-Local Chairperson)
|Expressed admiration of Savarkar and RSS, wrote letter to V.J. Patel in December 1947 actively participated in Shiv Jayanti, used Shivaji as a symbol of national resistance
|-
|Ganesh Shankar Vidyarthi
|U.P.
|Hindi
|
|Member (Leader, Journalist)
|Martyred when rescuing Hindus from a Muslim mob during a riot in Kanpur (1931), protested with other INC members against Islamic communalism to Moolgang Mosque in retaliation for its Muslims having attacked a Hindu procession's musical band, used Hindu symbolism like Ram Rajya as a just and moral society in speeches and writings
|-
|Garimella Satyanarayana
|Andhra Pradesh
|Telugu
|
|
|Translated ''Thirukkural'' into Telugu, used devotional imagery and dharmic-national language in many of his works, including Sanatan cultural symbolism in patriotic songs
|-
|Ghanshyam Das Birla
|Rajasthan
|Marwari
|
|
|Funded Hindu institutions like temples and Harijan Sevak Sangh, and funded INC and educational institutions, wrote June 1924 letter to Gandhi supporting conversions of Muslims to Hinduism
|-
|Gogineni Ranga Nayukulu (alias 'Acharya Ranga')
|Andhra Pradesh
|Telugu
|
|Member (Leader)
|His autobiography and writings refer to Gandhi’s religious philosophy and its Hindu roots, discussed Indian village life through the lens of dharmic ethics
|-
|Gopabandhu Das (alias 'Utkalmani')
|Odisha
|Odia
|
|Member (Leader-Local President)
|Founded institutions rooted in service (seva), dharma, and Hindu ethics
|-
|Gorur Ramaswamy Iyengar
|Karnataka
|Kannada
|Yes
|Member (Leader)
|Referenced Hindu philosophical ideas, especially in his writings (i.e., ''Americadalli Gorur'', wherein he referenced Upanishads and living by dharma), including essays that invoked Hindu principles for moral nationalism and social reform
|-
|Govind Ballabh Pant
|U.P.
|Marathi
|Yes
|Member (Leader)
|Reference to Ram Rajya like in Constituent Assembly debate (1948), to Krishna for issues like cow protection, supported Hindu Code Bill reforms, first U.P. CM of independent India, "''Real Swaraj means Ram Rajya. If secular State means that our children will not know about the Ramayana or listen to the Gita or the Koran or the Granth what is the political freedom worth? Sir, by 'Ram' I mean Hindu God and also Christian God.''" 1939: "''We want Ram Rajya, we want Sarvodaya. But for achieving them it is necessary that every...''"
|-
|Gulzarilal Nanda[https://www.mkgandhi.org/selectedletters/58gulzarilal_nanda.php]
|Punjab
|Punjabi
|
|Member (Leader)
|"''Nanda ji developed the great cultural and religious heritage of Kurukshetra by facilitating it for 22 years,...''" says Kurukhshetra University. He wrote "A Sacred Legacy" about Baba Sitaramdas Omkarnath[https://themotherdivine.com/01/a_sacred_legacy.shtml#:~:text=He%20offered%20Kirtan%20and%20Naam,whole%20course%20of%20his%20life.], founded the Bharat Sadhu Samaj along with other persons
|-
|Haladhar Bhuyan
|Assam
|Assami
|Yes
|Member
|Established Srimanta Sankardev Sangha to protect Sankardev's Ekasarana Vaishnava sect from adopting unethical traits and to promulgate the sect's teachings, was jailed for participation in freedom struggle
|-
|Hansa Mehta (alias 'A founding mother of the Indian republic')
|Gujarat
|Gujarati
|
|Member
|Translated the ''Valmiki Ramayana's'' chapters "Aranyakanda", "Balakanda" and "Sundarakanda", and ensured MS University Baroda undertook projects to publish other scriptures of ancient India
|-
|Hanuman Prasad Poddar
|Rajasthan
|Marwari
|Not strictly
|Non-Member (Attendant, Rally Protestor)
|Founder of Gita Press (provided more accurate translations of Hindu texts) and ''Kalyan'' magazine, affiliated with Hindu Mahasabha and RSS
|-
|Hardekar Manjappa (alias 'Gandhi of Karnataka')
|Karnataka
|Kannadiga
|Yes
|Non-Member (Volunteer)
|Used Basava's teachings as a symbol against British rule, promoted Basava's teachings through celebrations (i.e., starting Basava Jayanti festival) and writings (wrote over 40 books, like ''Basava Charithre''), presented a book on Basava to Gandhi, was part of Basweshara Seva Dala, organized first Ganesh Chaturthi in Belgaum (1905), which inspired Tilak to nationalize festival and utilize it for freedom struggle
|-
|Haribhau Upadhyaya (alias 'Pandit')
|M.P.
|Malwi
|Yes
|Member (Leader)
|Wrote works on Hindu scriptures, such as ''Bhagwat Geeta'', ''Sadhana ke Path Par'', and ''Yug Dharm''
|-
|Himmatlal Ramchandra Dave (alias 'Swami Anand')
|Gujarat
|Gujarati
|Yes
|Member (Administrator)
|A swami and Joint Secretary of the Bharat Sadhu Samaj, which he founded along with other persons
|-
|Indulal Yagnik
|Gujarat
|Gujarati
|
|
|Used Shivaji as anti-imperialist symbol, used folk-Sanatan imagery in mobilization contexts
|-
|Jagat Narain Lal
|Bihar
|Bhojpuri
|
|Member (Leader)
|His ''Light Unto a Cell'' references ''Mahabharata'', ''Bhagavad Gita'', ''Isha Upanishad'', among others
|-
|Jayaprakash Narayan Srivastava (alias 'Loknayak')
|Bihar
|Bhojpuri
|Yes
|Member (Leader-National GS)
|Frequently invoked Ram Rajya as an ideal of moral, decentralized, and just governance in his later writings and the Total Revolution Movement (1970s), describing it as a society based on dharm, equality, and ethical rule, reference Hindu ethical concepts of dharm, ahimsa, and selfless action positively while blending them with social ideals
|-
|Jhinabhai Ratanji Desai (alias 'Snehrashmi')
|Gujarat
|Gujarati
|
|
|Used spiritual symbolism, which occasionally included Sanatan devotional-cultural imagery
|-
|Jhaverchand Meghani (alias 'Rashtriya Shayar')
|Gujarat
|Gujarati
|Yes
|Non-Member (Rally Protestor)
|A poet and folklorist that mentioned Hindu figures, including Rajput resistance heroes and Bhakti Era sants, in patriotic literature, his works invoked cultural nationalism and religious-cultural imagery
|-
|Jivatram Bhagwandas Kripalani (alias 'Acharya Kripalani')
|Sindh
|Sindhi
|Yes
|Member (Leader-National President)
|
|-
|Jugal Chandra Ghosh
|W.B.
|Bengali
|
|Member
|Worked with groups mobilizing around Hindu protection and identity, including during the pro-Pakistan Direct Action Day riots in Kolkata
|-
|Jugal Kishore Birla
|Maharashtra
|Marwari
|
|
|Funded both INC and Hindu groups like HM and RSS, and funded Kolkata Medical College, Marwadi Balika Vidyalaya in Kolkata and other such institutions
|-
|Kailashpati Mishra
|Bihar
|Bhojpuri
|
|
|Was member of RSS from 1943, joined Bharatiya Jana Sangh
|-
|Kamaladevi Chattopadhyay
|Karnataka
|Kannadiga
|Yes
|Member (Leader)
|Promoted Hindu arts (theatre), crafts (handicrafts), and civilizational heritage
|-
|Kamalapati Tripathi
|U.P.
|Awadhi
|
|
|Wrote historical-nationalist essays and speeches referencing Shivaji, Hindu political resurgence, and anti-Mughal resistance, frequently invoked Ram Rajya, Hindu civilizational continuity, pilgrimage symbolism, and Sanskrit heritage
|-
|Kanaiyalal Maneklal Munshi
|Gujarat
|Gujarati
|Shifting view
|Member (Leader)
|Promoted Hindu cultural revival, founded Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan, mentioned figures like Shivaji for nationalism, used pro-Hindu symbolism in writings
|-
|Kanhiyalal Mishra Prabhakar
|U.P.
|Hindi
|
|
|Wrote Hindu cultural essays and referenced dharm/Indian spiritual traditions, and sants
|-
|Kanuparti Varalakshmamma
|Andhra Pradesh
|Telugu
|
|
|His writings included: Sanatan social themes, references to epics and ethical-cultural traditions
|-
|Karnad Sadashiva Rao
|Karnataka
|Kannadiga
|
|
|Used Shivaji as a symbol of national resistance
|-
|Karumuttu Thiagarajan Chettiar
|T.N.
|Tamil
|
|
|Involved in temple-based philanthropy
|-
|Kasinathuni Nageswara Rao (alias 'Desabandhu', 'Desoddhaaraka')
|Andhra Pradesh
|Telugu
|
|
|Wrote exposition of ''Bhagavad Gita'' in prison, promoted the Gita, stating the scripture belongs to the whole world for its spiritual enlightenment and prosperity (not only for Hinduism)
|-
|Keshava Pillai (alias 'Bodheswaran')
|Kerala
|Malayali
|Yes
|Member
|Disciple of Narayana Guru and Swamikal, promoted Hindu values, especially for reform
|-
|Kodumudi Balambal Sundarambal (alias 'Queen of the Indian Stage')
|T.N.
|Tamil
|
|
|Disciple of Satyamurthy, produced devotional songs, performed devotional concerts (katcheris) to Murugan at temples
|-
|Konda Venkata Ranga Reddy
|Telangana
|Telugu
|
|
|Supported demands involving: civil rights for Hindu populace of Telangana under Nizam Islamofascist, protection of Hindu social institutions
|-
|Konda Venkatappayya (alias 'Lion of Andhra')
|Andhra Pradesh
|Telugu
|
|Member
|His journalism framed Indian nationalism as rooted in Sanatan cultural continuity
|-
|Koyapalli Kelappan (alias 'Gandhi of Kerala', 'Dakshin ka Gandhi')
|Kerala
|Malayali
|Yes
|Member (Leader-Local President)
|Lived in Brahmacharya, and spoke of Hindu principles like dharm and sarvoday and worked to restore the historically-ruined Tali Temple
|-
|Krishna Ballabh Sahay
|Bihar
|Magahi
|
|
|Would quote extensively couplets by renowned Vaishnav poets like Chaube, Surdas, and Tulsidas in parliament
|-
|Krishna Mehta
|J&K
|Kashmiri
|
|
|Publicly acknowledged and honoured Magan Baba, and she spent over 10 years at his ashram, wrote in her ''Kashmir 1947: A Survivor's Story'' memoirs book of eyewitness testimony from the 1947 atrocities against non-Muslims in Kashmir
|-
|Krishna Nath Sarmah
|Assam
|Assami
|Yes
|Member (Secretary)
|Prominent Gandhian freedom fighter, social reformer, and participant in movements like the Dandi March and Civil Disobedience, actively referenced and utilized Vaishnava institutions by inviting Mahatma Gandhi in 1934 to inaugurate/open his family namghar
|-
|Krishnalal Shridharani[https://asianamericanedu.org/south-asian-influence-nonviolence.html]
|Gujarat
|Gujarati
|Yes
|
|A writer, mentioned Hindu figures in nonviolence discussions
|-
|Krishnanand Swami
|H.P.
|Mandyali Pahari
|
|
|A swami
|-
|Kushal Konwar
|Assam
|Assami
|
|Member
|Influenced by reading the Gita near death
|-
|Lajpat Rai (alias 'Lala Rai', 'Punjab Kesari')
|Punjab
|Punjabi
|Not strictly
|Member (Leader)
|Arya Samaj member
|-
|Dr. Lakshmi Narayan (alias 'Sudhanshu')
|Bihar
|Maithili
|
|
|Used Hindu/Sanskritic vocabulary in his works, and wrote the book ''Pracheen Bharatiya Arya Raj Vans'' ("''Ancient Indian Arya Royal Lineage''"), Government of Bihar constituted an award after him (Laxmi Narayan Sudhanshu Prize)
|-
|Lal Bahadur Srivastava (Shastri) (alias 'Shastriji', 'Man of Peace')
|U.P.
|Bhojpuri
|
|
|Quoted Gita, spoke of Ram Rajya, occasionally praised Shivaji
|-
|Lal Chand Prarthi
|H.P.
|Kullavi Pahari
|Not strictly
|Member (Leader)
|Documented Hindu folklore, village deities, and rituals, portraying them as symbols of cultural resistance against imperial and feudal oppression, supported Hindu institutions by advocating for preservation of local temples and festivals as part of regional identity
|-
|Laxman Vasudev Paranjape
|Maharashtra
|Marathi
|
|Member
|Involved in organizations promoting Hindu cultural and social revival
|-
|Laxminarayan Das
|Chhattisgarh
|Chhattisgarhi
|Yes
|Member
|Was mahant of Jaitu Sao Math in Raipur, used symbolisms like saffron robes, spoke of Ram in devotional contexts
|-
|Madhavrao Sapre
|M.P.
|Marathi
|Usually
|Member (Leader)
|Translated into Hindi Tilak's ''Gita Rahasya'', Samarth Ramdas' ''Dasbodh'', Chintamani Vinayak Vaidya's ''Mahabharat Mimansa'', and other Marathi works (i.e., ''Shri Ram Charitra'', ''Ekanath Charitra'', ''Atma Vidya'')
|-
|Maganlal Gandhi
|Gujarat
|Gujarati
|
|
|Used Gita-centered ethics, and was associated with Ramnam recitation, apart from the regular Gandhian vocabulary
|-
|Mahadev Desai
|Gujarat
|Gujarati
|Yes
|Member (Personal Assistant, Journalist)
|Gandhi’s secretary, mentioned Hindu figures like Krishna [in Gita translations], his statements promoted Gandhian Hinduism as tolerant and inclusive, used Shivaji as anti-imperialist symbol
|-
|Makhanlal Chaturvedi (alias 'Pandit Ji', 'Yug Charan', 'Ek Bhartiya Atma')
|M.P.
|Hindi
|
|Non-Member (Rally Protestor)
|Used Hindu imagery, including of Ram and Krishna, in his literature, and drew on spiritual themes to foster nationalism against British rule
|-
|Dr. Maithilisharan Gupt (alias 'Rashtrakavi')
|U.P.
|Bundeli
|
|
|Used Hindu and Bauddh persons in his stories, like Urmila (wife of Lakshman) in ''Saket'' and Yashodhara (wife of Gautam Buddha) in ''Yashodhara'', his ''Bharat Bharati'' book was widely quoted by freedom fighters
|-
|Malangi Shivalingiah Gurupadaswamy
|Karnataka
|Kannada
|Yes
|Member
|Referenced Hindu culture and scriptures positively context of "Indianisation," suggesting in a Constituent Assembly speech that Muslims should respect Hindu scriptures and culture for national unity
|-
|Malati Choudhury
|Odisha
|Odia
|
|
|Brahmo Samaji that made positive statements about the Samaj
|-
|Margaret Cousins
|Ireland
|Irish
|Usually
|Non-Member (Attendant)
|Worked closely with Gandhi and attended INC events like INC Session at Kolkata (1917) and Gandhi's meetings and campaigns
|-
|Manikya Lal Verma (alias 'Gandhi of Mewar')
|Rajasthan
|Mewari
|Yes
|Member (Leader)
|Worked closely with Arya Samaj
|-
|Manubhai Pancholi
|Gujarat
|Gujarati
|
|
|Cultural-literary engagements with Hindu ethical traditions, apart from using the regular Gandhian vocabulary
|-
|Maurice Frydman (alias 'Swami Bharatanand')
|Poland
|Polish
|
|
|Jewish convert to Hinduism, became rajyaguru to Anudh princely state's Raja Bala Sahib and drafted a constitution for the kingdom, lived at Gandhi's ashram and worked with him, worked with fellow Pole Gandhian Umadevi
|-
|Morarji Desai
|Gujarat
|Gujarati
|Not strictly
|Member (Leader)
|Made pro-Hindu statements like "''Hinduism is the most tolerant religion''" and emphasized Hindu moral values, referenced Hindu philosophy in governance but balanced with secularism
|-
|Mylai Ponnuswamy Sivagnanam (alias 'Sivagnanam Gramani', 'Silambu Chelvar')
|T.N.
|Tamil
|
|
|Influenced by Subramanya Bharathi and wrote 10 books on him (i.e., ''Vallalarum Bharathiyum''), wrote books on ''Silapathikaram'', wrote books on V.O.C. Pillai, wrote books on Veerapandiya Kattabomman, wrote books on Sant Thiruvalluvar, wrote ''The Universal Vision of Saint Ramalinga''
|-
|Nanabhai Bhatt
|Gujarat
|Gujarati
|Yes
|
|Educationist and Nai Talim pioneer, promoted Hindu ethical values like simplicity and self-reliance in education but without sectarian pro-Hindu statements, referenced Hindu cultural inheritance in educational philosophy
|-
|Nand Lal (alias 'Master Ji')
|Punjab
|Punjabi
|
|Member
|He wrote the ''Ramayan'' in a drama form and organized a play on the same on Navratras and Dussehra festivals (he played Dasrath in the play)
|-
|Narayan Desai
|Gujarat
|Gujarati
|
|
|Referenced bhajans and Gita ethics, apart from the regular Gandhian vocabulary like Ram Rajya
|-
|Dr. Narayan Subbarao Hardikar
|Karnataka
|Marathi
|Yes
|Member (Leader-Local GS)
|Established the Hindustani Seva Mandal (later became Rashtriya Seva Dal) in 1923, established the Arya Bala Sabha, taught the Gita during his student days in Kolkata<ref>''Dr. N.S. Hardiker'' By Ranganath Ramachandra Diwakar</ref>, was a fan of Lokmanya Tilak, and had enthusiastically worked with Lala Rai
|-
|Narendra Dev (alias 'Acharya Dev')
|U.P.
|Hindi
|Shifting view
|Member (Leader)
|Referenced Ram Rajya as socialist utopia, and Hindu ethical traditions and figures like Krishna as sources of moral inspiration for selfless action and justice
|-
|Narhari Dwarkadas Parikh
|Gujarat
|Gujarati
|Yes
|Non-Member (Attendant, Rally Protestor, Volunteer)
|Referenced Hindu ethics in satyagraha
|-
|Naurang Rai (alias 'Swami Sahajanand Saraswati')
|U.P.
|Bhojpuri
|Not strictly
|Member
|Wrote books in Sanskrit and Hindi, on Hinduism and independence, helped form All India Kisan Sabha, in which he was its first President, worked with INC, Swatantra (N.G. Ranga ), and CPI (E.M.S. Namboodiripad), organized Bakasht Movement in Bihar in 1937–1938, built ashram at Bihta, Bihar
|-
|Nautamlal Bhagavanji Mehta (alias 'Nagar Seth of Jetpur')
|Gujarat
|Gujarati
|Yes
|Non-Member
|Supporter of Gandhi — coined 'Mahatma' for him, invoking Hindu reverence, promoted Hindu unity in nationalism
|-
|Nilakantha Das (alias 'Pandit', 'Veritable Father of Orissa')
|Odisha
|Odia
|
|
|While imprisoned, he wrote ''Interpretation of the Gita (Hazaribagh Jail)'', and outside of jail wrote ''Gita Prabesha'' also on the Gita, and wrote books of other spiritual topics; ''Arya Jeeban'', ''Bhaktigatha'', ''Pilanka Bhagabata'', and ''Sanskruta O Sanskruti''
|-
|Padam Dev (alias 'Pandit', 'Kaviraj')
|H.P.
|Mahasuvi Pahari
|Yes
|Member (Leader-Local GS)
|Arya Samaj preacher — promoted shuddhi (even converting American Samuel Evans Stokes), referenced Hindu scriptures in his campaigns (i.e., against Begar or forced labour and reet or feudal tax, speeches invoked figures like Dayanand
|-
|Pandurang Mahadev Bapat ('Senapati Bapat')
|Maharashtra
|Marathi
|No (revolutionary)
|Non-Member (Attendant)
|Hindu symbolism (Shivaji, dharma) in speeches, including religious symbolism in anti-colonial struggle
|-
|Pandurang Sadashiv Khankhoje
|Maharashtra
|Marathi
|No (revolutionary)
|
|
|-
|Pandurang Sadashiv Sane (alias 'Sane Guruji', 'Gandhi of Maharashtra')
|Maharashtra
|Marathi
|Yes
|Member
|Wrote the ''Geeta Hridaya'', from his notes on the lectures in prison that Acharya Bhave delivered in the same jail, the latter compiled the ''Gita Pravachane'' book, orgaqnizations Akhil Bharatiya Sane Guruji Kathamala, Antar Bharati, and Rashtriya Smarak Samiti were modelled on Guruji's teachings
|-
|Pandurang Vitthalapanta Valame (alias 'Rang Avadhoot'[https://www.rangavadhoot.us/])
|Gujarat
|Marathi
|
|
|A mystic sant, mentioned Hindu figures like Dattatreya, used devotional slogans like "Jai Guru", teachings were spiritual
|-
|Puripanda Appala Swamy
|Andhra Pradesh
|Telugu
|
|
|Worked extensively with: Telugu literal renderings of epics, Hindu cultural literature, Ramayan/Mahabharata themes Some works include: ''Mahabharatam'', ''Sridevi Bhagavatam'', ''Srimadbhagavatam'', ''Valmiki Ramayanam'', ''Jagadguru Shankaracharya''
|-
|Potti Sreeramulu
|Andhra Pradesh
|Telugu
|
|
|Promoted ascetic-sacrificial ideals, used spiritualized language
|-
|Phanishwar Nath Mandal (alias 'Renu')
|Bihar
|Maithili
|
|
|Used Hindu imagery in his works, including references to gods and devotional songs, as well as ritual life and village customs, attended Kashi Hindu Vishvavidyalay
|-
|Prabhavati Devi
|Bihar
|Bhojpuri
|
|
|Lived ascetically like Gandhi in his ashram, practiced social work as part of spiritual lifestyle, spiritualized public ethics
|-
|Purushottam Das Tandon
|U.P.
|Hindi
|Yes
|Member (Leader-National President)
|Advocated for Hindu militarism to fight perceived threats in India, used Hindu cultural symbolism (i.e., Ram Rajya), worked with K.M. Munshi in the Constituent Assembly against forced or induced conversions, was Sanskrit scholar, supported education in Vedas, Upanishads and Gita
|-
|Sir Puttige Sivaswami Subramania Iyer (alias 'Grand Old Man of South India')
|T.N.
|Tamil
|Usually
|Member
|
|-
|Rajendra Shah
|Gujarat
|Gujarati
|
|
|Used spiritual themes, particularly devotional undertones influenced by Sanatan literary culture
|-
|Ramaswamy Aiyer Krishnamurthy (alias 'Kalki Krishnamurthy')
|T.N.
|Tamil
|Yes
|Member
|Adopted the name Kalki, his works like ''Ponniyin Selvan'' and ''Sivagamiyin Sapatham'' drew heavily from Tamil/Hindu epics and they used Hindu themes to evoke modern nationalism
|-
|Raghunath Vinayak Dhulekar
|U.P.
|Marathi
|Yes
|Member
|Wrote commentaries about shastras and ideas, like ''Shweta-Shwatrupanishad Bhasya'' on ''Shvetashvatara Upanishad'' and Shaivism, ''Prashnapanishad Saral Bhashya'' on the ''Prashna Upanishad'', ''Atmadarshi Geeta Bhashya'' on the Gita, ''Chaturvedanugami Bhashya'' on Vedas, and ''Pillars of Vedant'' on Vedanta
|-
|Dr. Rajendra Prasad
|Bihar
|Bhojpuri
|Yes
|Member (Leader-National President)
|Strongly defended traditional Hindu dharm and personal laws against the Hindu Code Bill, arguing to Nehru that changes would undermine core Hindu scriptural and cultural traditions (i.e., family structure rooted in shastras and dharm), referenced Hindu concepts like dharm positively as the ethical foundation of Indian society and expressed respect for figures like Ram and Krishna as moral ideals
|-
|Dr. Ram Manohar Lohia
|U.P.
|Marwari
|Shifting view
|Member (Leader-National Secretary)
|Wrote essay "Ram, Krishna, aur Shiva" as "''India's three great dreams''", invoked Ram Rajya positively, engaged positively with Gita and Hindu ethical concepts like dharm, and praised Krishna's call for nishkam karma as model for selfless struggle and social change, used Hindu figures to foster cultural confidence and mass mobilization (i.e., Ramayana Mela at Chitrakoot, U.P.) to connect with tural and traditional audiences, argued Hindu symbols could transcend narrow religious boundaries and promote unity
|-
|Ram Prasad (alias 'Agyat', 'Bismil', 'Pandit')
|U.P.
|Hindi
|No (revolutionary)
|Non-Member (Attendant, Volunteer)
|Arya Samaj member that encouraged shuddhi for Muslims
|-
|Rambriksh Benipuri
|Bihar
|Magadhi
|
|
|Wrote of Sanatan and Bauddh themes, like his play ''Ramrajya'' and his book ''Amipure'' based on a Bauddh convert and ''Netradaan'' on Samrat Ashok
|-
|Ramdhari Singh Dinkar
|Bihar
|Magadhi
|
|
|Wrote nationalistic literature with Hindu imagery/references (i.e., ''Kurukshetra'' and ''Rashmirathi''), was influenced by Rabindranath Tagore and translated his works from Bengali to Hindi
|-
|Ramesh Chandra Jha
|Bihar
|Magadhi
|
|
|Used light Sanatan themes in his patriotic poetry, like ''Murlika'' referencing Krishna but a metaphor for the human voice, expressing the inner music, longing, and dreams of ordinary citizens, and wrote ''Meera Nachi Re'' to depict Sant Meera Bai as someone who positively broke social chains, and wrote works like ''Kaling Ka Lahu'' on Samrat Ashok ''Chalo-Dilli'' (referenced Dharm-Yuddh), freedom fighter Kanhiyalal Mishra Prabhakar wrote a biography of him
|-
|Ravishankar Shukla
|M.P.
|Hindi
|Yes
|Member (Leader-Premier)
|Headed Kanyakubja Sabha and collaborated with Malaviya to mobilize Brahmans, joined Theosophical Society to explore vastness of Hindu canon, 1st CM of independent M.P.
|-
|Ravishankar Vyas (alias 'Maharaj', 'Father of Gujarat')
|Gujarat
|Gujarati
|Yes
|Non-Member (Rally Protestor)
|Mentioned Hindu dharma in both devotional culture and Gandhian contexts
|-
|Saroj Kumari Gaurihar
|U.P.
|Bundeli
|
|
|Used devotional-national imagery, feminine-sacred symbolism, and traditional Hindu motifs
|-
|Sarojini Naidu
|Telangana
|Bengali
|Yes
|Member (Leader-National President)
|Used women like Sita, Savitri, Gargi, and Damayanti as ideals for women's empowerment, used Hindi ideas of tolerance for harmony between communities
|-
|Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan (alias 'Philosopher President', 'Bridge Builder')
|T.N.
|Telugu
|Usually
|
|Authored a highly influential commentary called ''The Bhagavad Gita'' (1948, praising it as the pinnacle of Hindu philosophy and a universal guide to ethics, dharm, and spiritual realization, celebrated Hindu scriptures (Gita, Vedanta, Upanishads) as profound expressions of eternal truth, dharm as moral order, and Krishna as a symbol of divine wisdom and action within his works ''Indian Philosophy'' and ''The Hindu View of Life''
|-
|Savalai Ramaswami Mudaliar
|Puducherry
|Tamil
|Usually
|Member (Leader)
|
|-
|Seshadri Srinivasa Iyengar (alias 'Lion of the South')
|T.N.
|Tamil
|
|
|Devout Sri Vaishnava that authored a book on Mayne's Hindu Laws, became monk (Swami Anvananda) later in life
|-
|Seth Govind Das (alias 'Mahakoshal Kesari')
|M.P.
|Hindi
|Yes
|Member (Leader-Local President)
|Invoked Hindu scriptures (including Vedas, Upanishads, ''Vishnu Purana'', and ''Brahma Purana'') and figures in Constituent Assembly, wrote drama plays and texts of Hindu subject matter, partook in demonstration against cow slaughter in 1966 led by RSS, VHP, and RRP
|-
|Shankarrao Trimbak Dharmadhikari (alias 'Dada Dharmadhikari')
|M.P.
|Marathi
|Yes
|Non-Member
|Mentioned Hindu figures like Krishna in philosophical contexts, was studying Shankaracharya's works for about a year before joining independence movement
|-
|Shankarlal Banker
|Gujarat
|Gujarati
|Yes
|Non-Member (Rally Protestor)
|Referenced Hindu ethics in labor reforms
|-
|Shiv Prasad Gupta
|U.P.
|Hindi
|Yes
|Member (Financier)
|Founded Kashi Vidya Peeth for Indian and Hindu studies, funded Hindu institutions like BHU, built Bharat Mata Mandir, held the First National Congress at his residence, Gandhi called him Rashtra Ratna
|-
|Shyamlal Gupta
|U.P.
|Awadhi
|
|
|Wrote ''Vijayi Vishwa Tiranga Pyara'', a nationalistic book that often invoked Shivaji, Rajput resistance, and Hindu martial heroes
|-
|Sohan Lal Dwivedi (alias 'Rashtrakavi')
|U.P.
|Hindi
|Yes
|Non-Member
|Mentioned Ram Rajya, like in Bharavi collection of poems, used both Krishna and Rama in patriotic poetry to describe India as the privilaged land they lived in
|-
|Sonaram Sutiya
|Assam
|Assami
|Yes
|
|Vaishnav pandit that [through the Srimanta Sankardev Sangha] promoted nam-kirtan, satras and namghars, and Sankardev's teachings
|-
|Subhadra Kumari Chauhan
|U.P.
|Awadhi
|
|
|Mentions Hindu figures in her poetry, like Ram in" Vijayadashmi", and Krishna in a few like "Ye Kadamb Ka Ped", "Vida", "Bhaiya Krishna!", "Krishna-Yashoda"
|-
|Sundara Sastri Satyamurti (alias 'Firebrand of South India', 'Dheerar')
|T.N.
|Tamil
|Yes
|Member (Leader-National President)
|Engaged with Hindu scriptures, sometimes invoked dharma for moral nationalism
|-
|Dr. Sampurnanand
|U.P.
|Hindi
|Yes
|Member (Leader-Local Secretary)
|Wrote books like ''Yogadarshan'' and commentaries on Vedic texts, portrayed Hinduism as the nationalistic force for strengthening India, mentioned Ram Rajya, openly discussed the threats of Muslim disloyalty
|-
|Sir Subramania Iyer
|T.N.
|Tamil
|
|
|Activist in Besant's Hindu organizational circles
|-
|Subramaniya Siva
|T.N.
|Tamil
|
|
|Used Tamil-Hindu cultural imagery in poetry
|-
|Swami Purnanand
|H.P.
|Mandyali Pahari
|
|Member (Leader)
|A swami
|-
|Tanguturi Prakasam (alias 'Andhra Kesari', 'Prakasam Pantulu')
|Andhra Pradesh
|Telugu
|
|Member (Leader)
|His public rhetoric frequently invoked dharma and the moral authority of Hindu epics, quoted Gita, occasionally invoked Krishna and Ram as moral exemplar in speeches, occasionally praised Shivaji, supported protection of Hindu religious institutions and saw them as part of national heritage
|-
|Tara Chand (alias 'Kashyap Bandhu')
|J&K
|Kashmiri
|
|
|Became an Arya Samaji and an editor of ''Arya Gazette'' in Lahore, where he also performed social service for the association
|-
|Uchharangrai Navalshankar Dhebar
|Gujarat
|Gujarati
|
|
|Used spiritual-national vocabulary shaped by Sanatan idioms
|-
|Vaidyanath Mishra (alias 'Nagarjun', 'Yatri')
|Bihar
|Maithili
|
|
|Was disciple of Rahul Sankrityayan, and like him, became a Bauddh monk and wrote works (i.e., essays like "Ayodhya ka raja" and "Bum Bholenath", poems like "Harijan Gatha" and "Mantra Kavita") using a high amount of Sanatan imagery (i.e., ''Ramayana''), references (i.e., ''Mahabharata''), gods
|-
|Valangaiman Sankaranarayana Srinivasa Sastri
|T.N.
|Tamil
|
|Member
|Public lectures frequently praised Sanskrit literature and ethical universality of Hindu scriptures, presented Hindu philosophy to Western audiences as one of India’s greatest contributions to world civilization
|-
|Vallabhbhai Patel (alias 'Sardar')
|Guajrat
|Guajrati
|
|
|Supported rebuilding of Somnath Temple
|-
|Vallinayagam Olaganathan Chidambaram Pillai (alias 'Kappalottiya Tamizhan')
|T.N.
|Tamil
|Not strictly
|Member
|Met Swami Ramakrishnananda (Vivekanand’s brother) in Chennai and was advised by him to serve the nation as a form of dharm (spiritual duty), became a member of the militant Bharatha Matha Sangam, his literature includes the commentaries ''Thirukural'' (1917) and ''Tolkappiam'' (1928), memorials to him exist in places like Theni district, erected by the Shaiv Vellalar community, his promotion of Tamil literature often intersected with Shaiv devotional texts (''Tirumurai'', ''Periya Puranam''), was active in organizations like the Shaiva Siddhanta Sangam (Madurai)
|-
|Dr. Vavilala Gopalakrishnayya (alias 'Andhra Gandhi', 'Telugu Bhishma')[https://vavilalasamstha.com/index.html]
|Andhra Pradesh
|Telugu
|Yes
|
|Spoke of Ram Rajya in the context of democratic accountability, welfare state ideals ("''land of dharma and a real of peace''"), and political morality (nonviolence to achieve goals)
|-
|Vedaratnam Pillai (alias 'Sardar')
|T.N.
|Tamil
|
|
|Involved in temple-based philanthropy (donations to schools attached to temple towns, supported annadanams near temples, helped build hospitals, hostels, or schools on temple-endowed lands), promoted ethical Gandhian vocabulary in public life
|-
|Dr. Venkata Subrahmaniam[https://maharishibharati.org/centre/anglais/Association/DrShuddhananda.html] (alias 'Shuddhananda Bharati')
|T.N.
|Tamil
|
|
|Edited the journal ''Bharata Shakti'' wrote novels ''Kasturi'' and ''Viduthalai'' that contained both spirituality and politics
|-
|Vijay Singh Pathik
|U.P.
|Hindi
|
|
|His revolutionary rhetoric drew from Rajput resistance memory and heroic anti-imperial traditions
|-
|Vinayak Narahar Bhave (alias 'Acharya Vinoba')
|Gujarat
|Marathi
|Yes
|Non-Member
|Bhoodan leader, mentioned Hindu figures like Krishna in philosophical contexts, used slogans like "Jai Jagat" (''Victory to the World''), his statements emphasized spiritual equality and non-violence, drawing from Hindu texts for universal humanism, spoke of Ram Rajya like in Bhoodan movement discourse
|-
|Vyenkatesh Bhagvanrao Khedgikar (alias 'Swami Ramanand Tirtha')
|Karnataka
|Kannada
|Yes
|Member (Leader)
|Was an Arya Samaj monk, drew from scriptures like Gita, rallied people against Nizam, became first President of the Hyderabad State Congress in 1947
|-
|Wanda Dynowska (alias 'Umadevi')
|Poland
|Polish
|
|
|Established Polish-Indian Library (translated Hindu and Bauddh scriptures into Polish to share with fellow Poles), worked with fellow Pole Gandhian Swami Bharatanand
|-
|}

==Non-aligned==
{| class="wikitable sortable"
|-
! Freedom Fighter
! Home Region
! Ethnicity
! Ahimsa
! Role
! Symbolism
|-
|Alluri Sitarama Raju
|Telangana
|Telugu
|
|
|Took sanyas, used to teach Gita to people
|-
|Ayodhya Prasad Upadhyay
|U.P.
|
|
|
|Volunteered lecturing Hindi at the Banaras Hindu University, wrote important works
|-
|Arani Subramaniya Sastri
|T.N.
|Tamil
|
|
|
|-
|Akkur Ananthachari
|T.N.
|Tamil
|
|
|
|-
|Bandopadhyaya (Acharya Buddharakkhita)
|Manipur
|Bengali
|
|
|Opposed Christian missionaries wanting to converting Bauddhs and Sanatans, monk who founded Maha Bodhi Society[http://mahabodhi.info/] of Bengaluru, translated ''Dhammapada'' into English
|-
|Belagere Krishna Shastry
|Karnataka
|Kannada
|
|
|Member of Gokhale Institute of Public Affairs[https://www.gipa-bng.org/], which promoted Hindu literature and philosophical discourse
|-
|Chatursen Shastri
|U.P.
|
|
|Yes
|Wrote works both religious and sociopolitical, even critiquing Gandhi's nonviolent stance and in independent India, Nehru attempted to ban his books
|-
|Sir Chetput Pattabhirama Ramaswami Aiyar
|T.N.
|Tamil
|
|
|
|-
|Kattamuthu Ocha Thevar (alias 'Pappapatti Kattamuthu Mookiah')
|T.N.
|Tamil
|
|
|Was disciple of Ukkirapandi Muthuramalinga Thevar
|-
|Natesa Iyer (alias 'Father Gangadhara Shastri')
|T.N.
|Tamil
|
|
|
|-
|Gazulu Lakshminarasu Chetty
|T.N.
|Tamil
|
|
|
|-
|George Arundale
|England
|English
|
|
|Close friend of Besant, wrote ''Nirvana'', which contained Hindu beliefs and terminology, and wrote other works
|-
|Sakkottai Krishnaswamy Iyengar
|T.N.
|Tamil
|
|
|
|-
|Kallidaikurichi S. Subramaniya Iyer
|T.N.
|Tamil
|
|
|
|-
|Mandayam Parthasarathi Tirumal Acharya
|T.N.
|Tamil
|
|
|
|-
|Nanak Bheel
|
|Bhili
|
|
|Propagated the movement of Govind Guru (disciple of Swami Dayanand) among tribals, organized public gatherings that incorporated bhajans and patriotic songs, and was martyred by British imperialist forces
|-
|Pothiram Upadhyay ('Swaroopanand Saraswati', 'Revolutionary Sadhu')
|M.P.
|
|
|Yes
|A participant in 1942 Quit India Movement, he later 1st president of ABRRP, supported reclaiming Ram Janmabhumi and including shastras in curriculum, was Shankaracharya of Dwarka Sharada Peeth from 1982 and before that of Jyotir Math, Badrinath (1973), mentioned Hindu figures like Ram, Krishna, Hanuman, and Shiva in speeches
|-
|Ramanathapuram Sankara Venkatarama Iyer
|T.N.
|Tamil
|
|
|
|-
|Rangaswami Iyengar (alias 'Alathur')
|T.N.
|Tamil
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|Seshayengar Srinivasa Raghavaiyangar
|T.N.
|Tamil
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|Dr. Swaminatha Sastri
|T.N.
|Tamil
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|Thakur Akshay Singh Ratnu
|M.P.
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|Renovated the Karni Mata temple, wrote devotional works like "Maa Karni Vandana Stotram", in his family memoirs is credited with instilling "Sanskaras of Sanatan Hindu Dharma", wrote about Maharana Pratap, known as Sahityabhushana
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|Tiruppur Subrahmanya Avinashilingam Chettiar
|T.N.
|Tamil
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|Ramakrishna Mission member
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|Ukkirapandi Muthuramalinga Thevar (alias 'Pasumpon')
|T.N.
|Tamil
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|Lived as a sadhu, combined political activism with Hindu spirituality and community leadership, kept strong links to Hindu religious networks in T.N., had temple-centered authority
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|Varahaneri Venkatesa Subramaniam Aiyar
|T.N.
|Tamil
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|Veer Narayan Singh
|Chhattisgarh
|Chhattisgarhi
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Shatata-Unnati

2026-06-07T05:27:26Z

Himanshu Bhatt: /* Shahu's royal authority to implement reforms */

{{Author|Himanshu Bhatt}}
'Shatata-Unnati' is ''continual change'', 'abhyas' means improvement, 'kram-parivartanam' is ''incremental reformation'', while 'shodhanam' is ''refinement''. All of these terms are descriptive of Hindu society throughout the ages.

Continual social betterment has been one of the defining characteristics of Hindu society. All major cultures have had evils in their histories, including Hindu societies, but the shining examples to enforce positive changes and adaptability to a changing world are the Hinduism, Christianity, and Judaism.

In an era wherein colonial norms meant imprisonment or executions for speaking out against imperial rule, Mahatma Gandhi challenged the ideas of forcing nations to be subservient, fighting oppression by violence, and purging one's own nation of evils (i.e., inequality and superstition.) Today, much of the world still looks to Gandhi's perseverance to bring positive change into society.

Transformation of India's political systems made India into the world's largest democracy, and for accomplishing that, [[Indian Freedom Fighters#INC's Hindu activist roots|Hindu doctrines were rationalize to promote democracy]]. Even in India's political spectrum, Hindu principles were used to make liberalism and communism resonate with people, like Ram Rajya being a communist utopia. Some of the Communist Party of India's [[Indian Freedom Fighters#CPI's Hindu activist roots|founders were idealogues for both communism and Hinduism]], such as Swami Kumaranand, Swami Satyabhakt, and Swami Sahajanand Saraswati, as well as Keezhedathu Damodaran, Radhamohan Gokulji, and Rahul Sankrityayan.

==Comparison in societal reformation (India and Europe)==
:''See also: [[Contribution of Hindu Diaspora]]''
Whereas even in modern times, in most European Christian societies, witch-hunts and slavery were the norm, in Indian Hindu societies, widow-burning was the norm among certain communities (usually northwestern) and caste prejudice was prevalent. Both the Christian and Hindu communities worked to extinguish these and other evils.

Historical societal injustices have been acknowledged and reconciled. Even today, the lasting legacy of important Hindu reformers is visible wherein quotas employment and educational quotas are implemented for social upward mobility to ensure poorer castes and women do not fall behind.

During the colonial era, as human rights improved in Western societies as results from agricultural/economic advancements, Western writers of non-Christian societies took a chauvinistic, parochialist, and Eurocentric approach towards Hindu societies, claiming that they:
#Would never improve in human rights, morality, or rationality
#Are permanently stagnant
#Cannot produce modern or political economic institutions

Critics of the colonial era were proven wrong in these concrete ways:
#Large-scale societal reforms led by Hindu activists themselves improved Hindu societies — i.e., promoting window remarriage and caste integration while also creating quotas for females and historically-disadvantaged castes
#Rapid expansion of education and intellectual mobility — i.e., growth of global Hindu academic presence
#Global economic and corporate leadership — i.e., entrepreneurship and CEOs of major multinational companies like Adobe, Google, and Microsoft
#Democratic political evolution — i.e., maintaining electoral democracies like Hindu-majority nations, providing peaceful transfers of power, and granting significant autonomy to judiciary, press, and civil societies
#Religious and philosophical continuity + adaptation
#Ritual practice has diversified massively by religion and class — i.e., clerics ([[Rta and Spiritual Authority|priests]] and [[ascetics|monks]]) are from many backgrounds
#Reinterpretation of scriptures became internationally influential — i.e., Aldous Huxley loved the perennialism of Upanishads, Erwin Schrödinger the idea of aikatmyam, and Henry David Thoreau that of Ishavasyam
#Non-Hindus from outside of the Indian Subcontinent have converted to Sanatan Dharm and have promoted the religion — James Donald Walters who founded Ananda Sangha, Richard Alpert who founded Hanuman Foundation, John Edwin Favors who founded iFast[https://ifastdc.com/][https://ifastglobal.com/], and Robert Hansen who founded Saiva Siddhanta Church[https://www.himalayanacademy.com/]
#Hindu-based intellectual practices have popularized globally — i.e., [[Ayurveda|Ayurvedic medicine]], divination, political activism, [[Animal rights#Influence upon Westerners|animal rights]], [[Animal_rights#Vegetarianism|vegetarianism]], and [[yoga]]

==Hindu-led social betterment==
What is extraordinary in the case of India is that it was the religious institutions ([[Organizations|Hindu organizations]] and [[Hindu Post-Secondary Institutes|schools]]) that made revolutionary changes, not normally secular or non-Hindu ones. Practicing Hindus saw that superstitious and chauvinistic practices had become institutionalized (caste system and misogyny) within Hindu society, so they formed associations to help, uplift, educate the destitute. They would even go steps further to privilege the marginalized through reservations.

Even women who were more exploratory and not members of specific religions engaged with Hinduism positively. The best example might be Annette Beveridge, an Englishwoman who was the daughter of a Unitarian Christian herself became affiliated with Keshub Chandra Sen in England. She was drawn to his lectures and this fascination with his philosophy inspired her to begin life in India, where she even established<ref>Its expenses were financed by Ananda Mohan Bose and Durga Mohan Das, Dwarkanath Ganguly was its headmaster, and others Brahmos involved with the school were Sibnath Sastri and Monomohun Ghose.</ref> the Hindu Mahila Vidyalaya (''Hindu Women's School''.) Her husband Henry Beveridge was an orientalist (westerners intrigued with Asian cultures) working in India, meaning they were not Westerners critical of Hindu identity. Mrs. Emily Phear was an honorary teacher, and she too was involved in Brahmo Samaji circles for societal development. (Her husband Sir John Budd Phear helped Brahmo Samaj legally.) A non-Hindu that likewise began a girls school (Hindu Female School[https://www.bethunecollegiateschool.com/]) with Brahmos and other Hindus was John Bethune, whose accomplices were Dakshinaranjan Mukherjee, Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar, Ramgopal Ghosh, and Madanmohan Tarkalanka (the last even taught at the school without pay.) Others foreign women in India that engaged positively with Hindu activist organizations were Mary Carpenter[https://southasianbritain.org/people/mary-carpenter/] and Sophia Dobson Collet with Brahmo Samaj, Alma B.R.A. with Arya Samaj, and Mary Hobson with Prarthana Samaj[https://puneprarthanasamaj.org/].

Hindu women that set women's rights activism into motion were Arya Samaj's Lajwanti Sood and Satyavati Devi, and Brahmo Samaj's Kadambini Ganguly and Sarala Devi Chaudhurani. Swarnakumari Devi was both an Arya Samaji and a Brahmo Samaji.

===Female upliftment===
:''See also: [[Indian Freedom Fighters]] 
;Theosophical Society wing
[[image:Paris Women's Congress.jpg|right|thumb|200px|Dr. Reddy and 3 Indian women at the Paris Women's Congress (1926.)]]
The top 3 champions who politically improved Indian women's rights in the modern era were foreigners — Dr. Annie Besant, Dorothy Jinarajadasa, and Margaret Cousins. They did not tell Indian women to leave Hinduism but rather they themselves became Hindu in practice and Indian in habit. They then sought to restore the Vedic-era of womanhood wherein women had authority (i.e., to become clerics, scholars, and leaders.) Emma Mitchell (American) and Francesca Arundale (English) greatly contributed to building of Hindu educational institutions (i.e., Central Hindu College.)

Dr. Muthulakshmi Reddy is a big name in female rights, and she was influenced by Dr. Besant in her college years (1907-1912) and was guided by Dr. Besant in both her social reform and political work. She worked with Dr. Besant and others to establish the Women's Indian Association (1917.) After Dr. Besant's death, she took over the presidency of the WIA. Gandhi was another major mentor but Reddy never formally joined the INC but sometimes protested colonial injustices (i.e., Gandhi's arrest.)

;Ramakrishna Mission wing
[[image:Nivedita & Vivekanand.jpg|right|thumb|200px|Nivedita with Vivekanand.]]
[[Niveditā, Sister|Sister Nivedita (Margaret Noble)]], a convert from Ireland became a disciple of [[Swami Vivekananda|Swami Vivekanand]] and joined Aurobindo's Dawn Society and had also founded and ran girls' schools in Kolkata (i.e., Ramakrishna Sarada Mission Sister Nivedita Girls' School[https://www.sisterniveditagirlsschool.org/home.html] in Baghbazar) to educate girls who had little to no access to education (i.e., poorest of the poor.) She advocated for women's intellectual and moral development, influenced by Vivekanand's vision of strong Indian womanhood. Her work included lectures, fundraising (India, England, and U.S.), and writings that promoted gender equality in access to knowledge and opportunities. She had worked with Dr. Annie Besant at times. Likewise, Sister Christine, disciple of Vivekanand, is another example of a Westerner who utilized the Ramakrishna Mission and Vivekanand's circles as vehicles for improving female rights in India.

;INC wing
:''See also: [[Indian Freedom Fighters#INC's Hindu activist roots|INC's Hindu activist roots]] 
[[image:Nellie Sen Gupta.jpg|right|thumb|100px|N.S. Gupta.]]
Nellie Sen Gupta[https://www.thedailystar.net/in-focus/news/deshpriya-jatindra-mohan-nellie-sengupta-2036981] (nee Edith Ellen Gray) had married freedom fighter Jatindra Mohan Sen Gupta, and both joined the INC — she also founded Deepali Sangha, a women's organization aimed at promoting social and political awareness, leadership, training, and empowerment among women. Her husband passed away but she was advised to stay in the-then East Pakistan to take care of Hindu rights, which she did. Umadevi (born Wanda Dynowska), a Polish convert to Sanatan Dharm too championed women's rights in India and translated ''[[Bhagavad Gita]]'', ''[[Mahabharata]]'', ''[[Ramayana]]'', and other [[Hindu Scriptures|Hindu and Bauddh literature]] into Polish. Mira Behn (born Madeleine Slade), the daughter of a British Royal Navy admiral, gave up her affluent lifestyle to become Gandhi's servant in India.
[[image:Sarla Behn Chipko Movement.jpg|right|thumb|200px|Sarla Behn's Chipko act[https://www.adda247.com/school/chipko-movement/].]]
Sarla Behn[https://growbilliontrees.com/blogs/knowledge/sarla-behn-tree-nurturing-nature-and-empowering-communities-for-a-sustainable-future?srsltid=AfmBOoq4h0d0skQBNr4w4zOvISuhYz02_EXtPvD3pUoQYjTlcvNHEbQ-#fullcontent] (born Catherine Mary Heilman) from England setup the Lakshmi Ashram Kausani in 1946 within Uttarakhand to uplift women, after having lived in the Sevagram Ashram[https://gandhiashramsevagram.org/] in Maharashtra. The organization educated rural hill girls academically, trained women of self-reliance and industrial skills (i.e., khadi weaving), taught personal care (i.e., literacy, hygiene, anti-liquor campaigns), and promoted [[Environmentalism|ecological awareness]] (Chipko Movement.) It also worked with the INC to encourage nationalist fervour. Lakshmi Ashram individual units were known as Mahila Mandals. This ashram attracted foreign residents intrigued with Sanatan Dharm even after independence, like David Hopkins, who relocated to there in the 1990's.
[[image:Durgabai Deshmukh.jpg|right|thumb|100px|Dr. D.D.]]
Dr. Durgabai Deshmukh, pupil of Gandhi and freedom fighter in the colonial era, established the Central Social Welfare Board (1953.) She later became president of the All India Women's Conference (1931.) Taraben Premchand is an important mention, as she was an important member of this organization, as well as the Jain Mahila Parishad[https://www.dbjainsabha.com], Jyoti Sangh[https://jyotisangh.org/about-us/] (local women's advancement group in Gujarat), and Shraddhanand Ashram[https://shraddhanandmahilashram.org/].

Madeleine Rolland was Women's International League for Peace and Freedom's[https://www.wilpf.org/] French section and never settled in India. However, upon engaging with Hindu culture in the 1920's, she translated Ananda Coomaraswamy's ''[[Nataraja Dasakam|The Dance of Shiva]]'' into French, introducing Hinduism to the-then residents of France. She also translated Rabindranath Tagore's writings of Sanatan themes and universal humanism, helping popularize them in Europe. She welcomed Gandhi on his visit to Marseille, France. [[image:Kanuparti Varalakshmamma.jpg|right|thumb|100px|'Sarada'.]]
Kanuparti Varalakshmamma (alias 'Sarada'), a devout Gandhian, used Hindu themes like providing ethical refences (i.e., Savitri, Sita) to depict women's morality, dignity, and conduct. She often engaged with the idea of a grihalakshmi (idea woman of the household.) She also founded the Stree Hitaishini Mandali for uplifting women. She used ''Andhra Patrika'', a newspaper created by a promoter of the ''Bhagavad Gita'', Kasinathuni Nageswara Rao, to preach her ideas.
[[image:Vijaya Lakshmi Pandit.jpg|right|thumb|100px|'Vijaya Lakshmi Pandit'.]]
It is also noteworthy that the 1st female head of government in the world was a [[Bauddh Dharm|Bauddh]] (Sirimavo Bandaranaike of Sri Lanka, non-INC member), and 2nd was a Hindu (Indira Gandhi, INC member.) Also Vijaya Lakshmi Pandit[https://news.un.org/en/story/2024/03/1147327] (born Swaroop Rani Nehru) played a significant role in global representation of women, particularly in the United Nations. She was the first woman to serve as the President of the UN General Assembly (1953-1954), a position she held to advocate for decolonization and the independence of countries in Asia and Africa. Hansa Mehta[https://india.un.org/en/311450-hansa-mehta%E2%80%99s-life-story-continues-inspire] had an impact on the UN's constitution wording wherein "''all human beings''" instead of "all men" in the Universal Declaration of Human Rights. (She was also one of only 2 women delegates working alongside Eleanor Roosevelt in the UN Human Rights Commission 1946-48.)
[[image:Nilla Cram Cook.jpg|right|thumb|100px|'Nilla Nagini Devi'.]]
Nilla Cram Cook, an American who settled at Gandhi's ashrams, had [[Conversion|converted to Hinduism]] in the 1930's but identified with the '[[Samyag Darshan#Samadarshan|sarva dharma sambhava]]' ideal, so considered herself a [[Bhakta|devotee]] of not only [[Krishna]] but of Jesus too, and so she later also translated the Quran and engaged with Islamic practices in a syncretic way with her Hindu and Christian customs. Her final literary work was ''The Way of the Swam: Poems of Kashmir'' (1958), which was mostly focused around the [[Saiva|Shaiv]] mystic poetess Lal Ded[https://hindupost.in/society-culture/lal-ded-her-life-and-works/#][https://homegrown.co.in/homegrown-voices/the-poetry-of-lal-ded-mysticism-resistance-the-female-voice-in-14th-century-kashmir] and others from Kashmir syncretic Sanatan-[[Bauddh Dharm|Bauddh]]-[[Sufism with Vaishnavism|Sufi]] tradition. She dedicated the book to Pandit. She didn't work on women's upliftment directly but did participate with Gandhi's Harijan Sevak Sangh. She had also written about Sarojini Naidu.

;Other associations
[[image:Maharani Chimnabai Gaekwad II.jpg|right|thumb|100px|Maharani Chimnabai.]]
[[image:Sethu Parvathi Bayi.jpg|right|thumb|100px|Junior Queen Bayi.]]
The National Council of Women in India[https://www.ncwi.in/], founded 1925, was also a monumental organization to make progress for women — it mainly focused on female literacy, vocational training, public participation, and legal reform. It was primarily the initiative of Lady Meherbai Tata, a Mazdaean icon, and its first president was Maharani Chimnabai Gaekwad II, born Gajrabai Ghatge, a princess of Dewas (M.P.) She supported societal progress of women that did not compromise on Hindu identity (i.e., traditional customs like wearing sari and sindhoor or like celebrating Raksha Bandhan), which is how she framed her ''The Position of Women in Indian Life'' book. She financed schools for girls, as well as Hindu charities and temples. The Gaekwad family also funded libraries and women's institutions and social reform initiatives. She discussed the eradication or the purdah, child marriage, women's restrictions (i.e., obtaining education and employment), and other obstacles towards advancement. Following her presidentship, Sethu Parvathi Bayi took over. She was from the royal family of Travancore (Kerala), and her family was deeply connected to the Padmanabhaswamy Temple[https://spst.in/][https://www.padmanabhaswamytemple.com/]. She financed Hindu institutions as well. It is notable that Sucharu Deo, daughter of Brahmo leader K.C. Sen was a prominent member and she had also helped build the Maharani Girls' High School[https://school.banglarshiksha.gov.in/ws/website/index/19013701705] in Darjeeling (W.B.) together with her sister (Suniti) and Hemlata Sarkar, daughter of Brahmo leader Sibnath Sastri.

From Hindu-based institutions like sociopolitical organizations and schools came a number of philanthropic associations.
;Most influential persons for women's upliftment
{| class="wikitable sortable"
|-
! Area of Contribution
! Meaning
! Steps Taken
! Activists
! Organizations
! Founder's Affiliation(s)
|-
|Political rights and visibility
|1. Women appearing in public political spaces 2. Women being recognized as leaders (not just participants) 3. Changing social norms about women's public roles 4. Symbolic representation
|Helped institutionalize women's leadership through bodies like Women's Indian Association
|Dr. Annie Besant (women's political rights + organizational leadership), Kamaladevi Chattopadhyay (political participation, economic empowerment, cooperatives), Margaret Cousins[https://www.womensmuseumofireland.ie/exhibits/margaret-elizabeth-cousins] (Suffarage, WIA), Sarojini Naidu (mass mobilization of women in politics)
|
|
|-
|Modern institutional equality
|
|Helped institutionalize institutional equality through contributing policy influence (Hansa Mehta) and constitutional rights (Dr. Durgabai Deshmukh)
|Dr. Durgabai Deshmukh (welfare systems), Hansa Mehta
|
|
|-
|Foundational legal reform
|
|
|Raja Ram Mohan Roy (abolition of sati), Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar (widow remarriage)
|
|
|-
|Education
|
|
|Raja Ram Mohan Roy, Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar
|
|
|-
|}

===Hindu influence internationally===
Even outside of India during the 20th century, women's rights were not perfect, and so many women incorporated Hindu symbolism (i.e., worship) and concepts towards promoting societies where women would have equal rights.
[[image:M.J. Gage.jpg|right|thumb|200px|Matilda Joslyn Gage.]]
[[image: Charlotte Despard.jpg|right|thumb|200px|Charlotte Despard, an Anglo-Irish suffragist who supported Indian independence.]]
As [[Worship of God as Mother|worship of God as a female or mother]] has been common in Sanatan Dharm since its foundation, that made validating female upliftment in India quicker. Even in Western nations, prominent women's rights organizations implemented imagery of goddesses from pertinent ancient cultures, like U.K.'s Women's Freedom League and National Union of Women's Suffrage Societies, and the global International Woman Suffrage Alliance, to legitimize female equality and women being in positions of power. Some Western feminists and women's rights activists, like Matilda Joslyn Gage<ref>"''While the sale of daughters was practiced in England for seven hundred years after the introduction of Christianity, we note that by the ancient law of India, a father was forbidden to sell his daughter in marriage, or receive the smallest present therefor.''" - P. 79-82 ''Woman, Church and State'' (1893) By Matilda Joslyn Gage</ref> (U.S. suffragist) and Helena Petrovna Blavatsky<ref>"''The pre- and post-Vedic woman was as free as man; and no impure terrestrial thought was ever mixed with the religious symbology of the early Aryans.''" 
"''This is proven by the fact that in the Vedic period their women were not placed apart from men in penetralia, or ‘Zenanas.’ Their seclusion began when the Mahomedans … had conquered the land and gradually enforced their ways and customs upon the Hindus.''" 
- P. 379-380 ''The Secret Doctrine: Volume I'' By Helena Blavatsky </ref> (European feminist), even used the examples of [[Worship of God as Mother|Hindu goddess-worship]] and Hindu queens to support their examples. (M.J. Gage[https://www.smithsonianmag.com/history/the-feminist-inspired-witches-of-oz-180985334/] in her ''Woman, Church, and State'' even highlighted Hindu texts to counter the male-centric theology of the West and referenced ''[[Bhagavad Gita]]'' to validate the concept of a female [[divinity]].) Even feminists of the colonial era like Victoria Woodhull that was skeptical of organized religion, respected "''Christna and Buddha''" (Krishna and Gautama.) Mary Lowe Dickinson at the World's Parliament Circles (1893) was so impressed by [[Swami Vivekananda|Swami Vivekanand]]'s speech, that she developed a fascination with female divinity of Hinduism, and in her editorials and public circles, argued that Hinduism's recognition of a feminine aspect within the divine was spiritually superior to the rigidly patriarchal, all-male Trinity of mainstream American Christianity. Emily Pitts Stevens and Charlotte LeMoyne Wills (wrote about the genderless [[Brahm]]) became disciples of Vivekanand. Laura de Force Gordon wrote about the immortal soul and continuous cycle of life. Alice Moore McComas wrote about the interconnectedness (aikatmyam) of all things. In U.K., Charlotte Despard's specific pamphlets linked [[karma]] to political activism. Margaret Louise Sanger was influenced by Vivekanand and Rabindranath Tagore. Sarah Bull<ref> P. 483 ''Western Admirers of Ramakrishna and His Disciples'' By Gopal Stavig, Swami Shuddhidananda </ref>, who particularly focused on women's education and reform was connected to both Vivekanand and Sister Nivedita. Josephine MacLeod was a major promoter of Vivekanand in the West and was involved in transatlantic reform-intellectual networks. Viktoria Ocampo of Argentina was deeply influenced by Tagore, even hosting him in Argentina and promoting his ideas widely. Gabriela Mistral of Chile was too, and she applied Tagore's ideas to women's education, child welfare, and cultural reform. Mabel Dodge Luhan was fascinated with Sanatan philosophy and influenced by Vivekanand. Mentionable is Emma Calve of France, who wasn't a political feminist leader but influential in women's intellectual-cultural circles, and she was deeply influenced by Vivekanand.
[[image:Carol Patrice Christ.jpg|right|thumb|200px|Carol Patrice Christ.]]
After suffragists had attained complete institutional equality, they them progressed to the next stage of female liberation by ensuring that their own spiritual faith wasn't male-chauvinistic or making them subordinates of males. Feminists were inspired by goddess deity of Hinduism to then promote it within generic spirituality. Valerie Saiving, Isaac Bonewits and Naomi Goldenberg founded in the 1970's, Thealogy, a feminine-specific theology. Carol Patrice Christ launched the Goddess Movement, which provided 4 aspects of Goddess symbolism as reasons to needing a goddess in women's lives; 1) the Goddess as affirmation of female power, 2) the female body, 3) the female will, and 4) women's bond and heritage. She specifically used the Shakti concept to prove that a major global religion (Hinduism) explicitly defined the [[Brahmanda|material universe]]/nature/change ([[Darshana#Sankhya|Prakriti]]) as an inherently active, female, and sacred force. She was an ecofeminist, as were Charlene Spretnak and Miriam Simos were ecofeminists too. Merlin Stone wrote ''Ancient Mirrors of Womanhood: Our Goddess and Heroine Heritage'' (1979) and in a chapter analyzes goddesses like [[Durga]], [[Kali]], [[Lakshmi Puja|Lakshmi]], Parvati, and Saraswati. Devout Christian women feminists too drew on Hindu practices and ideas to support women's advocacy, and they include Ivone Gebara, Pearl Sydenstricker Buck, and Sally McFague.

'Matriarchal religion' is a philosophy stating that societies were Goddess worshippers with females having the same status and rights as men before male gods began being worshipped, and the latter led to patriarchy. Goddesses being worshipped contiguously in Hindu societies for thousands of years was the backing this thought utilized, in addition to feminist archaeology (i.e., ancient idols and temples of goddesses uncovered.)

==Start of modern reforms==
In modern India, most positive social changes within Indian Hindu societies came not first as enforcement or pressure from European rulers but from advocacy of forward-thinking Hindus. Raja Ram Mohan Roy had led the campaign to purge Hindu societies of Sati and caste prejudices. Roy worked with British imperial authority, specifically Lord William Bentinck to have sati outlawed. Roy himself was a religious leader that reiterated Upanishads for their principles.

Other institutions of positive social changes were mainly Hindu ones or were governed by Hindu religious leaders, not secular ones.

The Indian National Social Conference of 1887 was organized by Justice Ranade, Rai Raghunath Rao, Narendra Nath Sen Gupta, and Janki Nath Ghoshal. Ranade was founder of the Prarthana Samaj, a religious group.

Arya Samajis, Brahmo Samajis, and Prarthana Samajis were the most vocal and active forces advocating: 
#Widow Remarriage (i.e., Widow Remarriage Act 1856—initiative of Brahmo Samaj)
#Women's right to divorce (i.e., Native Marriage Act 1872—initiative of Brahmo Samaj) 
#Property rights for women 
#Opposition to child marriages (i.e., Age of Consent Act 1891—initiative of Brahmo Samaj and Prarthana Samaj, Child Marriage Restraint Act 1929—initiative of Arya Samaj) 
#Universal accessible education (built schools, including colleges and gurukuls) 
#Caste-based reservations
[[image:Justice Ranade.jpg|right|thumb|200px|Mahadev Govind Ranade (alias 'Justice Ranade'.)]]
[[image:Jagannath Shankarshet.jpg|right|thumb|200px|Jagannath Shankarshet (alias 'Architect of Modern Mumbai'.)]]
The Indian Factories Act 1881's ratification was a landmark in workers' rights and the credit goes mainly to Sorabjee Shapoorjee Bengalee, and then Prarthana Samaj. He did work alongside the Prarthana Samaj to lobby the British authority through the First Factory Commission in 1875 (made to investigate the brutal conditions of Indian labour.) Prarthana Samaj's ''Subodh Patrika'' newspaper specifically critiqued mill owners. Rahnumai Mazdayasnan Sabha, its newspaper ''Rast Goftar'', and Bengalee himself referenced labour reformers Sasipada Banerji and Protap Chunder Mozumdar, and used the former's methods of worker upliftment as a blueprint for their own legislative arguments. Collaboration between the Sabha and Prarthana Samaj began with the latter's creation of the Theistic Association, on which the Parsi Naoroji Furdonji was its 1st Chairman. Ranade and Bhandarkar drove the Association from discussing only theism to improving society through finding solutions of work hardships. The Night School Initiative was launched, helping workers receive adequate training, particularly in labourer-heavy neighborhoods Byculla, Dongri, Khetwadi, and Thakurdwar. (From 1886-1890 alone, over 2,750 industrial workers successfully studied through this initiative.)

Brahmo Samaj's K.C. Sen’s first visit to Mumbai in March-April 1864 engaged him with Bengalee, Furdonji, Ranade, and Bhandarkar (all then members of Young India.) They all discussed ways to develop India. They also shared strategies on how to bypass orthodox religious resistance—Furdonji within Zoroastrianism and Sen within Sanatan Dharm. Bengalee's First Labor Bill (1878) laid the groundwork for the later Indian Factories Act.

Prior to all of this, Jagannath Shankarshet[https://www.vishwakonkani.org/hall-of-fame/hon-jagannath-shankar-sheth/] spent the 1850s petitioning the British Parliament for local governance. As a result, it codified the Indian Councils Act of 1861, thus creating the Bombay Legislative Council as a political body to better govern the-then Bombay Presidency. Shankarshet was the main founder of Bombay Association. In its first leadership were also Dr. Ramachandra Vitthal Lad (alias 'Dr. Bhau Daji'), a Hindu intellectual who used his Sanskrit knowledge to decipher inscriptions, preserve manuscripts, and help reconstruct the forgotten timelines of ancient Guptas and Western Kshatrapa dynasties. Mentionable is the Parsi Sir Jamsetjee Jeejeebhoy of the group. Shankarshet was a wealthy philanthropist that constructed and financed Sanatan and secular infrastructure, most notably the Bhavani Shankar Mandir[https://www.mcgm.gov.in/irj/go/km/docs/documents/D%20Ward/Heritage-Sites/73_Legacy%20of%20D%20Ward_Article_Bhavani%20Shankar%20Temple.pdf] (Mumbai), Sanskrit Seminary and Sanskrit Library (both in Mumbai too.) Elphinstone Educational Institution[https://elphinstone.ac.in/index.php] and Grant Medical College[https://gmcjjh.edu.in/] were his creations too. (Jeejeebhoy contributed to constructing the Grant Medical College.)

===Shahu's royal authority to implement reforms===
[[image:Shahu adoption.jpg|right|thumb|200px|Prince Yeshwantrao Ghatge being adopted by the royal family of Kohlapur.]]
[[image:Rajarshi.jpg|right|thumb|200px|Rajarshi Chhatrapati Shahu Maharaj.]]
[[image:School foundation.jpg|right|thumb|200px|Foundation of Shri Shahu Chhatrapati Shikshan Sanstha.]]
The greatest champion on all of these sections for reforms was Chhatrapati Shahu Maharaj[https://aissms.org/breaking-barriers-chhatrapati-shahu-maharaj-and-his-enduring-impact-on-progress-and-modernity/] (born Yeshwantrao Ghatge), '[[Rta and Spiritual Authority#Rishis|Rajarshi]]', the ruler of Kohlapur Kingdom who affiliated with organizations but probably the Arya Samaj[https://thearyasamaj.org] more than any other. Shahu definitely was not shy to publicly perform prayers, as he famously attended temples of goddesses Ambabai[https://www.mahalaxmikolhapur.com/home] and Bhavani[https://shrituljabhavani.org/] when having returned from his Europe trip in 1902. Also in 1902, Pratap Singh Maharaj of Idhar (Gujarat) introduced and educated him about the Arya Samaj. He provided patronage to the Arya Samaj.[https://navjyot.net/wp-content/uploads/2022/12/10.pdf]

The king passed many policies for for the upliftment of untouchable, nomadic, non-Brahmin communities and for females.<ref>Act of Free and Compulsory Primary Education (1917), Widow remarriage Act (1917), End of Balutedari (1918), Repeal of Kulkarni Watan (1918), Intercaste and Interreligious Marriages and Sanctioning of Registered Marriage Act (1919), Act relating to protection of Harassment of Women (1919), Divorce act (1919), Order on prohibition of Untouchability practice (1919), Illegitimate Children's Rights and Devadasi Prohibition Act (1920); 
[https://www.indiejournal.in/article/rajarshi-shahu-maharaj-and-his-tryst-with-the-arya-samaj "Rajarshi Shahu Maharaj & his tryst with the Arya Samaj Lessons for our times"] By Devkumar Ahire (Jun 26, 2023 6:42 PM)</ref>

;Prejudiced disgruntled castists promoting anti-Brahman hate, not universalism
While Shahu was affiliated with the Satyashodhak Samaj (SS) because it wanted to uplift the non-dwija castes, he did not feel they had any religious foundations, whereas the Arya Samaj was encompassed both a spiritual and social movement.<ref>"Beyond Reformism: Chhatrapati Shahu and Hinduism Reimagined" By Surajkumar Thube P. 124-144 ''Nidān: International Journal for Indian Studies, Volume 8'', Issue 1 (July 2023)</ref> Also, the SS of Pune was antithetical to social cohesion because it targeted the Brahman caste as an enemy, and while its main founder (Jyotirao Phule) made absurd claims like 'Shiv-Dharma'<ref>"''The real Shiv-Dharma that is ours, we are re-establishing it as Sarvajanik Satya Dharma.''" Chapter 4, ''Sarvajanik Satya Pustak''</ref> or 'Mahadev-Dharma' (worship of [[Shiva|Shiv]] as God and some local gods like Khandoba as avatars) being the true religion of Indians whereas every other Hindu belief and practice was an imposition by 'non-Indian Brahman invaders'. Being a chauvinist, he also criticized freedom fighter martyrs Lakshmi Bai, Nana Sahib, Tantia Tope for being Brahmans. He also wrote positively that freedom fighters lost the 1857 War of Independence against the British colonialists. He was also openly criticized by his own relative Baburao Phule, who accused the former of being a Christian convert who destroyed the Hindu religion.<ref>P. 58-59 ''The Caste Question: Dalits and the Politics of Modern India'' (2009) By Anupama Rao </ref>

;Satyashodhak Samaj becoming less anti-Brahman
"''All Hindus are equal. No one is superior, no one is inferior. Let all flesh and blood be one. Four varnas are a real deceit. It's a tool to keep the non-Brahmins in slavery. There is no difference among the Hindus. Hindu is the only varna. If a Hindu eats or marries with another Hindu that's not ''[[adharma]].'' In contrast, what divide Hindus in the name of religion is not a dharma, but a trick by Brahmins. One who calls themselves a Hindu, whether they are Europeans or Africans, they are our coreligionists.''" - P. 39 ''Deshache Dushman'' (1925) By Dinkarrao Javalkar
[[image:Sasipada Banerji.jpg|right|thumb|100px|Sasipada Banerji (alias 'Sevabrata'.)]]
Notable is that Phule's friend Narayan Meghaji Lokhande, a labour organization leader, was close friends with Phule and used Khandoba-worship and the reverence of Sundays for Khandoba in his petition to British authority to achieve Sunday as a holiday for factory labourers. Phule and Lokhande emulated Brahmans, like forming the political lobby group Deenbandhu Sarvajanik Sabha after Ranade's Poona Sarvajanik Sabha and forming the Bombay Mill Hands Association based and its mouthpiece ''Deenbandhu'' on the Working Men's Club (India's 1st labour welfare platform) and its mouthpiece ''Bharat Sramajibi'' (India's 1st labour journal) of Sasipada Banerji (Brahmo Samaji.) Though Dinkarrao Javalkar portrayed himself as pan-Hindu when discussing the specific topic of Hindu unity, he still prejudicially criticized the Brahman caste in general<ref>"''This day will be counted among the most important days in the history of Hindus. There is no reason for you to fear jail. The Brahmans who eat ghee and roti should have that fear. To make the touchable people behave is in your hands. You are the sons of Hindus. You capture the tank saying 'har har Mahadev' and follow the advice of your leader Dr. Ambedkar Saheb. This is my own position.''" -Dinkarrao Javalkar at satyagraha with Keshavrao Jedhe and Dr. Ambedkar among a Mahar crowd</ref> and targeted some prominent Brahmans like Lokmanya Tilak. (Javalkar and Keshavrao Jedhe also portrayed themselves as pro-woman but derogatory remarks about women from the Brahman and certain other castes<ref>P. 44 ''19th Century Maharashtra: A Reassessment'' (2020) By Shraddha Kumbhojkar </ref> and both appealed to Dr. B.R. Ambedkar in 1927 to exclude Brahmans from the Mahad Satyagraha<ref> P. 27 ''Social Reform Movements in India: A Historical Perspective'' (1991) By V.D. Divekar</ref>.) Javalkar did write favourably about some like Ranade, Gopal Ganesh Agarkar, and Krishna Gopal Gokhale. He rightfully partook in the Kalaram Mandir[https://www.shrikalaramsansthannasik.org/] Satyagraha in Nasik that protested for Dalits to be able to enter the temple. He was a communist and 10 years after his death, the Peasants and Workers Party (PWP) was formed. It is also noteworthy, however, is that Nana Patil, a founder of the PWP, was affiliated with both the Satyashodhak and Prarthana associations [meaning that he, like most other Satyashodhaks didn't believe in Phule's religious ideology.] Jedhe did protest with other activists (including Brahmans like Narhar Vishnu Gadgil, Seshdas Ranade, Shreedhar Mahadev Joshi, and members of Arya Samaj) for the right of Dalits to worship at Pune's Devdeveshwar Mandir[https://devdeveshwarsanthan.org/home.html]. Some other PWP founders like Jedhe and Madhavrao Bagal were Satyashodhaks, they popularized Shiv Jayanti and Ganesh Chathuri. The latter and his son Vasantrao even wrote devotional pieces inspired from Bhakti Era saints (i.e., [[Tukaram]], [[Eknath]]) and valourizing pieces about Shahu. Tulshidas Jadhav, a Gandian within the PWP, championed the Bhakti Era's Warkari Movement, which was still popular in his time, because it was based on social equality and public seva. Also noteworthy is, that even some prominent members supported the Arya Samaj, like Krishnarao Bhalekar (1 of the founders of SS with Phule) defended Dayanand Saraswati (Arya Samaj’s founder), when the latter’s procession was opposed by some orthodox Hindus in Pune, and Bhalekar organized a speech to be delivered by Saraswati at a dharmshal near a Rokdoba Temple in Pune.

Bhalekar himself made the claim that the SS is the true follower of Sant Tukaram's Bhagwat Dharma (Krishnaite Vaishnavism.) His son was Mukundrao Patil, who made the claim, "''The Satyasodhak Samaj is the true heir of the Hindu religion. Brahmanism is not Hinduism.''"<ref>''Dinmitra'' newspaper (1920s)</ref> Javalkar claimed SS is the true representative of the Hindu religion and that SS members are liberating Hinduism from the supremacy of the Brahmins. Shivram Janma Kamble stated the SS is a revival movement of the true Hinduism. Kisan Faguji Bansode argued "Shivdharma" was the true Hindu religion and that the SS advocates that version.

There were those in his organization that promoted about how in ancient Sanatan society, there were no caste distinctions and that people were recognized by their merits. Their view was promoted by Tukaram Tatya Padval, who wrote ''Jatibhed Vivekshar'' (1861) after being inspired by Ashwaghosha's ''Vajrasuchi''. Phule republished copies of Padval's books, and the 2 developed a friendship. He did write at that in ancient India, certain sages were had Sudra or Avarna status but rose to the rank of a Brahman through their intellect, and used examples of Valmiki (wrote a ''Ramayan''), Sankhya, and Kabilar rishis. He also published copies of the ''Bhagavad Gita'', ''Yogasutra'', and compilations of the ''Rajayoga'' and ''Sankhya Karika.'' He further compiled the ''Tukarambaba ani Tyanche Shisya Yanchi Abhanga Gatha'' (1889) and ''Eknath Maharajancha Abhangachi Gatha'' (1903.) Padval, however, never became a member of Phule's organization and instead became a member of the Theosophical Society.

;Shahu forming his own Satyashodhak Samaj focused on upliftment (free of anti-Brahman distractions)
As a result of the Satyashodhak Samaj of Pune being too antagonistic of Brahmans, Shahu had instead founded his own branch in 1911 — Shri Shahu Satyashodhak Samaj. By an order, Shahu replaced the Brahman priests in the Patgaon Sansthan (Mauni Maharaj Math[https://durgbharari.in/maunibaba-patgaon/]) and Jyotiba Devasthan[https://shreejyotiba.com/?lang=E][https://maharashtratourism.gov.in/temple/jyotiba/] with Maratha priests. Bhaskarrao Jadhav and Anna Babaji Latthe were leaders of Shahu's Kolhapur Satyashodhak Samaj. Whereas Phule mostly only wrote positively of Shiva and local-born gods, Jadhav in his ''Marathas and their Religion'' wrote positively about Krishna and the ''Bhagavad Gita''. He further worked with Shahu to aid Arya Samaj in its activities and goals (i.e., train non-Brahmans to become priests too.) Noteworthy is that Latthe, who worked personally with Shahu Maharaj, was its first VP and that he worked to dismantle priestly intermediation within the Jain clergy. (He was a big-time activist for general upliftment and for reform within the Jain community (i.e., wrote ''Jain Dharmacha Parichay''.) He also founded the Dakshin Bharat Jain Sabha, of which Bhaurao Patil (from a Jain family) became a member and through he wasn't a member of any SS branch, he did sometimes participate in its activities and himself founded the Rayat Shikshan Sansthan, which educated students in a multitude of topics, including Sanskrit.

;Shahu distancing himself formally from Satyashodhak Samaj
The SS had earned a bad repurtation in Maharashtra with the general public, particularly for the outright anti-Brahman vitriol spewed in the SS's publications and events.

In 1921, Shahu made a public statement in a Baroda newspaper that even though he granted significant support to the non-Brahman movement and introduced measures to eliminate Brahman dominance, he had never been affiliated with Phule's SS, and that he always accepted [[Rta and Spiritual Authority#Rishis|Vedic ritual authority]].

;Granting, accommodating, and expanding Arya Samaj
Shahu attended Arya Samaj sessions like the one at Navsari in 1918 and another at Bhavnagar in 1920<ref>P. 6. ''People's Raj Volume 30'' (1974) By Directorate-General of Information and Public Relations </ref>. He provided funding for Gurukul Boarding House to be built at Kerle, wherein large buildings and well-irrigated lands were granted to the Arya Samaj. Later, the Rajaram Anathalaya orphanage was added to this grant. He also brought educational institutions in his domain under the leadership of Arya Pratinidhi Sabha. Rajaram College's administration was also granted to the Arya Samaj.

;Spiritual Authority as Rajarshi
Shahu Maharaj, being a devout Sanatan wanted to proclaim the rights that warriors of history had and so participated in important ceremonies and worked with priests (i.e., Brahmans) to achieve the rights to learn and perform Vedic ceremonies. He established the Vedokta Committee for Marathas to be able to perform Vedic rites without requiring priests. In 1905, the Karveer Peeth's (or Kolhapur Math's) Shankaracharya declared full rights of Vedokta to Chhatrapati Shahu.

Tatyarao Joshirao was appointed by Shahu Maharaj as new royal purohit, replacing the Rajopadhye (creator of the infamous 'Vedokta Controversy'), who denied the Maharaj to perform Vedic rites. Joshirao was from a family that had traditional ownership of the historic Binkhambi Ganapati Mandir in Kolhapur.

Rajaram Shastri (alias 'Bhagavata'), a Brahman scholar, linguist, and researcher, openly challenged the religious orthodoxy, arguing from scripture that Shahu Maharaj had full rights to the Vedas. Vishnu Topkhane was another Brahman who greatly helped the Chhatrapati with his progressive reforms. Topkhane the educationalist helped the latter establish the Vidyapeeth High School near the Shri Karveer Niwasini Ambabai Mahalakshmi Temple. Freedom fighter Gokhale was someone who worked with Shahu. When the Vedokta Controversy broke out and the conservative press attacked the Maharaja, Gokhale privately and publicly validated Shahu Maharaj's stance, recognizing that social reform was a prerequisite for true political freedom. Ranade, though passed away before much Shahu's reforms began, was admired by the latter for his progressive ideals and actions.

Chhatrapati Shahu founded the Satyashodhak School for spiritual training in 1913, in which seminarians (predominantly from castes such as Marathas, Mahars, and Chambhars) were taught to recite and preach the poems (i.e., abhangs of Tukaram) of sants. He also created the Shivaji Vedic School (aliases 'Shahu Vedic School', 'Shahu Vedic Pathshala', 'Shri Shahu Vaidik Vidyalay') in 1920 and had invited scholars from Varanasi (spiritual capital of Sanatan Dharm) to ensure the highest standard of scriptural and linguistic training. The school trained seminarians (of all castes) to learn Sanskrit and become priests and conduct ceremonies. He further established and financed the office of the Kshatra Jagadguru (''Warrior Universal Teacher''), a pontiff seat open to anyone of any caste. The first Kshatra Jagadguru was Sadashivrao Lakshmanrao Sankpal Patil Benadikar, was an accomplished Sanskrit scholar who received his formal higher education at Rajaram College in Kolhapur. The Kshatra Jagadguru Peeth was the pontiff's seat at Patgaon (in the Bhudargad region of Kolhapur.) Patgaon was chosen because it was the historic site of the Mauni Maharaj Math, a highly respected spiritual center that had historically blessed Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj[https://pilgrimdata.in/temple/mouni-maharaj-math-temple-patgaon-bhudargarh-dist-kolhapur/]. The Kshatra Jagadguru had the Shri Sadashivrao Patil Shikshan Sanstha educationalist association named after him, and it runs schools[https://www.mwssm.org/][https://sspiop.com/] in Maharashtra still. Other organizations too use his name for schools like Sadashivrao Mandlik Mahavidyalaya (Kolhapur) of the ⁠Jay Shivray Education Society.

===Successive associations===
From Hindu-based institutions like sociopolitical organizations and schools came a number of philanthropic associations. Even other humanitarian associations that were not established by Hindu activists, were established by their influence. For example, Krishna Gopal Gokhale had participated in many sessions of the Prarthana Samaj as he was Ranade's pupil, and he later joined the Deccan Education Society, which he left to establish the Servants of India Society. Narayan Malhar Joshi was a member of Gokhale's group and later formed his own Social Service League[https://socialserviceleague.org.in/]. Hriday Nath Kunzru too was part of Gokhale's group and left to establish the Seva Samiti.

{| class="wikitable sortable"
|-
! Organization
! Demographic of Focus
! Region(s)
! Founder
! Founder's Affiliation(s)
! Achievement
|-
|Anath Balikashram Society
|Widows
|Maharashtra
|Dhondo Keshav Karve
|Educated at BHU
|
|-
|Andhra Mahila Sabha
|Females
|Andhra Pradesh
|Durgabai Deshmukh
|
|
|-
|Bharat Stree Mahamandal
|Females
|Bengal, Bihar, Punjab, Sindh, U.P.
|Sarala Devi Chaudhurani
|Arya Samaji, Brahmo Samaji, accepted Bijoy Krishna Chattopadhyaya as her guru
|
|-
|Central Social Welfare Board
|Females and children
|
|Dr. Durgabai Deshmukh
|
|
|-
|Hindu Widow Marriage Association
|Females
|Maharashtra
|Dhondo Keshav Karve
|Educated at BHU
|
|-
|Hindustani Seva Dal
|Females
|Every province
|Dr. Narayan Subbarao Hardikar
|
|Established the Hindustani Seva Mandal (later became Rashtriya Seva Dal) in 1923, established the Arya Bala Sabha, taught the Gita during his student days in Kolkata, was a fan of Lokmanya Tilak, and had enthusiastically worked with Lala Rai
|-
|Indian Reform Association
|Females
|West Bengal
|Keshub Chandra Sen
|
|Brahmo Samaji, founded ''Sulabh Samachar'' as weekly newspaper of group
|-
|Kasthurbha Gandhi Kanya Gurukulam[http://www.kgkgurukulam.org/]
|Girls
|Tamil Nadu (Vedaranyam)
|Vedaratnam Pillai
|
|Involved in temple-based philanthropy and donated to Sri Ramakrishna Mission too
|-
|Lakshmi Ashram
|Females
|Uttarakhand
|Sarla Behn
|
|Established individual Mahila Mandals throughout Uttarakhand and promoted important skills as well as ecological awareness
|-
|Lokahitawadi Mandal
|Females and males
|Maharashtra
|Vishnu Vaman Shirwadkar
|
|Wrote about Hindu themes, including persons from scriptures and about Shivaji poetically, philosophically, and nationally
|-
|Maharshi Karve Stree Shikshan Samstha
|Females
|Maharashtra
|Dhondo Keshav Karve
|Educated at BHU
|
|-
|Mahila Vidyalaya (Pune)
|Females
|Maharashtra
|Dhondo Keshav Karve
|Educated at BHU
|
|-
|Nishkam Karma Math
|Females
|Maharashtra
|Dhondo Keshav Karve
|Educated at BHU
|
|-
|Poona Seva Sadan
|Females
|Maharashtra (at its peak, included M.P. and T.N.)
|Ramabai Ranade
|
|
|-
|Samata Sangh
|Men and Women
|Maharashtra
|Dhondo Keshav Karve
|Educated at BHU
|
|-
|Self Employed Women's Association (SEWA)
|Females
|18 states
|Ela Bhatt
|Gandhian Textile Labour Association
|Established: own bank (Shri Mahila Sewa Sahakari Bank, or 'SEWA Cooperative Bank'), SEWA Mahila Housing Trust
|-
|Servants of the People Society
|Females
|Kerala, Maharashtra, M.P., Odisha T.N., Uttarakhand U.P.
|
|
|
|-
|Shraddhanand Ashram[https://shraddhanandmahilashram.org] (alias Hindu Women's Welfare Society)
|Females and boys
|Maharashtra (Mumbai)
|Swami Shraddhanand
|
|Has cared for thousands of destitute women and orphans, and educated them and provided skills development, as well as fostered personal development
|-
|Stree Hitaishini Mandali
|Females
|Andhra Pradesh
|Kanuparti Varalakshmamma
|
|Educated many females
|-
|Widow Marriage Association
|Females
|Maharashtra
|Dhondo Keshav Karve
|Educated at BHU
|
|-
|}

==Inspiration to Madras Presidency==
[[image:M.C. Rajah.jpg|right|thumb|200px|Mylai Chinna Thambi Pillai Rajah (the real 'Periyar'.)]]
While the Arya Samaj, Brahmo Samaj, Prarthana Samaj, and a host of other Hindu-based humanitarian and sociopolitical institutions existed in the-then Madras Presidency of southern India, they inspired local organizations as well. Shahu Maharaj had friends in the-then Justice Party (JP, est. 1916), like Arcot Ramasamy Mudaliar and Panaganti Ramarayaningar. While some ethnic groups, like certain castes even falsely supported the idea of an 'Aryan Invasion Theory' and themselves (Dravidian-languages speakers) as indigenous, they still appreciated Hinduism and did not consider it alien.

The biggest uplifter of the party was M.C. Rajah, who had the highest influence upon the policies that improved the lives of the Dalits in Madras Presidency. The party itself was founded primarily by 3 individuals — Sir Pitti Theagaraya Chetty (political founder who built the political machine), Dr. Taravath Madhavan Nair (ideological co-founder), and Dr. Chintadripet Natesa Mudaliar (cultural/grassroots mobilizer who helped shape cultural legitimacy.) Dr. Nair had said that Hindu society had originally possessed broader equality before caste dominance hardened it. Chetty occasionally used dharm-based ethical framing. He is consistently described as arguing that governance must align with "''dharma and justice''". The Dr. Mudaliar was a devout Shaiva that infused into the party Shaivism as a cultural identity for southerners.
[[image:P.T. Rajan.jpg|right|thumb|200px|P.T. Rajan (centre-right, wearing glasses next to priest), touring with the idol of [[Ayyappan|Ayyappa]] he had made at Swamimalai Temple[https://swamimalaiswaminathar.hrce.tn.gov.in/] and it was placed in the Sabarimala Temple[https://www.sabarimalauptodate.in/].]]
An ideologue of influence to the JP and Self-Respect Movement was Maraimalai Adigal, a Shaiv preacher and writer, who claimed that both the JP and Self-Respect Movement were from his teachings and that militant atheist Erode Venkatappa Ramasami Naicker had hijacked them. JP founder Dr. Nair died in 1919 and Chetty in 1925, so had no interaction Naicker. Ponnambala Thiaga Rajan was an active party member and disagreed with Naicker's ideology, so joined Congress-aligned politics. Mudaliar died in 1935 around the time Naicker entered the JP. Naicker was also a prejudiced castist that criticized but did not contribute to build schools and shelters for women and children, as Rajah[https://www.news18.com/opinion/opinion-m-c-rajah-the-forgotten-hindu-mahasabha-dalit-8937192.html][https://vskbharat.com/m-c-rajah-a-staunch-hindu-leader/?lang=en][https://thecommunemag.com/m-c-rajah-the-hindu-mahasabha-dalit/], a practicing Hindu of the party did. Rajah even once formed a political alliance with the Hindu Mahasabha, was the contributor. Before Rajah, the party's caste disparity was mainly about civil service occupations and education access for underprivileged castes. Rajah was recommended by Ambedkar to convert but Rajah replied there's no religion better than Hinduism.<ref>P. 92 ''The Political Evolution of Muslims in Tamilnadu and Madras, 1930-1947'' By J.B. Prashant More (1997) </ref><ref> In a public meeting of the All India Adi Dravida Mahajana Sabha in Nungambakkam, Chennai he said, "''The president (of this meeting) mentioned that no other community other than us has more right to be called Hindus. Conversion will not bring about any good. By saying so, I am not undermining or wishing away the oppression and ills we have faced. We need to fight for our rights. The speed at which reforms are happening might be slow. But think about our current situation and how much it has improved. I beseech you to please abandon any move that will weaken us. I request the government to bring about the Untouchability Abolition Bill and pass it quickly. The Harijans are proud Hindus. That is the only reason why even after years of oppression by higher castes and a barrage of proselytization efforts by other religions hasn't changed their resolve being Hindus.''" P. 123 ''Evolution of Hindu Nationalism - Icons of HMS, RSS & BJS'' By Sankara Narayanan T (2025)</ref> Adigal's writings had a profound impact on Subramania Ramanathan, the founder of the Self-Respect Movement, and on the Naicker but the latter only wanted pro-Tamil and castist societal changes, not promotion of Shaivism. Naicker would later break away from the party and form his own Dravidar Kazhagam, a title he copied from Adigal's Shaiv association (Podhunilak Kazhagam.) (His own pupil, Conjeevaram Natarajan Annadurai, would eventually disown him after he married his own adopted daughter, and Annadurai would leave his group.)
[[image:Alamelu.jpg|right|thumb|200px|Alamelu Mangai Thayarammal, a Brahmo Samaji, was co-founder of the party among 29 others (all men.)]]
The Hindu sentiment was definitely present in the JP. Many left after Naicker's hijacking. Important members bothered by Naicker's rhetoric apart from Rajan were Ananda Prasad Patro, Arunachalam Thamaraiselvam Panneerselvam, Muthiah Annamalai Chettiar, Ramasamy Kandasamy Shanmukham Chetty, and Subbarayalu Kumaraswami Reddiar. Chettiar even personally regularly donated to temple renovations, endowing temple lands or festivals, supporting pilgrimage facilities, and Hindu-managed schools. Rajan, the last leader of the JP, was the head-of-government of the Presidency, and was a big devotee a [[Ayyappan|Swami Ayyappa]]. Rajan even solemnized a marriage of a German couple converted to Hinduism in Coimbatore (Oct 31, 1962.) He further discouraged conversion of Dalits from Hinduism to another religion<ref>"''If by mass conversion you expect to achieve your object, you will be disappointed, because of a mere change of religion it will not give you all that you want.''" 
P. 147 ''Sir P. T. Rajan's Eighty Second Birthday Souvenir, 1973'' By P.T. Rajan and K. Paramasivam</ref> while encouraging caste-Hindus to better treat Dalits. His family had deep ties to the Meenakshi Amman Temple[https://maduraimeenakshi.hrce.tn.gov.in/] in Madurai, with his son (Palanivel Rajan), serving as a minister, and his daughter-in-law (Rukmani), serving as the first female chairperson of the temple's board of trustees. His predecessor Ramakrishna Ranga Rao denied that the JP was anti-Hindu and declared that it aimed to purify Hindu society from "''absurdities''" and return "''Hinduism greater and more glorious than it was in the past...''"<ref>"''As I understand it, the Self-Respect movement stands for certain great ideals to make Hinduism greater and more glorious than it was in the past, to rid it of all those absurdities which are the accretions of an unfortunate era of the past, and unite us in a solid federation so that all those who profess to follow the Hindu faith may feel that they are brethren following one of the most ancient and glorious religions of the world. No longer should the foreigner point his finger of scorn at this or that particular phase of Hinduism which belies its cosmopolitan tendency by inflicting personal hardship on classes or communities. If a few youths in their exuberant enthusiasm have been carried away beyond the bounds of Hinduism it will not do to fight shy of the new movements, but political wisdom and sagacity lie in taking them into our fold and guiding them aright along the paths of duty and rectitude.''" 
P. 289 ''The Indian Annual Register An Annual Digest of Public Affairs of India Recording the Nation's Activities Each Year in Matters Political, Economic, Industrial, Educational, Social, Etc · Volume 2'' By Nipendra Nath Mitra (1934)</ref> Alamelu Mangai Thayarammal, conferred 'Pandithai' title by Saiva Sabha in Palamcottah, was a JP co-founder [with 29 co-founders being men] who was a Brahmo Samaji, meaning the influence of the Hindu-based organizations wasn't insignificant. Paramasivan Subbarayan Gounder, while not technically a JP member, worked with it closely, and both he and his women's rights activist wife Kailash Radhabai Kulmud were Brahmos. It is also noteworthy that [[Ascetics|ascetic]] Swamiyar Kaivalyar who supported the party without being a member wrote pro-Shaiv material. Cattamanchi Ramalinga Reddy, an ex-member who formed his own party in 1923 was a close friend of Dr. Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan, and he himself engaged with Hindu texts on a literary artistic level. As Hinduism isn't a scripture-dependent religion, some JP members like A.R. Mudaliar heavily criticized certain scriptures but were devout Hindus ([[Vaiśnava|Vaishnav]] in his case.) And while orthodox opposition was present, the majority of Indians, including religious leaders, supported reforms, like when Shankaracharya of Kanchi[https://www.kamakoti.org/] supported the "Hindu Religious Endowments Bill" (1921) even while voicing some concerns in within. Mentionable is that [[Shatata-Unnati#Female upliftment|Dr. Muthulakshmi Reddy]] wasn't part of the JP but it still nominated her in 1926 for the Madras Legislative Council to bring about positive changes.

==Related articles==
*[[Women]]
*[[Women as Rishikas in the Vedas]]
*[[Worship of God as Mother]]

==External resources==
*[https://www.ijhsss.com/files/08.-ABHISEK-KARMAKAR_6813z4a4.pdf "Changing status of women in Indian politics (1917-1947): the role of civil society"], P. 42-45 ''International Journal of Humanities & Social Science Studies'' Volume-I, Issue-II (September 2014) By Abhisek Karmakar
*[https://www.besanthill.org/about/history-heritage/annie-besant/ Besant Hill School of Happy Valley in Ojai, California]
*[https://www.anniebesant.org Annie Besant Women's College in Hyderabad, Telangana]
*[https://www.aryasabha.mu/cultural-programme-arya-mahila-mandal-in-the-context-of-the-200th-birth-anniversary-of-swami-dayananda-saraswati/ Arya Mahila Mandal (Mauritius)]
*[https://www.thearyasamaj.org/ammkarolbagh Arya Mahila Mandal Karol Bagh]
*[https://vatikashaktipeeth.com/seven-agitations/women-awakening.html Vatika Shakti Peeth]

==References==
{{reflist}}

[[Category: History]]
[[Category: Economics]]
[[Category: Societal altruism]]

Shatata-Unnati

2026-06-07T00:09:11Z

Himanshu Bhatt: /* Royal authority to implement reforms */

{{Author|Himanshu Bhatt}}
'Shatata-Unnati' is ''continual change'', 'abhyas' means improvement, 'kram-parivartanam' is ''incremental reformation'', while 'shodhanam' is ''refinement''. All of these terms are descriptive of Hindu society throughout the ages.

Continual social betterment has been one of the defining characteristics of Hindu society. All major cultures have had evils in their histories, including Hindu societies, but the shining examples to enforce positive changes and adaptability to a changing world are the Hinduism, Christianity, and Judaism.

In an era wherein colonial norms meant imprisonment or executions for speaking out against imperial rule, Mahatma Gandhi challenged the ideas of forcing nations to be subservient, fighting oppression by violence, and purging one's own nation of evils (i.e., inequality and superstition.) Today, much of the world still looks to Gandhi's perseverance to bring positive change into society.

Transformation of India's political systems made India into the world's largest democracy, and for accomplishing that, [[Indian Freedom Fighters#INC's Hindu activist roots|Hindu doctrines were rationalize to promote democracy]]. Even in India's political spectrum, Hindu principles were used to make liberalism and communism resonate with people, like Ram Rajya being a communist utopia. Some of the Communist Party of India's [[Indian Freedom Fighters#CPI's Hindu activist roots|founders were idealogues for both communism and Hinduism]], such as Swami Kumaranand, Swami Satyabhakt, and Swami Sahajanand Saraswati, as well as Keezhedathu Damodaran, Radhamohan Gokulji, and Rahul Sankrityayan.

==Comparison in societal reformation (India and Europe)==
:''See also: [[Contribution of Hindu Diaspora]]''
Whereas even in modern times, in most European Christian societies, witch-hunts and slavery were the norm, in Indian Hindu societies, widow-burning was the norm among certain communities (usually northwestern) and caste prejudice was prevalent. Both the Christian and Hindu communities worked to extinguish these and other evils.

Historical societal injustices have been acknowledged and reconciled. Even today, the lasting legacy of important Hindu reformers is visible wherein quotas employment and educational quotas are implemented for social upward mobility to ensure poorer castes and women do not fall behind.

During the colonial era, as human rights improved in Western societies as results from agricultural/economic advancements, Western writers of non-Christian societies took a chauvinistic, parochialist, and Eurocentric approach towards Hindu societies, claiming that they:
#Would never improve in human rights, morality, or rationality
#Are permanently stagnant
#Cannot produce modern or political economic institutions

Critics of the colonial era were proven wrong in these concrete ways:
#Large-scale societal reforms led by Hindu activists themselves improved Hindu societies — i.e., promoting window remarriage and caste integration while also creating quotas for females and historically-disadvantaged castes
#Rapid expansion of education and intellectual mobility — i.e., growth of global Hindu academic presence
#Global economic and corporate leadership — i.e., entrepreneurship and CEOs of major multinational companies like Adobe, Google, and Microsoft
#Democratic political evolution — i.e., maintaining electoral democracies like Hindu-majority nations, providing peaceful transfers of power, and granting significant autonomy to judiciary, press, and civil societies
#Religious and philosophical continuity + adaptation
#Ritual practice has diversified massively by religion and class — i.e., clerics ([[Rta and Spiritual Authority|priests]] and [[ascetics|monks]]) are from many backgrounds
#Reinterpretation of scriptures became internationally influential — i.e., Aldous Huxley loved the perennialism of Upanishads, Erwin Schrödinger the idea of aikatmyam, and Henry David Thoreau that of Ishavasyam
#Non-Hindus from outside of the Indian Subcontinent have converted to Sanatan Dharm and have promoted the religion — James Donald Walters who founded Ananda Sangha, Richard Alpert who founded Hanuman Foundation, John Edwin Favors who founded iFast[https://ifastdc.com/][https://ifastglobal.com/], and Robert Hansen who founded Saiva Siddhanta Church[https://www.himalayanacademy.com/]
#Hindu-based intellectual practices have popularized globally — i.e., [[Ayurveda|Ayurvedic medicine]], divination, political activism, [[Animal rights#Influence upon Westerners|animal rights]], [[Animal_rights#Vegetarianism|vegetarianism]], and [[yoga]]

==Hindu-led social betterment==
What is extraordinary in the case of India is that it was the religious institutions ([[Organizations|Hindu organizations]] and [[Hindu Post-Secondary Institutes|schools]]) that made revolutionary changes, not normally secular or non-Hindu ones. Practicing Hindus saw that superstitious and chauvinistic practices had become institutionalized (caste system and misogyny) within Hindu society, so they formed associations to help, uplift, educate the destitute. They would even go steps further to privilege the marginalized through reservations.

Even women who were more exploratory and not members of specific religions engaged with Hinduism positively. The best example might be Annette Beveridge, an Englishwoman who was the daughter of a Unitarian Christian herself became affiliated with Keshub Chandra Sen in England. She was drawn to his lectures and this fascination with his philosophy inspired her to begin life in India, where she even established<ref>Its expenses were financed by Ananda Mohan Bose and Durga Mohan Das, Dwarkanath Ganguly was its headmaster, and others Brahmos involved with the school were Sibnath Sastri and Monomohun Ghose.</ref> the Hindu Mahila Vidyalaya (''Hindu Women's School''.) Her husband Henry Beveridge was an orientalist (westerners intrigued with Asian cultures) working in India, meaning they were not Westerners critical of Hindu identity. Mrs. Emily Phear was an honorary teacher, and she too was involved in Brahmo Samaji circles for societal development. (Her husband Sir John Budd Phear helped Brahmo Samaj legally.) A non-Hindu that likewise began a girls school (Hindu Female School[https://www.bethunecollegiateschool.com/]) with Brahmos and other Hindus was John Bethune, whose accomplices were Dakshinaranjan Mukherjee, Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar, Ramgopal Ghosh, and Madanmohan Tarkalanka (the last even taught at the school without pay.) Others foreign women in India that engaged positively with Hindu activist organizations were Mary Carpenter[https://southasianbritain.org/people/mary-carpenter/] and Sophia Dobson Collet with Brahmo Samaj, Alma B.R.A. with Arya Samaj, and Mary Hobson with Prarthana Samaj[https://puneprarthanasamaj.org/].

Hindu women that set women's rights activism into motion were Arya Samaj's Lajwanti Sood and Satyavati Devi, and Brahmo Samaj's Kadambini Ganguly and Sarala Devi Chaudhurani. Swarnakumari Devi was both an Arya Samaji and a Brahmo Samaji.

===Female upliftment===
:''See also: [[Indian Freedom Fighters]] 
;Theosophical Society wing
[[image:Paris Women's Congress.jpg|right|thumb|200px|Dr. Reddy and 3 Indian women at the Paris Women's Congress (1926.)]]
The top 3 champions who politically improved Indian women's rights in the modern era were foreigners — Dr. Annie Besant, Dorothy Jinarajadasa, and Margaret Cousins. They did not tell Indian women to leave Hinduism but rather they themselves became Hindu in practice and Indian in habit. They then sought to restore the Vedic-era of womanhood wherein women had authority (i.e., to become clerics, scholars, and leaders.) Emma Mitchell (American) and Francesca Arundale (English) greatly contributed to building of Hindu educational institutions (i.e., Central Hindu College.)

Dr. Muthulakshmi Reddy is a big name in female rights, and she was influenced by Dr. Besant in her college years (1907-1912) and was guided by Dr. Besant in both her social reform and political work. She worked with Dr. Besant and others to establish the Women's Indian Association (1917.) After Dr. Besant's death, she took over the presidency of the WIA. Gandhi was another major mentor but Reddy never formally joined the INC but sometimes protested colonial injustices (i.e., Gandhi's arrest.)

;Ramakrishna Mission wing
[[image:Nivedita & Vivekanand.jpg|right|thumb|200px|Nivedita with Vivekanand.]]
[[Niveditā, Sister|Sister Nivedita (Margaret Noble)]], a convert from Ireland became a disciple of [[Swami Vivekananda|Swami Vivekanand]] and joined Aurobindo's Dawn Society and had also founded and ran girls' schools in Kolkata (i.e., Ramakrishna Sarada Mission Sister Nivedita Girls' School[https://www.sisterniveditagirlsschool.org/home.html] in Baghbazar) to educate girls who had little to no access to education (i.e., poorest of the poor.) She advocated for women's intellectual and moral development, influenced by Vivekanand's vision of strong Indian womanhood. Her work included lectures, fundraising (India, England, and U.S.), and writings that promoted gender equality in access to knowledge and opportunities. She had worked with Dr. Annie Besant at times. Likewise, Sister Christine, disciple of Vivekanand, is another example of a Westerner who utilized the Ramakrishna Mission and Vivekanand's circles as vehicles for improving female rights in India.

;INC wing
:''See also: [[Indian Freedom Fighters#INC's Hindu activist roots|INC's Hindu activist roots]] 
[[image:Nellie Sen Gupta.jpg|right|thumb|100px|N.S. Gupta.]]
Nellie Sen Gupta[https://www.thedailystar.net/in-focus/news/deshpriya-jatindra-mohan-nellie-sengupta-2036981] (nee Edith Ellen Gray) had married freedom fighter Jatindra Mohan Sen Gupta, and both joined the INC — she also founded Deepali Sangha, a women's organization aimed at promoting social and political awareness, leadership, training, and empowerment among women. Her husband passed away but she was advised to stay in the-then East Pakistan to take care of Hindu rights, which she did. Umadevi (born Wanda Dynowska), a Polish convert to Sanatan Dharm too championed women's rights in India and translated ''[[Bhagavad Gita]]'', ''[[Mahabharata]]'', ''[[Ramayana]]'', and other [[Hindu Scriptures|Hindu and Bauddh literature]] into Polish. Mira Behn (born Madeleine Slade), the daughter of a British Royal Navy admiral, gave up her affluent lifestyle to become Gandhi's servant in India.
[[image:Sarla Behn Chipko Movement.jpg|right|thumb|200px|Sarla Behn's Chipko act[https://www.adda247.com/school/chipko-movement/].]]
Sarla Behn[https://growbilliontrees.com/blogs/knowledge/sarla-behn-tree-nurturing-nature-and-empowering-communities-for-a-sustainable-future?srsltid=AfmBOoq4h0d0skQBNr4w4zOvISuhYz02_EXtPvD3pUoQYjTlcvNHEbQ-#fullcontent] (born Catherine Mary Heilman) from England setup the Lakshmi Ashram Kausani in 1946 within Uttarakhand to uplift women, after having lived in the Sevagram Ashram[https://gandhiashramsevagram.org/] in Maharashtra. The organization educated rural hill girls academically, trained women of self-reliance and industrial skills (i.e., khadi weaving), taught personal care (i.e., literacy, hygiene, anti-liquor campaigns), and promoted [[Environmentalism|ecological awareness]] (Chipko Movement.) It also worked with the INC to encourage nationalist fervour. Lakshmi Ashram individual units were known as Mahila Mandals. This ashram attracted foreign residents intrigued with Sanatan Dharm even after independence, like David Hopkins, who relocated to there in the 1990's.
[[image:Durgabai Deshmukh.jpg|right|thumb|100px|Dr. D.D.]]
Dr. Durgabai Deshmukh, pupil of Gandhi and freedom fighter in the colonial era, established the Central Social Welfare Board (1953.) She later became president of the All India Women's Conference (1931.) Taraben Premchand is an important mention, as she was an important member of this organization, as well as the Jain Mahila Parishad[https://www.dbjainsabha.com], Jyoti Sangh[https://jyotisangh.org/about-us/] (local women's advancement group in Gujarat), and Shraddhanand Ashram[https://shraddhanandmahilashram.org/].

Madeleine Rolland was Women's International League for Peace and Freedom's[https://www.wilpf.org/] French section and never settled in India. However, upon engaging with Hindu culture in the 1920's, she translated Ananda Coomaraswamy's ''[[Nataraja Dasakam|The Dance of Shiva]]'' into French, introducing Hinduism to the-then residents of France. She also translated Rabindranath Tagore's writings of Sanatan themes and universal humanism, helping popularize them in Europe. She welcomed Gandhi on his visit to Marseille, France. [[image:Kanuparti Varalakshmamma.jpg|right|thumb|100px|'Sarada'.]]
Kanuparti Varalakshmamma (alias 'Sarada'), a devout Gandhian, used Hindu themes like providing ethical refences (i.e., Savitri, Sita) to depict women's morality, dignity, and conduct. She often engaged with the idea of a grihalakshmi (idea woman of the household.) She also founded the Stree Hitaishini Mandali for uplifting women. She used ''Andhra Patrika'', a newspaper created by a promoter of the ''Bhagavad Gita'', Kasinathuni Nageswara Rao, to preach her ideas.
[[image:Vijaya Lakshmi Pandit.jpg|right|thumb|100px|'Vijaya Lakshmi Pandit'.]]
It is also noteworthy that the 1st female head of government in the world was a [[Bauddh Dharm|Bauddh]] (Sirimavo Bandaranaike of Sri Lanka, non-INC member), and 2nd was a Hindu (Indira Gandhi, INC member.) Also Vijaya Lakshmi Pandit[https://news.un.org/en/story/2024/03/1147327] (born Swaroop Rani Nehru) played a significant role in global representation of women, particularly in the United Nations. She was the first woman to serve as the President of the UN General Assembly (1953-1954), a position she held to advocate for decolonization and the independence of countries in Asia and Africa. Hansa Mehta[https://india.un.org/en/311450-hansa-mehta%E2%80%99s-life-story-continues-inspire] had an impact on the UN's constitution wording wherein "''all human beings''" instead of "all men" in the Universal Declaration of Human Rights. (She was also one of only 2 women delegates working alongside Eleanor Roosevelt in the UN Human Rights Commission 1946-48.)
[[image:Nilla Cram Cook.jpg|right|thumb|100px|'Nilla Nagini Devi'.]]
Nilla Cram Cook, an American who settled at Gandhi's ashrams, had [[Conversion|converted to Hinduism]] in the 1930's but identified with the '[[Samyag Darshan#Samadarshan|sarva dharma sambhava]]' ideal, so considered herself a [[Bhakta|devotee]] of not only [[Krishna]] but of Jesus too, and so she later also translated the Quran and engaged with Islamic practices in a syncretic way with her Hindu and Christian customs. Her final literary work was ''The Way of the Swam: Poems of Kashmir'' (1958), which was mostly focused around the [[Saiva|Shaiv]] mystic poetess Lal Ded[https://hindupost.in/society-culture/lal-ded-her-life-and-works/#][https://homegrown.co.in/homegrown-voices/the-poetry-of-lal-ded-mysticism-resistance-the-female-voice-in-14th-century-kashmir] and others from Kashmir syncretic Sanatan-[[Bauddh Dharm|Bauddh]]-[[Sufism with Vaishnavism|Sufi]] tradition. She dedicated the book to Pandit. She didn't work on women's upliftment directly but did participate with Gandhi's Harijan Sevak Sangh. She had also written about Sarojini Naidu.

;Other associations
[[image:Maharani Chimnabai Gaekwad II.jpg|right|thumb|100px|Maharani Chimnabai.]]
[[image:Sethu Parvathi Bayi.jpg|right|thumb|100px|Junior Queen Bayi.]]
The National Council of Women in India[https://www.ncwi.in/], founded 1925, was also a monumental organization to make progress for women — it mainly focused on female literacy, vocational training, public participation, and legal reform. It was primarily the initiative of Lady Meherbai Tata, a Mazdaean icon, and its first president was Maharani Chimnabai Gaekwad II, born Gajrabai Ghatge, a princess of Dewas (M.P.) She supported societal progress of women that did not compromise on Hindu identity (i.e., traditional customs like wearing sari and sindhoor or like celebrating Raksha Bandhan), which is how she framed her ''The Position of Women in Indian Life'' book. She financed schools for girls, as well as Hindu charities and temples. The Gaekwad family also funded libraries and women's institutions and social reform initiatives. She discussed the eradication or the purdah, child marriage, women's restrictions (i.e., obtaining education and employment), and other obstacles towards advancement. Following her presidentship, Sethu Parvathi Bayi took over. She was from the royal family of Travancore (Kerala), and her family was deeply connected to the Padmanabhaswamy Temple[https://spst.in/][https://www.padmanabhaswamytemple.com/]. She financed Hindu institutions as well. It is notable that Sucharu Deo, daughter of Brahmo leader K.C. Sen was a prominent member and she had also helped build the Maharani Girls' High School[https://school.banglarshiksha.gov.in/ws/website/index/19013701705] in Darjeeling (W.B.) together with her sister (Suniti) and Hemlata Sarkar, daughter of Brahmo leader Sibnath Sastri.

From Hindu-based institutions like sociopolitical organizations and schools came a number of philanthropic associations.
;Most influential persons for women's upliftment
{| class="wikitable sortable"
|-
! Area of Contribution
! Meaning
! Steps Taken
! Activists
! Organizations
! Founder's Affiliation(s)
|-
|Political rights and visibility
|1. Women appearing in public political spaces 2. Women being recognized as leaders (not just participants) 3. Changing social norms about women's public roles 4. Symbolic representation
|Helped institutionalize women's leadership through bodies like Women's Indian Association
|Dr. Annie Besant (women's political rights + organizational leadership), Kamaladevi Chattopadhyay (political participation, economic empowerment, cooperatives), Margaret Cousins[https://www.womensmuseumofireland.ie/exhibits/margaret-elizabeth-cousins] (Suffarage, WIA), Sarojini Naidu (mass mobilization of women in politics)
|
|
|-
|Modern institutional equality
|
|Helped institutionalize institutional equality through contributing policy influence (Hansa Mehta) and constitutional rights (Dr. Durgabai Deshmukh)
|Dr. Durgabai Deshmukh (welfare systems), Hansa Mehta
|
|
|-
|Foundational legal reform
|
|
|Raja Ram Mohan Roy (abolition of sati), Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar (widow remarriage)
|
|
|-
|Education
|
|
|Raja Ram Mohan Roy, Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar
|
|
|-
|}

===Hindu influence internationally===
Even outside of India during the 20th century, women's rights were not perfect, and so many women incorporated Hindu symbolism (i.e., worship) and concepts towards promoting societies where women would have equal rights.
[[image:M.J. Gage.jpg|right|thumb|200px|Matilda Joslyn Gage.]]
[[image: Charlotte Despard.jpg|right|thumb|200px|Charlotte Despard, an Anglo-Irish suffragist who supported Indian independence.]]
As [[Worship of God as Mother|worship of God as a female or mother]] has been common in Sanatan Dharm since its foundation, that made validating female upliftment in India quicker. Even in Western nations, prominent women's rights organizations implemented imagery of goddesses from pertinent ancient cultures, like U.K.'s Women's Freedom League and National Union of Women's Suffrage Societies, and the global International Woman Suffrage Alliance, to legitimize female equality and women being in positions of power. Some Western feminists and women's rights activists, like Matilda Joslyn Gage<ref>"''While the sale of daughters was practiced in England for seven hundred years after the introduction of Christianity, we note that by the ancient law of India, a father was forbidden to sell his daughter in marriage, or receive the smallest present therefor.''" - P. 79-82 ''Woman, Church and State'' (1893) By Matilda Joslyn Gage</ref> (U.S. suffragist) and Helena Petrovna Blavatsky<ref>"''The pre- and post-Vedic woman was as free as man; and no impure terrestrial thought was ever mixed with the religious symbology of the early Aryans.''" 
"''This is proven by the fact that in the Vedic period their women were not placed apart from men in penetralia, or ‘Zenanas.’ Their seclusion began when the Mahomedans … had conquered the land and gradually enforced their ways and customs upon the Hindus.''" 
- P. 379-380 ''The Secret Doctrine: Volume I'' By Helena Blavatsky </ref> (European feminist), even used the examples of [[Worship of God as Mother|Hindu goddess-worship]] and Hindu queens to support their examples. (M.J. Gage[https://www.smithsonianmag.com/history/the-feminist-inspired-witches-of-oz-180985334/] in her ''Woman, Church, and State'' even highlighted Hindu texts to counter the male-centric theology of the West and referenced ''[[Bhagavad Gita]]'' to validate the concept of a female [[divinity]].) Even feminists of the colonial era like Victoria Woodhull that was skeptical of organized religion, respected "''Christna and Buddha''" (Krishna and Gautama.) Mary Lowe Dickinson at the World's Parliament Circles (1893) was so impressed by [[Swami Vivekananda|Swami Vivekanand]]'s speech, that she developed a fascination with female divinity of Hinduism, and in her editorials and public circles, argued that Hinduism's recognition of a feminine aspect within the divine was spiritually superior to the rigidly patriarchal, all-male Trinity of mainstream American Christianity. Emily Pitts Stevens and Charlotte LeMoyne Wills (wrote about the genderless [[Brahm]]) became disciples of Vivekanand. Laura de Force Gordon wrote about the immortal soul and continuous cycle of life. Alice Moore McComas wrote about the interconnectedness (aikatmyam) of all things. In U.K., Charlotte Despard's specific pamphlets linked [[karma]] to political activism. Margaret Louise Sanger was influenced by Vivekanand and Rabindranath Tagore. Sarah Bull<ref> P. 483 ''Western Admirers of Ramakrishna and His Disciples'' By Gopal Stavig, Swami Shuddhidananda </ref>, who particularly focused on women's education and reform was connected to both Vivekanand and Sister Nivedita. Josephine MacLeod was a major promoter of Vivekanand in the West and was involved in transatlantic reform-intellectual networks. Viktoria Ocampo of Argentina was deeply influenced by Tagore, even hosting him in Argentina and promoting his ideas widely. Gabriela Mistral of Chile was too, and she applied Tagore's ideas to women's education, child welfare, and cultural reform. Mabel Dodge Luhan was fascinated with Sanatan philosophy and influenced by Vivekanand. Mentionable is Emma Calve of France, who wasn't a political feminist leader but influential in women's intellectual-cultural circles, and she was deeply influenced by Vivekanand.
[[image:Carol Patrice Christ.jpg|right|thumb|200px|Carol Patrice Christ.]]
After suffragists had attained complete institutional equality, they them progressed to the next stage of female liberation by ensuring that their own spiritual faith wasn't male-chauvinistic or making them subordinates of males. Feminists were inspired by goddess deity of Hinduism to then promote it within generic spirituality. Valerie Saiving, Isaac Bonewits and Naomi Goldenberg founded in the 1970's, Thealogy, a feminine-specific theology. Carol Patrice Christ launched the Goddess Movement, which provided 4 aspects of Goddess symbolism as reasons to needing a goddess in women's lives; 1) the Goddess as affirmation of female power, 2) the female body, 3) the female will, and 4) women's bond and heritage. She specifically used the Shakti concept to prove that a major global religion (Hinduism) explicitly defined the [[Brahmanda|material universe]]/nature/change ([[Darshana#Sankhya|Prakriti]]) as an inherently active, female, and sacred force. She was an ecofeminist, as were Charlene Spretnak and Miriam Simos were ecofeminists too. Merlin Stone wrote ''Ancient Mirrors of Womanhood: Our Goddess and Heroine Heritage'' (1979) and in a chapter analyzes goddesses like [[Durga]], [[Kali]], [[Lakshmi Puja|Lakshmi]], Parvati, and Saraswati. Devout Christian women feminists too drew on Hindu practices and ideas to support women's advocacy, and they include Ivone Gebara, Pearl Sydenstricker Buck, and Sally McFague.

'Matriarchal religion' is a philosophy stating that societies were Goddess worshippers with females having the same status and rights as men before male gods began being worshipped, and the latter led to patriarchy. Goddesses being worshipped contiguously in Hindu societies for thousands of years was the backing this thought utilized, in addition to feminist archaeology (i.e., ancient idols and temples of goddesses uncovered.)

==Start of modern reforms==
In modern India, most positive social changes within Indian Hindu societies came not first as enforcement or pressure from European rulers but from advocacy of forward-thinking Hindus. Raja Ram Mohan Roy had led the campaign to purge Hindu societies of Sati and caste prejudices. Roy worked with British imperial authority, specifically Lord William Bentinck to have sati outlawed. Roy himself was a religious leader that reiterated Upanishads for their principles.

Other institutions of positive social changes were mainly Hindu ones or were governed by Hindu religious leaders, not secular ones.

The Indian National Social Conference of 1887 was organized by Justice Ranade, Rai Raghunath Rao, Narendra Nath Sen Gupta, and Janki Nath Ghoshal. Ranade was founder of the Prarthana Samaj, a religious group.

Arya Samajis, Brahmo Samajis, and Prarthana Samajis were the most vocal and active forces advocating: 
#Widow Remarriage (i.e., Widow Remarriage Act 1856—initiative of Brahmo Samaj)
#Women's right to divorce (i.e., Native Marriage Act 1872—initiative of Brahmo Samaj) 
#Property rights for women 
#Opposition to child marriages (i.e., Age of Consent Act 1891—initiative of Brahmo Samaj and Prarthana Samaj, Child Marriage Restraint Act 1929—initiative of Arya Samaj) 
#Universal accessible education (built schools, including colleges and gurukuls) 
#Caste-based reservations
[[image:Justice Ranade.jpg|right|thumb|200px|Mahadev Govind Ranade (alias 'Justice Ranade'.)]]
[[image:Jagannath Shankarshet.jpg|right|thumb|200px|Jagannath Shankarshet (alias 'Architect of Modern Mumbai'.)]]
The Indian Factories Act 1881's ratification was a landmark in workers' rights and the credit goes mainly to Sorabjee Shapoorjee Bengalee, and then Prarthana Samaj. He did work alongside the Prarthana Samaj to lobby the British authority through the First Factory Commission in 1875 (made to investigate the brutal conditions of Indian labour.) Prarthana Samaj's ''Subodh Patrika'' newspaper specifically critiqued mill owners. Rahnumai Mazdayasnan Sabha, its newspaper ''Rast Goftar'', and Bengalee himself referenced labour reformers Sasipada Banerji and Protap Chunder Mozumdar, and used the former's methods of worker upliftment as a blueprint for their own legislative arguments. Collaboration between the Sabha and Prarthana Samaj began with the latter's creation of the Theistic Association, on which the Parsi Naoroji Furdonji was its 1st Chairman. Ranade and Bhandarkar drove the Association from discussing only theism to improving society through finding solutions of work hardships. The Night School Initiative was launched, helping workers receive adequate training, particularly in labourer-heavy neighborhoods Byculla, Dongri, Khetwadi, and Thakurdwar. (From 1886-1890 alone, over 2,750 industrial workers successfully studied through this initiative.)

Brahmo Samaj's K.C. Sen’s first visit to Mumbai in March-April 1864 engaged him with Bengalee, Furdonji, Ranade, and Bhandarkar (all then members of Young India.) They all discussed ways to develop India. They also shared strategies on how to bypass orthodox religious resistance—Furdonji within Zoroastrianism and Sen within Sanatan Dharm. Bengalee's First Labor Bill (1878) laid the groundwork for the later Indian Factories Act.

Prior to all of this, Jagannath Shankarshet[https://www.vishwakonkani.org/hall-of-fame/hon-jagannath-shankar-sheth/] spent the 1850s petitioning the British Parliament for local governance. As a result, it codified the Indian Councils Act of 1861, thus creating the Bombay Legislative Council as a political body to better govern the-then Bombay Presidency. Shankarshet was the main founder of Bombay Association. In its first leadership were also Dr. Ramachandra Vitthal Lad (alias 'Dr. Bhau Daji'), a Hindu intellectual who used his Sanskrit knowledge to decipher inscriptions, preserve manuscripts, and help reconstruct the forgotten timelines of ancient Guptas and Western Kshatrapa dynasties. Mentionable is the Parsi Sir Jamsetjee Jeejeebhoy of the group. Shankarshet was a wealthy philanthropist that constructed and financed Sanatan and secular infrastructure, most notably the Bhavani Shankar Mandir[https://www.mcgm.gov.in/irj/go/km/docs/documents/D%20Ward/Heritage-Sites/73_Legacy%20of%20D%20Ward_Article_Bhavani%20Shankar%20Temple.pdf] (Mumbai), Sanskrit Seminary and Sanskrit Library (both in Mumbai too.) Elphinstone Educational Institution[https://elphinstone.ac.in/index.php] and Grant Medical College[https://gmcjjh.edu.in/] were his creations too. (Jeejeebhoy contributed to constructing the Grant Medical College.)

===Shahu's royal authority to implement reforms===
[[image:Shahu adoption.jpg|right|thumb|200px|Prince Yeshwantrao Ghatge being adopted by the royal family of Kohlapur.]]
[[image:Rajarshi.jpg|right|thumb|200px|Rajarshi Chhatrapati Shahu Maharaj.]]
[[image:School foundation.jpg|right|thumb|200px|Foundation of Shri Shahu Chhatrapati Shikshan Sanstha.]]
The greatest champion on all of these sections for reforms was Chhatrapati Shahu Maharaj[https://aissms.org/breaking-barriers-chhatrapati-shahu-maharaj-and-his-enduring-impact-on-progress-and-modernity/] (born Yeshwantrao Ghatge), '[[Rta and Spiritual Authority#Rishis|Rajarshi]]', the ruler of Kohlapur Kingdom who affiliated with organizations but probably the Arya Samaj[https://thearyasamaj.org] more than any other. Shahu definitely was not shy to publicly perform prayers, as he famously attended temples of goddesses Ambabai[https://www.mahalaxmikolhapur.com/home] and Bhavani[https://shrituljabhavani.org/] when having returned from his Europe trip in 1902. Also in 1902, Pratap Singh Maharaj of Idhar (Gujarat) introduced and educated him about the Arya Samaj. He provided patronage to the Arya Samaj.[https://navjyot.net/wp-content/uploads/2022/12/10.pdf]

The king passed many policies for for the upliftment of untouchable, nomadic, non-Brahmin communities and for females.<ref>Act of Free and Compulsory Primary Education (1917), Widow remarriage Act (1917), End of Balutedari (1918), Repeal of Kulkarni Watan (1918), Intercaste and Interreligious Marriages and Sanctioning of Registered Marriage Act (1919), Act relating to protection of Harassment of Women (1919), Divorce act (1919), Order on prohibition of Untouchability practice (1919), Illegitimate Children's Rights and Devadasi Prohibition Act (1920); 
[https://www.indiejournal.in/article/rajarshi-shahu-maharaj-and-his-tryst-with-the-arya-samaj "Rajarshi Shahu Maharaj & his tryst with the Arya Samaj Lessons for our times"] By Devkumar Ahire (Jun 26, 2023 6:42 PM)</ref>

;Prejudiced disgruntled castists promoting anti-Brahman hate, not universalism
While Shahu was affiliated with the Satyashodhak Samaj (SS) because it wanted to uplift the non-dwija castes, he did not feel they had any religious foundations, whereas the Arya Samaj was encompassed both a spiritual and social movement.<ref>"Beyond Reformism: Chhatrapati Shahu and Hinduism Reimagined" By Surajkumar Thube P. 124-144 ''Nidān: International Journal for Indian Studies, Volume 8'', Issue 1 (July 2023)</ref> Also, the SS of Pune was antithetical to social cohesion because it targeted the Brahman caste as an enemy, and while its main founder (Jyotirao Phule) made absurd claims like 'Shiv-Dharma'<ref>"''The real Shiv-Dharma that is ours, we are re-establishing it as Sarvajanik Satya Dharma.''" Chapter 4, ''Sarvajanik Satya Pustak''</ref> or 'Mahadev-Dharma' (worship of [[Shiva|Shiv]] as God and some local gods like Khandoba as avatars) being the true religion of Indians whereas every other Hindu belief and practice was an imposition by 'non-Indian Brahman invaders'. Being a chauvinist, he also criticized freedom fighter martyrs Lakshmi Bai, Nana Sahib, Tantia Tope for being Brahmans. He also wrote positively that freedom fighters lost the 1857 War of Independence against the British colonialists. He was also openly criticized by his own relative Baburao Phule, who accused the former of being a Christian convert who destroyed the Hindu religion.<ref>P. 58-59 ''The Caste Question: Dalits and the Politics of Modern India'' (2009) By Anupama Rao </ref>

;Satyashodhak Samaj becoming less anti-Brahman
"''All Hindus are equal. No one is superior, no one is inferior. Let all flesh and blood be one. Four varnas are a real deceit. It's a tool to keep the non-Brahmins in slavery. There is no difference among the Hindus. Hindu is the only varna. If a Hindu eats or marries with another Hindu that's not ''[[adharma]].'' In contrast, what divide Hindus in the name of religion is not a dharma, but a trick by Brahmins. One who calls themselves a Hindu, whether they are Europeans or Africans, they are our coreligionists.''" - P. 39 ''Deshache Dushman'' (1925) By Dinkarrao Javalkar
[[image:Sasipada Banerji.jpg|right|thumb|100px|Sasipada Banerji (alias 'Sevabrata'.)]]
Notable is that Phule's friend Narayan Meghaji Lokhande, a labour organization leader, was close friends with Phule and used Khandoba-worship and the reverence of Sundays for Khandoba in his petition to British authority to achieve Sunday as a holiday for factory labourers. Phule and Lokhande emulated Brahmans, like forming the political lobby group Deenbandhu Sarvajanik Sabha after Ranade's Poona Sarvajanik Sabha and forming the Bombay Mill Hands Association based and its mouthpiece ''Deenbandhu'' on the Working Men's Club (India's 1st labour welfare platform) and its mouthpiece ''Bharat Sramajibi'' (India's 1st labour journal) of Sasipada Banerji (Brahmo Samaji.) Though Dinkarrao Javalkar portrayed himself as pan-Hindu when discussing the specific topic of Hindu unity, he still prejudicially criticized the Brahman caste in general<ref>"''This day will be counted among the most important days in the history of Hindus. There is no reason for you to fear jail. The Brahmans who eat ghee and roti should have that fear. To make the touchable people behave is in your hands. You are the sons of Hindus. You capture the tank saying 'har har Mahadev' and follow the advice of your leader Dr. Ambedkar Saheb. This is my own position.''" -Dinkarrao Javalkar at satyagraha with Keshavrao Jedhe and Dr. Ambedkar among a Mahar crowd</ref> and targeted some prominent Brahmans like Lokmanya Tilak. (Javalkar and Keshavrao Jedhe also portrayed themselves as pro-woman but derogatory remarks about women from the Brahman and certain other castes<ref>P. 44 ''19th Century Maharashtra: A Reassessment'' (2020) By Shraddha Kumbhojkar </ref> and both appealed to Dr. B.R. Ambedkar in 1927 to exclude Brahmans from the Mahad Satyagraha<ref> P. 27 ''Social Reform Movements in India: A Historical Perspective'' (1991) By V.D. Divekar</ref>.) Javalkar did write favourably about some like Ranade, Gopal Ganesh Agarkar, and Krishna Gopal Gokhale. He rightfully partook in the Kalaram Mandir[https://www.shrikalaramsansthannasik.org/] Satyagraha in Nasik that protested for Dalits to be able to enter the temple. He was a communist and 10 years after his death, the Peasants and Workers Party (PWP) was formed. It is also noteworthy, however, is that Nana Patil, a founder of the PWP, was affiliated with both the Satyashodhak and Prarthana associations [meaning that he, like most other Satyashodhaks didn't believe in Phule's religious ideology.] Jedhe did protest with other activists (including Brahmans like Narhar Vishnu Gadgil, Seshdas Ranade, Shreedhar Mahadev Joshi, and members of Arya Samaj) for the right of Dalits to worship at Pune's Devdeveshwar Mandir[https://devdeveshwarsanthan.org/home.html]. Some other PWP founders like Jedhe and Madhavrao Bagal were Satyashodhaks, they popularized Shiv Jayanti and Ganesh Chathuri. The latter and his son Vasantrao even wrote devotional pieces inspired from Bhakti Era saints (i.e., [[Tukaram]], [[Eknath]]) and valourizing pieces about Shahu. Tulshidas Jadhav, a Gandian within the PWP, championed the Bhakti Era's Warkari Movement, which was still popular in his time, because it was based on social equality and public seva. Also noteworthy is, that even some prominent members supported the Arya Samaj, like Krishnarao Bhalekar (1 of the founders of SS with Phule) defended Dayanand Saraswati (Arya Samaj’s founder), when the latter’s procession was opposed by some orthodox Hindus in Pune, and Bhalekar organized a speech to be delivered by Saraswati at a dharmshal near a Rokdoba Temple in Pune.

There were those in his organization that promoted about how in ancient Sanatan society, there were no caste distinctions and that people were recognized by their merits. Their view was promoted by Tukaram Tatya Padval, who wrote ''Jatibhed Vivekshar'' (1861) after being inspired by Ashwaghosha's ''Vajrasuchi''. Phule republished copies of Padval's books, and the 2 developed a friendship. He did write at that in ancient India, certain sages were had Sudra or Avarna status but rose to the rank of a Brahman through their intellect, and used examples of Valmiki (wrote a ''Ramayan''), Sankhya, and Kabilar rishis. He also published copies of the ''Bhagavad Gita'', ''Yogasutra'', and compilations of the ''Rajayoga'' and ''Sankhya Karika.'' He further compiled the ''Tukarambaba ani Tyanche Shisya Yanchi Abhanga Gatha'' (1889) and ''Eknath Maharajancha Abhangachi Gatha'' (1903.) Padval, however, never became a member of Phule's organization and instead became a member of the Theosophical Society.

;Shahu forming his own Satyashodhak Samaj focused on upliftment (free of anti-Brahman distractions)
As a result of the Satyashodhak Samaj of Pune being too antagonistic of Brahmans, Shahu had instead founded his own branch in 1911 — Shri Shahu Satyashodhak Samaj. By an order, Shahu replaced the Brahman priests in the Patgaon Sansthan (Mauni Maharaj Math[https://durgbharari.in/maunibaba-patgaon/]) and Jyotiba Devasthan[https://shreejyotiba.com/?lang=E][https://maharashtratourism.gov.in/temple/jyotiba/] with Maratha priests. Bhaskarrao Jadhav and Anna Babaji Latthe were leaders of Shahu's Kolhapur Satyashodhak Samaj. Whereas Phule mostly only wrote positively of Shiva and local-born gods, Jadhav in his ''Marathas and their Religion'' wrote positively about Krishna and the ''Bhagavad Gita''. He further worked with Shahu to aid Arya Samaj in its activities and goals (i.e., train non-Brahmans to become priests too.) Noteworthy is that Latthe, who worked personally with Shahu Maharaj, was its first VP and that he worked to dismantle priestly intermediation within the Jain clergy. (He was a big-time activist for general upliftment and for reform within the Jain community (i.e., wrote ''Jain Dharmacha Parichay''.) He also founded the Dakshin Bharat Jain Sabha, of which Bhaurao Patil (from a Jain family) became a member and through he wasn't a member of any SS branch, he did sometimes participate in its activities and himself founded the Rayat Shikshan Sansthan, which educated students in a multitude of topics, including Sanskrit.

;Shahu distancing himself formally from Satyashodhak Samaj
The SS had earned a bad repurtation in Maharashtra with the general public, particularly for the outright anti-Brahman vitriol spewed in the SS's publications and events.

In 1921, Shahu made a public statement in a Baroda newspaper that even though he granted significant support to the non-Brahman movement and introduced measures to eliminate Brahman dominance, he had never been affiliated with Phule's SS, and that he always accepted [[Rta and Spiritual Authority#Rishis|Vedic ritual authority]].

;Granting, accommodating, and expanding Arya Samaj
Shahu attended Arya Samaj sessions like the one at Navsari in 1918 and another at Bhavnagar in 1920<ref>P. 6. ''People's Raj Volume 30'' (1974) By Directorate-General of Information and Public Relations </ref>. He provided funding for Gurukul Boarding House to be built at Kerle, wherein large buildings and well-irrigated lands were granted to the Arya Samaj. Later, the Rajaram Anathalaya orphanage was added to this grant. He also brought educational institutions in his domain under the leadership of Arya Pratinidhi Sabha. Rajaram College's administration was also granted to the Arya Samaj.

;Spiritual Authority as Rajarshi
Shahu Maharaj, being a devout Sanatan wanted to proclaim the rights that warriors of history had and so participated in important ceremonies and worked with priests (i.e., Brahmans) to achieve the rights to learn and perform Vedic ceremonies. He established the Vedokta Committee for Marathas to be able to perform Vedic rites without requiring priests. In 1905, the Karveer Peeth's (or Kolhapur Math's) Shankaracharya declared full rights of Vedokta to Chhatrapati Shahu.

Tatyarao Joshirao was appointed by Shahu Maharaj as new royal purohit, replacing the Rajopadhye (creator of the infamous 'Vedokta Controversy'), who denied the Maharaj to perform Vedic rites. Joshirao was from a family that had traditional ownership of the historic Binkhambi Ganapati Mandir in Kolhapur.

Rajaram Shastri (alias 'Bhagavata'), a Brahman scholar, linguist, and researcher, openly challenged the religious orthodoxy, arguing from scripture that Shahu Maharaj had full rights to the Vedas. Vishnu Topkhane was another Brahman who greatly helped the Chhatrapati with his progressive reforms. Topkhane the educationalist helped the latter establish the Vidyapeeth High School near the Shri Karveer Niwasini Ambabai Mahalakshmi Temple. Freedom fighter Gokhale was someone who worked with Shahu. When the Vedokta Controversy broke out and the conservative press attacked the Maharaja, Gokhale privately and publicly validated Shahu Maharaj's stance, recognizing that social reform was a prerequisite for true political freedom. Ranade, though passed away before much Shahu's reforms began, was admired by the latter for his progressive ideals and actions.

Chhatrapati Shahu founded the Satyashodhak School for spiritual training in 1913, in which seminarians (predominantly from castes such as Marathas, Mahars, and Chambhars) were taught to recite and preach the poems (i.e., abhangs of Tukaram) of sants. He also created the Shivaji Vedic School (aliases 'Shahu Vedic School', 'Shahu Vedic Pathshala', 'Shri Shahu Vaidik Vidyalay') in 1920 and had invited scholars from Varanasi (spiritual capital of Sanatan Dharm) to ensure the highest standard of scriptural and linguistic training. The school trained seminarians (of all castes) to learn Sanskrit and become priests and conduct ceremonies. He further established and financed the office of the Kshatra Jagadguru (''Warrior Universal Teacher''), a pontiff seat open to anyone of any caste. The first Kshatra Jagadguru was Sadashivrao Lakshmanrao Sankpal Patil Benadikar, was an accomplished Sanskrit scholar who received his formal higher education at Rajaram College in Kolhapur. The Kshatra Jagadguru Peeth was the pontiff's seat at Patgaon (in the Bhudargad region of Kolhapur.) Patgaon was chosen because it was the historic site of the Mauni Maharaj Math, a highly respected spiritual center that had historically blessed Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj[https://pilgrimdata.in/temple/mouni-maharaj-math-temple-patgaon-bhudargarh-dist-kolhapur/]. The Kshatra Jagadguru had the Shri Sadashivrao Patil Shikshan Sanstha educationalist association named after him, and it runs schools[https://www.mwssm.org/][https://sspiop.com/] in Maharashtra still. Other organizations too use his name for schools like Sadashivrao Mandlik Mahavidyalaya (Kolhapur) of the ⁠Jay Shivray Education Society.

===Successive associations===
From Hindu-based institutions like sociopolitical organizations and schools came a number of philanthropic associations. Even other humanitarian associations that were not established by Hindu activists, were established by their influence. For example, Krishna Gopal Gokhale had participated in many sessions of the Prarthana Samaj as he was Ranade's pupil, and he later joined the Deccan Education Society, which he left to establish the Servants of India Society. Narayan Malhar Joshi was a member of Gokhale's group and later formed his own Social Service League[https://socialserviceleague.org.in/]. Hriday Nath Kunzru too was part of Gokhale's group and left to establish the Seva Samiti.

{| class="wikitable sortable"
|-
! Organization
! Demographic of Focus
! Region(s)
! Founder
! Founder's Affiliation(s)
! Achievement
|-
|Anath Balikashram Society
|Widows
|Maharashtra
|Dhondo Keshav Karve
|Educated at BHU
|
|-
|Andhra Mahila Sabha
|Females
|Andhra Pradesh
|Durgabai Deshmukh
|
|
|-
|Bharat Stree Mahamandal
|Females
|Bengal, Bihar, Punjab, Sindh, U.P.
|Sarala Devi Chaudhurani
|Arya Samaji, Brahmo Samaji, accepted Bijoy Krishna Chattopadhyaya as her guru
|
|-
|Central Social Welfare Board
|Females and children
|
|Dr. Durgabai Deshmukh
|
|
|-
|Hindu Widow Marriage Association
|Females
|Maharashtra
|Dhondo Keshav Karve
|Educated at BHU
|
|-
|Hindustani Seva Dal
|Females
|Every province
|Dr. Narayan Subbarao Hardikar
|
|Established the Hindustani Seva Mandal (later became Rashtriya Seva Dal) in 1923, established the Arya Bala Sabha, taught the Gita during his student days in Kolkata, was a fan of Lokmanya Tilak, and had enthusiastically worked with Lala Rai
|-
|Indian Reform Association
|Females
|West Bengal
|Keshub Chandra Sen
|
|Brahmo Samaji, founded ''Sulabh Samachar'' as weekly newspaper of group
|-
|Kasthurbha Gandhi Kanya Gurukulam[http://www.kgkgurukulam.org/]
|Girls
|Tamil Nadu (Vedaranyam)
|Vedaratnam Pillai
|
|Involved in temple-based philanthropy and donated to Sri Ramakrishna Mission too
|-
|Lakshmi Ashram
|Females
|Uttarakhand
|Sarla Behn
|
|Established individual Mahila Mandals throughout Uttarakhand and promoted important skills as well as ecological awareness
|-
|Lokahitawadi Mandal
|Females and males
|Maharashtra
|Vishnu Vaman Shirwadkar
|
|Wrote about Hindu themes, including persons from scriptures and about Shivaji poetically, philosophically, and nationally
|-
|Maharshi Karve Stree Shikshan Samstha
|Females
|Maharashtra
|Dhondo Keshav Karve
|Educated at BHU
|
|-
|Mahila Vidyalaya (Pune)
|Females
|Maharashtra
|Dhondo Keshav Karve
|Educated at BHU
|
|-
|Nishkam Karma Math
|Females
|Maharashtra
|Dhondo Keshav Karve
|Educated at BHU
|
|-
|Poona Seva Sadan
|Females
|Maharashtra (at its peak, included M.P. and T.N.)
|Ramabai Ranade
|
|
|-
|Samata Sangh
|Men and Women
|Maharashtra
|Dhondo Keshav Karve
|Educated at BHU
|
|-
|Self Employed Women's Association (SEWA)
|Females
|18 states
|Ela Bhatt
|Gandhian Textile Labour Association
|Established: own bank (Shri Mahila Sewa Sahakari Bank, or 'SEWA Cooperative Bank'), SEWA Mahila Housing Trust
|-
|Servants of the People Society
|Females
|Kerala, Maharashtra, M.P., Odisha T.N., Uttarakhand U.P.
|
|
|
|-
|Shraddhanand Ashram[https://shraddhanandmahilashram.org] (alias Hindu Women's Welfare Society)
|Females and boys
|Maharashtra (Mumbai)
|Swami Shraddhanand
|
|Has cared for thousands of destitute women and orphans, and educated them and provided skills development, as well as fostered personal development
|-
|Stree Hitaishini Mandali
|Females
|Andhra Pradesh
|Kanuparti Varalakshmamma
|
|Educated many females
|-
|Widow Marriage Association
|Females
|Maharashtra
|Dhondo Keshav Karve
|Educated at BHU
|
|-
|}

==Inspiration to Madras Presidency==
[[image:M.C. Rajah.jpg|right|thumb|200px|Mylai Chinna Thambi Pillai Rajah (the real 'Periyar'.)]]
While the Arya Samaj, Brahmo Samaj, Prarthana Samaj, and a host of other Hindu-based humanitarian and sociopolitical institutions existed in the-then Madras Presidency of southern India, they inspired local organizations as well. Shahu Maharaj had friends in the-then Justice Party (JP, est. 1916), like Arcot Ramasamy Mudaliar and Panaganti Ramarayaningar. While some ethnic groups, like certain castes even falsely supported the idea of an 'Aryan Invasion Theory' and themselves (Dravidian-languages speakers) as indigenous, they still appreciated Hinduism and did not consider it alien.

The biggest uplifter of the party was M.C. Rajah, who had the highest influence upon the policies that improved the lives of the Dalits in Madras Presidency. The party itself was founded primarily by 3 individuals — Sir Pitti Theagaraya Chetty (political founder who built the political machine), Dr. Taravath Madhavan Nair (ideological co-founder), and Dr. Chintadripet Natesa Mudaliar (cultural/grassroots mobilizer who helped shape cultural legitimacy.) Dr. Nair had said that Hindu society had originally possessed broader equality before caste dominance hardened it. Chetty occasionally used dharm-based ethical framing. He is consistently described as arguing that governance must align with "''dharma and justice''". The Dr. Mudaliar was a devout Shaiva that infused into the party Shaivism as a cultural identity for southerners.
[[image:P.T. Rajan.jpg|right|thumb|200px|P.T. Rajan (centre-right, wearing glasses next to priest), touring with the idol of [[Ayyappan|Ayyappa]] he had made at Swamimalai Temple[https://swamimalaiswaminathar.hrce.tn.gov.in/] and it was placed in the Sabarimala Temple[https://www.sabarimalauptodate.in/].]]
An ideologue of influence to the JP and Self-Respect Movement was Maraimalai Adigal, a Shaiv preacher and writer, who claimed that both the JP and Self-Respect Movement were from his teachings and that militant atheist Erode Venkatappa Ramasami Naicker had hijacked them. JP founder Dr. Nair died in 1919 and Chetty in 1925, so had no interaction Naicker. Ponnambala Thiaga Rajan was an active party member and disagreed with Naicker's ideology, so joined Congress-aligned politics. Mudaliar died in 1935 around the time Naicker entered the JP. Naicker was also a prejudiced castist that criticized but did not contribute to build schools and shelters for women and children, as Rajah[https://www.news18.com/opinion/opinion-m-c-rajah-the-forgotten-hindu-mahasabha-dalit-8937192.html][https://vskbharat.com/m-c-rajah-a-staunch-hindu-leader/?lang=en][https://thecommunemag.com/m-c-rajah-the-hindu-mahasabha-dalit/], a practicing Hindu of the party did. Rajah even once formed a political alliance with the Hindu Mahasabha, was the contributor. Before Rajah, the party's caste disparity was mainly about civil service occupations and education access for underprivileged castes. Rajah was recommended by Ambedkar to convert but Rajah replied there's no religion better than Hinduism.<ref>P. 92 ''The Political Evolution of Muslims in Tamilnadu and Madras, 1930-1947'' By J.B. Prashant More (1997) </ref><ref> In a public meeting of the All India Adi Dravida Mahajana Sabha in Nungambakkam, Chennai he said, "''The president (of this meeting) mentioned that no other community other than us has more right to be called Hindus. Conversion will not bring about any good. By saying so, I am not undermining or wishing away the oppression and ills we have faced. We need to fight for our rights. The speed at which reforms are happening might be slow. But think about our current situation and how much it has improved. I beseech you to please abandon any move that will weaken us. I request the government to bring about the Untouchability Abolition Bill and pass it quickly. The Harijans are proud Hindus. That is the only reason why even after years of oppression by higher castes and a barrage of proselytization efforts by other religions hasn't changed their resolve being Hindus.''" P. 123 ''Evolution of Hindu Nationalism - Icons of HMS, RSS & BJS'' By Sankara Narayanan T (2025)</ref> Adigal's writings had a profound impact on Subramania Ramanathan, the founder of the Self-Respect Movement, and on the Naicker but the latter only wanted pro-Tamil and castist societal changes, not promotion of Shaivism. Naicker would later break away from the party and form his own Dravidar Kazhagam, a title he copied from Adigal's Shaiv association (Podhunilak Kazhagam.) (His own pupil, Conjeevaram Natarajan Annadurai, would eventually disown him after he married his own adopted daughter, and Annadurai would leave his group.)
[[image:Alamelu.jpg|right|thumb|200px|Alamelu Mangai Thayarammal, a Brahmo Samaji, was co-founder of the party among 29 others (all men.)]]
The Hindu sentiment was definitely present in the JP. Many left after Naicker's hijacking. Important members bothered by Naicker's rhetoric apart from Rajan were Ananda Prasad Patro, Arunachalam Thamaraiselvam Panneerselvam, Muthiah Annamalai Chettiar, Ramasamy Kandasamy Shanmukham Chetty, and Subbarayalu Kumaraswami Reddiar. Chettiar even personally regularly donated to temple renovations, endowing temple lands or festivals, supporting pilgrimage facilities, and Hindu-managed schools. Rajan, the last leader of the JP, was the head-of-government of the Presidency, and was a big devotee a [[Ayyappan|Swami Ayyappa]]. Rajan even solemnized a marriage of a German couple converted to Hinduism in Coimbatore (Oct 31, 1962.) He further discouraged conversion of Dalits from Hinduism to another religion<ref>"''If by mass conversion you expect to achieve your object, you will be disappointed, because of a mere change of religion it will not give you all that you want.''" 
P. 147 ''Sir P. T. Rajan's Eighty Second Birthday Souvenir, 1973'' By P.T. Rajan and K. Paramasivam</ref> while encouraging caste-Hindus to better treat Dalits. His family had deep ties to the Meenakshi Amman Temple[https://maduraimeenakshi.hrce.tn.gov.in/] in Madurai, with his son (Palanivel Rajan), serving as a minister, and his daughter-in-law (Rukmani), serving as the first female chairperson of the temple's board of trustees. His predecessor Ramakrishna Ranga Rao denied that the JP was anti-Hindu and declared that it aimed to purify Hindu society from "''absurdities''" and return "''Hinduism greater and more glorious than it was in the past...''"<ref>"''As I understand it, the Self-Respect movement stands for certain great ideals to make Hinduism greater and more glorious than it was in the past, to rid it of all those absurdities which are the accretions of an unfortunate era of the past, and unite us in a solid federation so that all those who profess to follow the Hindu faith may feel that they are brethren following one of the most ancient and glorious religions of the world. No longer should the foreigner point his finger of scorn at this or that particular phase of Hinduism which belies its cosmopolitan tendency by inflicting personal hardship on classes or communities. If a few youths in their exuberant enthusiasm have been carried away beyond the bounds of Hinduism it will not do to fight shy of the new movements, but political wisdom and sagacity lie in taking them into our fold and guiding them aright along the paths of duty and rectitude.''" 
P. 289 ''The Indian Annual Register An Annual Digest of Public Affairs of India Recording the Nation's Activities Each Year in Matters Political, Economic, Industrial, Educational, Social, Etc · Volume 2'' By Nipendra Nath Mitra (1934)</ref> Alamelu Mangai Thayarammal, conferred 'Pandithai' title by Saiva Sabha in Palamcottah, was a JP co-founder [with 29 co-founders being men] who was a Brahmo Samaji, meaning the influence of the Hindu-based organizations wasn't insignificant. Paramasivan Subbarayan Gounder, while not technically a JP member, worked with it closely, and both he and his women's rights activist wife Kailash Radhabai Kulmud were Brahmos. It is also noteworthy that [[Ascetics|ascetic]] Swamiyar Kaivalyar who supported the party without being a member wrote pro-Shaiv material. Cattamanchi Ramalinga Reddy, an ex-member who formed his own party in 1923 was a close friend of Dr. Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan, and he himself engaged with Hindu texts on a literary artistic level. As Hinduism isn't a scripture-dependent religion, some JP members like A.R. Mudaliar heavily criticized certain scriptures but were devout Hindus ([[Vaiśnava|Vaishnav]] in his case.) And while orthodox opposition was present, the majority of Indians, including religious leaders, supported reforms, like when Shankaracharya of Kanchi[https://www.kamakoti.org/] supported the "Hindu Religious Endowments Bill" (1921) even while voicing some concerns in within. Mentionable is that [[Shatata-Unnati#Female upliftment|Dr. Muthulakshmi Reddy]] wasn't part of the JP but it still nominated her in 1926 for the Madras Legislative Council to bring about positive changes.

==Related articles==
*[[Women]]
*[[Women as Rishikas in the Vedas]]
*[[Worship of God as Mother]]

==External resources==
*[https://www.ijhsss.com/files/08.-ABHISEK-KARMAKAR_6813z4a4.pdf "Changing status of women in Indian politics (1917-1947): the role of civil society"], P. 42-45 ''International Journal of Humanities & Social Science Studies'' Volume-I, Issue-II (September 2014) By Abhisek Karmakar
*[https://www.besanthill.org/about/history-heritage/annie-besant/ Besant Hill School of Happy Valley in Ojai, California]
*[https://www.anniebesant.org Annie Besant Women's College in Hyderabad, Telangana]
*[https://www.aryasabha.mu/cultural-programme-arya-mahila-mandal-in-the-context-of-the-200th-birth-anniversary-of-swami-dayananda-saraswati/ Arya Mahila Mandal (Mauritius)]
*[https://www.thearyasamaj.org/ammkarolbagh Arya Mahila Mandal Karol Bagh]
*[https://vatikashaktipeeth.com/seven-agitations/women-awakening.html Vatika Shakti Peeth]

==References==
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[[Category: History]]
[[Category: Economics]]
[[Category: Societal altruism]]