Indian Freedom Fighters

By Himanshu Bhatt

M.K. Gandhi, S.C. Bose and V.J. Patel.

"Shivaji did not merely fight for Maratha independence; he fought for Hindavi Swaraj – the self-rule of the people of this country… Today we are fighting for the same Hindavi Swaraj against the British."
- Subhas Chandra Bose (1939)

History is familiar with the saint Mahatma Gandhi, the ultimate peacemaker, who nonviolently contributed immensely to achieving India's independence and is not only admired worldwide but was emulated in several independence movements and is still mirrored in democratic struggles. His movement, however, was purely a political and sociopolitical movement not giving importance to Hinduism. He was at times overgenerous for his own good and unnecessarily conceded to demands that only pampered divisive forces (Muslim separatists.) This created the appeasement problem that India still faces. This is also termed 'pseudo-secularism' wherein Hindu tolerance is abused to unfairly benefit institutions that are antithetical to democracy and equality.

Today, historical Hindu activist freedom fighters are purposely overshadowed to only perpetuate liberal parties' appeasement agendas.

S.C. Bose and V.D. Savarkar pictured at Savarkar Sadan in Mumbai, June 22, 1940.

Subhas Chandra Bose, titled by admirers as 'Rashtranayak' (Nation's Leader), who militarily championed the Indian independence movement, credited Veer Savarkar for advising him to escape his fugitivity from house arrest in India (where he could do little) by emigrating and then forging alliances with Axis powers during World War II (WWII.) “Leave India, go to Germany or Japan, raise an army.” Bose later wrote: “Savarkar’s advice was the turning point.” In Jan 1941, Bose escaped from house arrest, and later, having listened to Savarkar, joined the Indian National Army (Azad Hind Fauj) or INA in Japan, which received training from the Japanese Empire. Savarkar cleverly played both sides, supporting Indian freedom on the one hand and collaborating with the British imperialists in acts, such as raising a volunteer army to fight Axis powers in WWII. Bose once again praised Savarkar for having done so, because these returning soldiers or soldiers-in-training were in many instances convinced by Bose into defecting towards INA. He said, "When due to misguided political whims and lack of vision almost all the leaders of the Congress Party are decrying all the soldiers in the Indian Army as mercenaries, it is heartening to know that Veer Savarkar is fearlessly exhorting the youth of India to enlist in the Armed Forces. These men will learn modern warfare and return to India as trained soldiers to free their motherland." This was the final mention of Savarkar that Bose had made—a positive one, even acknowledging Savarkar as "Veer."

Reconciling militarism as a Hindu

A question that would arise to someone studying the life of a Hindu warrior is, "How could a Hindu justify using violence, which clearly goes against the Vow of Ahimsa (Nonviolence)?"

Although living nonviolently is crucial to avoid bad karma, fulfill right conduct, and accomplish Moksha, it can be necessary to save lives. For example, due to British PM Churchill's policy of confiscating Indian agricultural produce, millions in India starved to death. Violence against a few thousand or event tens of thousands would have been justifiable to prevent the deaths of Indians.

In the Mahabharata as well, Krishna only after all alternatives to war turned down by the Kauravas, advised Arjuna Pandava to do secure his kingdom and uphold righteousness (i.e., Kauravas were spoiled royals that lived in materialism and even attempted to disrobe Draupadi.) Rama too, engaged in combat only when threatened or to save the life of Sita. For these reasons, both Krishna and Rama are worshipped even by Jains and Bauddhs, who historically have gone at extreme lengths to remain nonviolent. Krishna's Bhagavad Gita was the favourite book of both Gandhi and Bose, but both implemented its wisdom in opposite ways to achieve freedom.

Bose himself said, "Non-violence is a great ideal, but when a nation is enslaved, the first duty is to secure freedom-by any means."

Savarkar had said in 1941, "Hindus should not be afraid of war...Enlist in the army in large numbers The more Hindus join the army, the better for us...This war is a golden opportunity to militarize Hindu society." Savarkar's strategy was to utilize free military training to implement it against the British in the future to obtain independence. He said in 1941, "An Indian army wherein millions of Hindus occupy the dominant position...must prove the most effective factor not only to defend our country...but also to further the cause of the political emancipation of our motherland in the long run."

Hindavi legacy in 1857 War

"These are not mutinous sepoys but independent Hindu chieftains with their private armies, fighting for their ancient privileges and religion."
- Colonel Colin Macaulay, dispatch after capturing Kattabomman (1799)

The 1857 War of Independence drew inspiration from the earlier Polygar (Palayakkarar) revolts (1799-1805) and Vellore Mutiny (July 10, 1806), which erupted because Hindus saw British policies and British cultural influences as anti-Hindu. For example the Polygar chieftains revolted because of the British imposition of cow-tax, forced Christian conversions by missionaries, and destruction of local temples to build churches/forts. The Vellore sepoys revolted because they feared forced Christian conversion via turban regulation wherein troops' turbans were required to have a leather cockade and the soldiers couldn't have any religious symbolism. Both the Polygar and Vellore rebellions' insurgents used saffron flags, and the prior even proclaimed temple oaths for the revolts. The phrases 'Dharma rakshana(m)' and 'Dharma Yuddha(m)' were used by insurgents in the Polygar and Vellore revolts and would be used again in the 1857 war.

Insurgent	Date	Source	Proclamation	More
Rao Jwala Prasad (Diwan post) and Azimullah Khan (Munshi post)	July 15, 1857	Farman sent from Bithoor/Kanpur to the Bundela rajas of Orchha, Datia, Chanderi, and Shahgarh.	"Be it known to all true Hindus that the Hindavi Swarajya has been re-established under the Peshwa Shri Nana Sahib Bahadur, the rightful successor of Baji Rao. All who desire the restoration of dharma and the expulsion of the Firangi should rally to his banner."	Coins minted in Kanpur in Nana Sahib’s name (1857) bear the legend "Hindavi Swarajya" in Devanagari on the reverse
Rani Lakshmi Bai of Jhansi	May-June 1858	Letter to Tantya Tope & Rao Sahib	"We are fighting for Hindavi Swarajya, not for the Mughal shadow."	"The Ranee’s troops shouted ‘Hindavi Swaraj’ as they charged." - British officer Sir Hugh Rose’s dispatch (June 1858)
Tantya Tope & Rao Sahib	August 1858	Letter sent to various Hindus	"The Peshwa has restored Hindavi Swarajya; all true Hindus must join the army of liberation or be treated as enemies of dharma."	The letter ended with "Jai Hindavi Swarajya! Jai Peshwa!" Gwalior mint coins (June 1858) struck in Rao Sahib’s name carry "श्री हिंदवी स्वराज्य" (Shri Hindavi Swarajya)
Baba Sahib Bhonsle	1858	Letter to local zamindars, including Raja Bakht Singh Bundela of Shahgarh (Bundelkhand), Raja of Chanderi (Malwa), and Raja of Nurpur (Gondwana)	"We are establishing Hindavi Samrajya free from Mughal and Firangi yoke."

The Marathas never stop after overthrowing the Mughals, and continued to fight the other foreign threats—European imperialists (British, Dutch, French, and Portuguese.) In the 1857 war, the most prominent names of all the participants are Rani Lakshmi Bai of Jhansi, Nana Sahib of Kanpur, and his supreme commander Tantya Tope. They not only fought on the battlefield but directed the war on a cross-regional scale. Whereas Muslim rulers relied on their militaries, the Hindavis usually participated, whether they were royalty or not. The most common flag of the war was Shivaji's saffron flag. This was used at places like Jhansi & Gwalior. A variant that Hindavis had also used was implemented too, like at Kanpur & Kalpi. In Bihar, Kunwar Singh used a saffron flag with the lotus.

"The old King at Delhi was nothing but the flag of the rebellion—a puppet in the hands of the sepoys. The real directing mind, the moving spirit of the whole insurrection, was the Nana Sahib at Bithoor."
- Sir John Kaye, officer and official historian of the-then Mutiny (interviewed Havelock, Outram, and other officers)

Nana Sahib was identified by British officers as the primary orchestrator and strategic director. Further testimonies hamper and disprove arrogant Islamist assertions that the Mughal Bahadur Shah Zafar was the architect or prime leader of the rebellion. Like most Muslim royals of the era, he personally did not fight against the British on the battlefield and whereas the Hindavis that didn't die on the battlefield were executed, he was only exiled to Rangoon in Burma.

"The Nana Sahib [Dhondu Pant] is the chief director of this accursed revolt...but his Muslim allies are as cowardly as their Mughal masters, letting the Hindu sepoys do all the dying."
- Major-General Sir Henry Havelock, Commander at Kanpur

British officers of the era that Hindus were very brave and they did the fighting while the Muslim rulers of their regions and even the Muslim civilians 'cowardly'.

Name	Background	Base of operations	Role	Outcome
Nana Sahib (Dhondu Pant)	Royalty	Bithoor → Kanpur → Kalpi → Arrah	Proclaimed Peshwa; overall commander at Kanpur; ordered siege & Satichaura Ghat massacre; financed large armies	Disappeared into Nepal 1859 (probably died 1859-61)
Rao Sahib (nephew of Nana Sahib)	Royalty	Kanpur	Deputy commander at Kanpur & Kalpi; later proclaimed Peshwa after Nana vanished	Hanged (1860)
Tantia Tope (Ramchandra Pandurang)		Kanpur → Kalpi → Jhansi → Gwalior → Rajasthan → Tonk → Paron	Supreme guerrilla commander; kept 20,000-30,000 men fighting for 18 months after all cities fell	Hanged (April, 18, 1859)
Rani Lakshmi Bai	Royalty (Jhansi)	Jhansi	Led defense of Jhansi; commanded 20,000 troops; died sword in hand at Gwalior	Killed in battle, Kotah-ki-Serai (June 18, 1858)
Damodar Rao	Royalty (Jhansi), and adopted son of Lakshmi Bai	Jhansi	Nominal commander after mother’s death; continued resistance with Tantia Tope	Escaped to Nepal; pensioned by British later
Appa Sahib Bhonsle II	Royalty (Nagpur Bhonsles)	Nagpur	Sent money & agents to rebels; British intercepted letters urging Maratha unity	Died in exile (1853), but his son and retainers were active
Bhau Sahib Bhonsle	Royalty (Nagpur Bhonsles)	Nagpur	Raised troops in Mandla & Central Provinces; fought with Tantia Tope	Captured & imprisoned (1844)
Raghuji Bhonsle III	Royalty (Satara Bhonsles)	Satara	British deposed him just before 1857; his retainers & adopted son joined rebels	Died under house arrest, Florence (1904)
Chimnabai Sahib	Royalty (Satara Bhonsles), and widow of Satara Raja	Satara (covertly)	Secretly funded rebels in Satara & Kolhapur region	Pensioned off after 1857
Balaji Pant Natu		Satara (covertly)	Organised underground network in Deccan; supplied intelligence & money to Nana Sahib	Hanged, Pune (1858)
Krishnarao Bhasker		Pune → Satara	Secret courier between Nana Sahib & Lakshmi Bai	Executed (1858)
Vinayak Rao Shinde	Royalty (Gwailor Shinde)	Gwalior	Deserted Gwalior army with troops to join Rani Lakshmi Bai	Killed in battle, Gwalior (1858)
Moropant Tambe	Father-in-law to Lakshmi Bai, not a royal himself	Jhansi → Kalpi → Gwalior		Killed in battle (1858)
Baba Sahib Bhonsle	Royalty (Nagpur Bhonsles)	Mandla → Sagar → Narmada valley	Raised 5,000 men in Narmada valley; fought alongside Tantia Tope	Captured & blown from cannon (1859)
Sadashiv Rao Bhau		Kalpi	Commanded rebel artillery at Kalpi	Killed (1858)
Tukoji Rao Holkar II	Royalty (Indore Holkar)	Indore / Mhow	Tacitly allowed large-scale rebel activity in his territory	Died in battle, Maheshwar (June 17, 1886)

Hindavi legacy in Swaraj concept

‘Swarajya’ was the term used extensively during Hindavi dynastic rule, and its meaning of “self-rule” or “self-governance”, which became more important than simply a dominion with home rule, was used in the freedom movement. It became the goal of every freedom organization, to see an independent India that governs itself. Dadaji Naoroji, a Zoroastrian and the Father of Indian Political Nationalism, was a staunch admirer of Shivaji and was the first freedom fighter to use the term ‘swaraj’ in the freedom movement. Some freedom fighters like Tilak even directly connected the specific kind of ‘swaraj’ to that of Shivaji’s.

The phrase ‘Shivrajya Abilashchya’, which means Aspiration for Shivaji’s Rulership, became popularized by Tilak and then the 1930’s farmers of Maharashtra.

Gandhi's himself, inspired by Shivaji and his Swarajya, wrote a book titled Hind Swaraj (originally titled Hind Swarajya in Gujarati) in 1909. He avoided directly referencing Shivaji's Swarajya to avoid alienating Muslims, as Shivaji's dynasty fought and eventually incorporated Muslim-ruled dynasties.

Indian National Congress' Hindu activist roots

The party was founded by ethnically-British Allan Octavian Hume (1829-1912), born in England. He was a member of the Hindu-based Theosophical Society for a while, and even after leaving he remained a vegetarian and the group had inspired him to give up killing birds for their specimens. He was influenced by freedom fighter Gopal Krishna Gokhale.

Annie Besant (1847-1933):
As the Theosophical Society's prominent member, she later joined the Congress as well, and became its president in 1917. Though born ethnically British in England, she adopted India as her homeland. She mobilized support through her platforms like New India and Commonweal. She co-founded the All-India Home Rule League with Lokmanya Tilak.

Rao Bahadur Mahadev Govind Ranade (1842-1901):
He founded the Prarthana Samaj (Prayer Society), a spiritual organization devoted to worshiping God and living ethically while attempting to uplift social outcasts. Followers saw themselves as a part of the Marathi Sant-Mat tradition to which saints like Namdev and Tukaram belonged.

He was a well-known social activist and his motto was, "Humanise, Equalise and Spiritualise."

His aliases were Nyayamurti Ranade and that name's meaning Justice Ranade.

He was from the Marathi community.

Romesh Chunder Dutt (1948-1909):
He translated the Rig Veda into Bengali in 1886. He also translated the Ramayana and Mahabharata into English portraying them as cultural treasures that embody Hindu ethics and nationalism.

His historical novels and economic critiques (i.e., The Economic History of India) wove Hindu revivalism into anti-colonial discourse, linking broader Hindu intellectual circles like those of Bankim Chandra Chatterjee.

He was from the Bengali community.

Savalai Ramaswami Mudaliar (1840-1911):
He was knighted as Sir.

He was a philanthropist that funded temples and charities in line with Vaishnava traditions. S. Ramaswami Mudaliar Choultry in 1884 was established by him as a rest-house for pilgrims and travelers, supported temple-related charities, and it operated until the 1960s. He also funded the Women and Children Hospital in Kozhikode in 1903.

He was from the Tamil community.

Subbier Subramania Iyer (1842-1924):
He viewed Theosophy, as an extension of Brahmvidya (Knowledge of God.) He joined in 1884 and collaborated with Annie Besant on the Home Rule Movement.

He advocated for using temple funds for education and pilgrim welfare, balancing societal and spiritual support.

He pioneered the Hindu Religious Endowments Act in the 1920s, learning to the establishment of Hindu Religious Endowments Board to manage temple finances transparently.

He was from the Tamil community.

Surendranath Banerjee (1848-1925):
He founded the Indian Association in 1876.

He advocated for widow remarriage and raising the marriageable age for girls.

He was from the Bengali community.

Womesh Chunder Bonnerjee (1844-1906):
His maternal lineage traced to the Sanskrit scholar and philosopher Pandit Juggonath Turkopunchanun, linking him to the tradition of Hindu saints. He studied at Hindu School at Kolkata, a major institution for blending Western and Sanskrit learning. He authored Reform of the Hindu Marriage Laws (1868), which critiqued and proposed changes to Hindu marriage customs to be more ethical.

He was from the Bengali community.

HRA's Hindu activist roots

"Long live revolution! Long live the Hindu nation! Inquilab Zindabad!"
- Chandrashekhar Azad

The Hindustan Republican Association's founder Sachindra Nath Sanyal, who constantly used Shivaji to appeal to Hindu youth in Punjab and U.P. Sanyal repeatedly praised Shivaji’s wars against Mughals as 'Hindu Pad Padshahi'. He even wrote wrote long articles calling Shivaji "the first revolutionary guerrilla" and described him as "the founder of Hindu independence". Sanyal used 'Hindavi Swarajya' constantly as the ideal model and claimed that he was reviving the Swarajya. Shivaji’s portrait was in every HRA bomb factory and hideout alongside Bhagat Singh.

The Oath taken by new HRA recruits in 1925-1928 was, "We swear by the Bhagavad Gita to free Hindustan from British slavery."

"The revolution we are waging is the same that Chhatrapati Shivaji began against the Mughals and the Peshwas carried to the Attock — Hindavi Swarajya for all India, a Hindu government of Hindus for the whole of India."
- HSRA comrades (1929)

(Printed on the HSRA manifesto distributed after the Assembly bomb) The HRA was renamed as the Hindustan Socialist Republican Association (HSRA) when Bhagat Singh became member.

The group had made a number of pro-Hindu and pro-Sikh statements and had devout Hindus and Sikhs as members.

"We are fighting for the same Swarajya that Shivaji and the Peshwas established — a government of the people, by the people, for the people of Hindustan, free from the yoke of foreign rule."
- Declaration of the HSRA manifesto at Assembly Hall in Delhi (April 8, 1929), signed by Bhagat Singh, Chandrashekhar Azad, Rajguru, Sukhdev, and others

Chandrashekhar Azad made other pro-Hindu statements too and used Hindu symbolism for the freedom movement. He had not only used, "Hindu nation", but also "Hindu youth", "Hindu women", "Bhagavad Gita", "Shivaji", and "Bharat Mata".

Ghadar Movement's Hindu activist roots

Ghadar Party's poster of martyrs.

"Awake Hindus! The time has come for Hindus to rule Hindustan again."
- Kartar Singh Sarabha (1914)

The group had made a number of pro-Hindu and pro-Sikh statements and had devout Hindus and Sikhs as members.

This movement's founders were Bhai Parmanand (Hindu), Har Dayal (Hindu), Pandurang Sadashiv Khankhoje (Hindu), Sachindra Nath Sanyal (Hindu), Sohan Singh Bhakna (Sikh), and Tarak Nath Das (Hindu.) Har Dayal (alias 'Lala Dayal') was a pupil of Savarkar and was initially a part of the latter's Abhinav Bharat Society.

In December 1914, many movement-linked armed robberies to acquire funds were executed in Kolkata. Jatin Mukherjee communicated with R.B. Bose via Kartar Singh and Vishnu Ganesh Pingle. The freedom-motivated robberies, organized and operated separately by different groups, merged under a common umbrella under the leadership of R.B. Bose in North India, V.G. Pingle in Maharashtra, and Sachindra Nath Sanyal in Benares. A strategy was made for a unified insurrection dated for February 21, 1915.

V.G. Pingle started out initially as a part of Savarkar's movement and also partook in the Swadeshi movement of Tilak.

Ultimately, this movement, like the 1857 rebellion, was crushed with 46 participants hanged (V.G. Pingle, Kartar Singh Sarabha, and Kanshi Ram), 69 sentenced to life imprisonment, and 106 received lesser terms. Still, this only fueled further rebellion against British rule by inspiring others to do what they could against imperialism.

Sachindra Nath Sanyal was previously a member of the Anushilan Samiti. He was sentenced to life imprisonment for his participation in the Ghadar movement but was freed in 1920. He then founded the Hindustan Republican Association (HRA), which Bhagat Singh became a part of. He, with other members, organized the Kakori Conspiracy robbery and was sentenced again for life but was released in 1937. After R.B. Bose escaped to Japan, Sanyal was considered the most senior revolutionary figure of the freedom movement. He collaborated with the Japanese for fighting the British Empire and was arrested for in 1941. He died in jail, 1942 of tuberculosis.

Tarak Nath Das, before becoming part of the Ghadar Movement, was part of the Anushilan Samiti. To stir Bengali enthusiasm, commemoration of the achievements of Raja Sitaram Ray (Bengali Hindu who fought against Mughals), was introduced as a festival. He was was sentenced in 1918 to 22 months in prison. He would later move to the U.S. east coast and established the Freedom of India (FFI) with Lala Dayal, Lala Rai, M.N. Roy, and Virendranath Chattopadhyay and the latter's partner American journalist and writer Agnes Smedley. After partition he founded the Vivekananda Society in Kolkata.

Bhai Parmanand was initially sentenced to death but was later given imprisonment for life. However, his sentence was cut short and he was released in 1920, and the following year he joined the Hindu Mahasabha. He also remained part of the Arya Samaj for life. He invited Hedgewar to Hindu Yuvak Parishad events in the 1930s, and aligned with RSS precursors via Arya Samaj. He also founded the Founded Jat Pat Todak Mandal (Caste System Abolition Society.)

Har Dayal had become an atheist but eventually returned to see the value in Sanatan Dharm and backed Savarkar's Hindu activism.

IIL-INA's Hindu activist roots

R.B. Bose (right) and M.S. Ghuman (centre.)

R.B. Bose and Rani Ki Jhansi Regiment of INA in Singapore.

INA troops in Singapore.

"I have named this organization after the Abhinav Bharat of Savarkar, which means 'New India'—a society dedicated to complete liberation from foreign rule."
- Rash Behari Bose in Tokyo speech, 1942

In a 1915 speech during the Ghadar Party planning at Bengal, he praised Hindu nationalism to free India from imperialist control: "The revival of Hindu nationalism is the only path to India's freedom. Hindus must awaken their ancient spirit of valour and unity to throw off foreign yoke—our culture is the weapon against the British." In a 1938 letter to Savarkar, while establishing the Japanese Hindu Mahasabha, he writes, "The Hindu Rashtra must be built on the unbreakable foundation of our ancient civilization—Hindu nationalism is not mere politics; it is the soul of Bharat, calling for unity against all external threats." In a June 1942 Tokyo Conference speech for establishing IIL, he said, "Hindu nationalism is the eternal flame of India's soul—it unites us not just against the British, but for a resurgent Asia where Hindu culture leads the way to freedom and dignity." Then at a 1943 Bangkok (Thailand) speech he stated, "In the Hindu Rashtra of our dreams, every Indian—Hindu by culture—stands as one against imperialism. This nationalism is our shield and sword for a free Bharat."

R.B. Bose founded the IIL (he named it after ABS) and Indian National Army (INA.) R.B. Bose formed the INA with Mohan Singh Ghuman (Sikh), and the latter was captured by the Japanese imperial army with about 30,000 other British Indian soldiers in Singapore but because the Japanese greatly respected R.B. Bose, they listened to him and freed the POWs, who then became INA soldiers. M.S. Ghuman not only credited R.B. Bose with the INA's foundation but also indirectly credited the Ghadar Movement [for turning him into a freedom fighter], which is essentially R.B.'s movement.

His INA used Hindu/Sikh culture and symbolisms. For example, tilak ceremonies and verses from Ramayana references used. Hindus and Sikhs also formed 70% of the INA. R.B. Bose ran the INA as President and contributed via fundraising, radio broadcasts, and supplies.) About 1,000 of IIL's women (i.e., Lakshmi Sahgal) likely joined the Rani of Jhansi Regiment as nurses and combatants. A further 100-200 youth were sent to Penang (Malaysia) for spy training.

"Swami Vivekananda's message is my political Bible, but the Gita is my spiritual Bible and the source of my inner strength."
- Subhas Chandra Bose in speech to INA officers at Rangoon, Burma (1940)

R.B. Bose then passed on leadership of the IIL and INA to S.C. Bose after the latter showed enthusiasm to join the cause for fighting to liberate India. S.C. Bose, though secular in his freedom struggle for India, was not secular in beliefs and proclaimed the Bhagavad Gita as his favourite book.

Freedom fighters of INC defecting to Hindu groups

It wasn't only Bose who grew tired of Congress and quit to fight for freedom through other institutions. Many Congressmen defected to the political parties Hindu Mahasabha (HM) or Bharatiya Jana Sangh (BJS, predecessor to BJP), while others to the RSS, which wasn't a political party.

Disillusioned Congress members that did not join Hindu groups, created their own parties like Kisan Mazdoor Praja Party (Acharya Kripalani), Socialist Party (J.P. Narayan and Acharya Dev), Swatantra Party (Rajaji), and others. S.C. Bose had taken Savarkar's advice to join S.B. Bose's IIL.

Name	Post	Background	Shift	Other Significance	Birth Region	Ethnicity
Ashutosh Lahiri[1][2]	Bengal Congress MLA		Joined HM in 1948 amid post-Partition Hindu mobilization.	Resorted to violence against imperialists.	Bengal	Bengali
Balraj Madhok	Active in Congress youth wings (1940s)		Joined RSS in 1942 (post-1947 consolidation) as a pracharak; later BJS founder.		Gilgit-Baltistan (Skardu)	Punjabi
Balakrishna Shivram Moonje	Congress volunteer	Early Congress member; influenced by Tilak’s philosophy.	Pre-1947 HM leader who co-founded RSS (1925) with Hedgewar; post-1947, as RSS vice-president (1940–46), he mentored ex-Congress nationalists joining RSS shakhas. Post-1947 Relevance: Facilitated integration of Congress dissidents into RSS during its 1949 rehabilitation post-ban.	Military leader	Chhattisgarh (Bilaspur), then Central Provinces	Marathi
Deendayal Upadhyaya	Congress worker	Active in Congress-affiliated labor unions (1940s); influenced by Gandhi’s constructive program.	Joined RSS in 1942 (pre-1947), but post-1947, rose as RSS pracharak and BJS ideologue (general secretary 1952–67). His defection highlighted youth migration from Congress’ socialist wing.	Started monthly Rashtra Dharma publication.	U.P. (Mathura) then United Provinces	Brajbhasha
Hemwati Nandan Bahuguna	U.P. Congress Chief Minister (1973–75)		Defected to BJP in 1987.		Uttarakhand (Bughani), then United Provinces	Garhwali
Jagannathrao Joshi	Congress worker in Maharashtra		Defected to RSS in 1948, leading Goa liberation efforts.		Karnataka (Nargund)	Kannadiga
Kewalram Ratanmal Malkani	Congress journalist and freedom fighter		Joined BJS in 1951, serving as its first general secretary.		Sindh (Hyderabad), then Bombay Presidency	Sindhi
Lajpat Rai ('Lala', 'Punjab Kesari')	Congress leader	Key Congress figure; led Non-Cooperation in Punjab (1920–22)	In 1926, he resigned from the Congress-backed Swaraj Party and joined the Hindu Mahasabha, criticizing Congress’ “pro-Muslim” compromises (e.g., Lucknow Pact). While this occurred pre-1947, his faction influenced post-1947 HM continuity. Post-1947 Relevance: His legacy drew Congress dissidents to HM in the 1950s, though Rai himself predeceased independence.	A British publication, the Punjab Disturbances Report (AKA Punjab Unrest Report or Aitken Report) printed: “The head and centre of the entire movement is Lajpat Rai, a Khatri pleader— he is a revolutionary and a political enthusiast who is inspired by the most intense hatred of the British government.” He was martyred in a lathi charge by police in 1928 from lathi blows during Simon Commission protests.	Punjab (Dhudike)	Punjabi
Madan Mohan Malaviya ('Mahamana', 'Pandit')	4-time Congress president	Moderate Congress leader; opposed Gandhi’s Non-Cooperation but supported Swaraj.	Dual affiliation pre-1947 (Congress and HM co-founder, 1915), but post-1947, his followers (e.g., in U.P. politics) bolstered HM against Congress’ “secular drift.” Malaviya died in 1946, but his network facilitated defections. He was a member of the HM while also a Congress member. In 1934 he quit to create the rival Congress Nationalist Party. Post-1947 Relevance: HM invoked his name to attract ex-Congress Hindus in 1948–50 elections.	Saved lives in 1924 of 170 Non-Cooperation Movement participants sentenced to death for the Chauri Chaura Incident by securing acquittals for 155 and life sentences for the rest even though he had retired from law in 1911[3] Gandhi conferred him title 'Mahaman' Founded: 1) Banaras Hindu University 2) Bharat Scouts and Guides 3) Hindustan Dainik 4) The Leader	U.P. (Prayag), then United Provinces	Hindi
Narasimha Chintaman Kelkar ('Tatyasaheb')	Congress leader and Tilak’s associate		Defected in the 1920s (formalized post-1947) over Congress’s “soft” stance on communal issues; became HM general secretary.		Maharashtra (Miraj)	Marathi
Dr. Narayan Bhaskar Khare	Premier of Central Provinces and Berar		Expelled from Congress in 1938, and in August 15, 1949		Maharashtra (Panvel)	Marathi
Dr. Sampurnanand	Congress leader		Briefly aligned with HM in 1947–1949 before shifting to BJS.	Achieved doctorate	U.P. (Varanasi)	Hindi
Dr. Syama Prasad Mookerjee	Congress minister, later HM president	Elected to Bengal Legislative Council under Congress (1937); served as India’s first Industry Minister (1947) under Nehru.	Resigned from Congress/HM in 1949 over ideological differences (opposed Article 370, Partition acceptance); founded BJS in 1951 with RSS support. RSS provided organizational backbone (e.g., volunteers for campaigns.) Post-1947 Relevance: His defection symbolized the right-wing Congress exodus to RSS-aligned politics.	He died in 1953 during Kashmir agitation.	Bengal (Kolkata) then Bengal Presidency	Bengali

Militant Hindu groups offering alternative to INC

Abhinav Bharat Society

"I have fought all my life to revive the Hindavī Swarājya of Shivaji and the Peshwas — nothing less than that will satisfy me."
- Senapati Bapat

Veer Savarkar formed this organization in 1904, as in his initial stages of the freedom struggle he aggressively wanted foreigners ruling India punished.

He founded the group on campus of Fergusson College at Pune, where he studied. On campus he smuggled arms and plotted against imperialist rule.

Pandurang Mahadev Bapat was a part of this organization, and after the group was banned, he later joined India House (London), Free India Society (London), Gadar Party, Jugantar Group, and Hindustan Republican Association (HRA) but later served in nonviolent Gandhian groups. Up to 1910 in London, Savarkar and Bapat were still close. He used Hindu symbolism and teachings as inspiration for the freedom movement. When a member of the ABS, he called himself 'Shivaji’s soldier' and took the organization's oath ("We will fight like Shivaji.") For the 1915 Ghadar bomb training, he swore on Bhagavad Gita before bomb plots and quoted Karma Yoga ("Fight without fear.") Within Pune in the 1900s, he used Tilak’s Ganesh Utsav festivals for secret meetings & weapon storage. In his revolutionary poems, he invoked “Mother India as Kali” to awaken martial spirit. During Swadeshi rallies, he chanted Bankim's "Vande Materam" hymn as a battle cry. He was jailed in 1915 for being the accused number 1 in the Nasik Conspiracy Case and was acquitted 5 years later. He had said in the 1920s, "Hindu gods inspire all Indians—Muslim, Sikh, Hindu—to fight the foreigner." Even after independence he participated in the Hyderabad and Goa liberation movements.

Anushilan Samiti (Secret Committee)

Members of the organization.

1912 assassination attempt of Viceroy Hardinge.

"The Marathas under Shivaji overthrew the Mughals with peasant armies; we Bengalis must emulate Hindavi Swarajya to free India from British chains."
- Society’s Secret Circular (1908)

This was the first organization that utilized violence against British imperialists. It influenced freedom groups that formed afterwards. It was formed in 1902.

It was established by Satish Chandra Basu and Pramathanath Mitra (Theosophist and a barrister.) It drew from physical and spiritual training inspired by Bankim Chandra Chatterjee's novel Anandamath (1882) and Swami Vivekananda's emphasis on "muscular national" (building physical strength for national revival.) Initial meetings at Mitra's home focused on lathi (stick) training, yoga, and revolutionary literature. It had eventually forged ties to Irish revolutionary (also anti-Britain) groups for obtaining weapons.

This group blended Hindu cultural promotion with anti-colonial militancy, viewing anti-imperialist violence as dharma (spiritual duty) that was needed in the circumstances. Members took oaths to assassinate imperialist officials and disrupt the British Raj.

Its key violent actions include 1907-1908 assassination attempts on imperialist officials, including plots against magistrates. Mentionable is the 1908 bomb-making and distribution of pistols, and they were linked to the Muzaffarpur Bomb Case of Bihar wherein member Khudiram Bose (then 18) threw a bomb at an imperialist judge's carriage in April 1908, killing 2 British women by mistake. Khudiram was hanged and became a martyr and inspiration for further violence against imperialism. The Alipore Bomb Case of 1908 is noteworthy and the accused was the-then leader Aurobindo Ghosh. In the 1910s when the group expanded to branches in Dhaka and other cities, and Sri Aurobindo was acquitted for conspiracy.

Niralamba Swami (born Jatindra Nath Banerjee) was an active member who became a sanyasi after revolutionary activity was suppressed in Bengal resulting from the association's Alipore bombing. He became a pupil of Aurobindo at Gujarat in 1897. He had met Soham Swami (born Tigoria Baba) was a guru to Niralamba through mentorship and writings. Soham's armed revolutionary training (including bomb-making) and yogic discipline shaped Niralamba. Soham propagated ''Hindu martial dharma" to fight imperialists and wrote the Soham Gita as the 'scripture' for armed revolt.

Rash Behari Bose (not familial relation to Subhas Chandra) was a another key figure of this organization, as in December 23, 1912, he, along with member Basanta Kumar Biswas threw a self made bomb, in the convoy of imperialist Hardinge at Delhi, severely injuring the Viceroy. This was part of the Ghadar Mutiny that planned a number of attacks on imperialist officers in India. Rash Behari Bose would later escape Lahore and would then flee to Japan to avoid being caught and he supported the Indian freedom movement internationally by forming the Indian Independence League (IIL) and Indian National Army (INA.)

This group ended up influencing not only R.B. Bose and his INA but also Bhagat Singh and his HSRA. It further influenced Congress to seek Purna Swaraj (Complete Self-Rule) from previously seeking only Home Rule or Dominion Status within the British Empire.

The association didn't just aim for freedom but aimed to protect Hindus from Muslim terrorists, who were often backed by the Nawab of Bengal. For example, in the 1907 Jamalpur Riot, members wounded 40-50 Muslim terrorists that attacked the residence where the group's lathi-play was taught. Defending members were Bipin Behari Ganguly, Harish Shikdar, Indranath Nandi, Narendra Bose, and Sudhir Sarkar. Ganguly later became the mentor of Gopal Mukherjee. Pulin Behari Das was the establisher of the Dhaka Anushilan Samiti were. Also in 1907 was the riot in Comilla wherein a Hindu shopkeeper that was brooming his store was accused of insulting of the visiting Bengali Nawab with his broom. Muslims attacked the shop, after which a Muslim was shot at by a member and the rioting stopped. In Jamalpur, a Muslim mob attacked Goddess Basanti's image and broke it. (Basanti Puja is one of the biggest festival in Bengal.) This only ranged Hindus that responded to the aggression with aggression, and a member fired upon a Muslim, after which the violence subsided. The puja the proceeded as normal.

During World War I, it collaborated with German agents in the Hindu-German Conspiracy (1914-1917) for uprisings. The British Raj government banned the association. It only splintered into the successor Jugantar by 1914.

R.B. Bose met Aurobindo in 1920s and admired his early revolutionary phase (1905-1910) and Bande Mataram newspaper. Aurobindo's armed resistance in Bengal became a model to Bose. Mahatma Gandhi had condemned the group for using "sinful" violence. Aurobindo would later establish the Jugantar group.

Pulin Behari Das was given a life sentence and he later became an RSS sympathizer.

Atmannati Samiti

"The Maratha Empire under the Peshwas embodied Hindavi Swarajya; we must follow Shivaji’s path to self-rule."
- Society Newsletter (1908)

This group was founded around 1901-1902 in Kolkata by Bipin Behari Ganguli and Pravas Chandra Dey. It worked together with Srish Pal, another revolutionary, was associated with a different but related organization, the Dhaka-based Mukti Sangha (later known as Bengal Volunteers) These 2 groups worked together in carrying out targeted assassinations of British officials and Indian police officers. A notable instance involved a member of the Samiti, Ranen Ganguly, who, along with Srish Pal, assassinated police inspector Nandalal Banerjee in Kolkata in 1908.

Hindu Dharma Rakshini Sabha

"We formed the Hindu Dharma Rakshini Sabha in 1894 with the open aim of protecting Hindu religion and the secret aim of driving out the British by force."
- Chapekar Bandhu-anchi Charitra (1901) By Damodar Chapekar (wrote it in jail)

The Society for the Protection of Hinduism was founded by Damodar Hari Chapekar with his brothers Balkrishna and Vasudeo, and with Mahadev Vinayak Ranade.

The membership oath was taken on the Gita and sword.

They were the founders and core members. The society was publicly a religious-cultural body but secretly a revolutionary conspiracy group.

"We have taken the oath to re-establish Shivaji’s Hindavī Swarājya."
- Chapekar brothers in their own statement before execution (1897)

Its secret inner circle (unnamed in records, but later called 'Chapekar Club' by British police) carried out the assassination of imperialist officers W.C. Rand and Lt. Ayerst on June 22, 1897. The inner circle's members were Chapekar brothers, Ranade, Khando Vishnu Sathe, and a few teenage runners.

Jugantar

 "Shivaji’s Hindavi Swarajya and the Maratha Confederacy’s victories over Aurangzeb are the blueprint for our revolution; the Peshwas showed how to build a Hindu empire."
- Bhupendranath Dutta (1908)

Aurobindo had formed this association.

Swami Satyananda Puri (born Bhavabhushan Mitra) was a key person of this group and he was a Hindu cleric that was influenced by the teachings of Swami Vivekananda. He participated in the Ghadar Mutiny.

Acharya Mahananda Halder, although not a founder, is a mentionable member because he was a member of the Anushilan Samiti (1905-1910), then of the splinter Jugantar Group. He wrote positively since 1939 in his Bengali monthly magazine Ananta Bijoy about S.C. Bose and the INA. He would later establish the Nadia Zila Matua Mahasangha, Harichand Seva Sangha, and Mira High School in Plassey, Nadia. He had personally me the Matua Vaishnava sect founder's son Guruchand Thakur, who was led the sect.

Phanindra Nath Ghosh had gotten arrested and was imprisoned. He participated in the 1942 Quit India movement and on August 15, 1972 was awarded Tamra Patra by the Government of India.

This group, became involved in a serious of planned assassinations. Bagha Jatin (Jatindranath Mukherjee) was the chief planner. On June 2 and November 29 of 1908; Lt. Governor of Bengal on November 7 of 1908; Prosecutor Ashutosh Biswas on 10 February Judge Douglas Kingsford on February 23-27; Narendranath Gossain on April 16, August 24 September; Deputy Superintendent of Police Shamsul Alam on 28 October of 1909.

The last major planned armed confrontation was the Howrah Plot, which was ultimately intercepted and crushed. However, it involved a lot of planning by Bagha Jatin, including collaborating with a German officer (Vincent Kraft) in February 1915 at Kolkata. Jugantar had raised ₹50,000 and over 500 recruits. By May this plot's planning was finalized. Bagha Jatin was the mastermind, M.N. Roy the liaison officer, Chittapriya Ray Chaudhuri the commander, and Jadugopal Mukherjee the bomb expert. Bagha Jatin was martyred in the fighting at Balasore on September 10.

"We die so India may live free."
- Bagha Jatin's dying words

Shivaji Ki Sena

Vasudev Balwant Phadke ('Father of Indian Armed Revolution'.)

"We are Shivaji's Sena—no name needed."

Vasudev Balwant Phadke established it after leaving the Sarvajanik Sabha in 1875. He posthumously earned the title as 'Father of the Armed Revolution'.

The association used Hindu teachings, culture, and symbolisms to inspire the members and promote the movement. The group's flag was bhagwa with Hanuman on it. They said the armed struggle is a form of Karma Yoga. Members would take an oath on a sword and tulsi leaves. He used the term 'Dharm Yuddh' (Spiritual Duty War.) They rallied during Ganesh Utsav.

"Shivaji killed Afzal Khan—we will kill British like demons."
- Phadke (1879 speech)

He, together with his army of about 300 Ramoshi tribesmen revolted violently from February-November 1879. He was arrested and later died in jail.

Other groups offering alternative to INC

Madras Mahajana Sabha (est. 1884), founded by Theosophical Society members (P. Ananda Charlu, M. Viraraghavachari, and Subramania Iyer) used to have its meetings at the Adyar Theosophical Society but it didn't highlight or preach spiritual principles or use spiritual symbolisms, so it cannot be considered a Hindu activist group. Similarly, the Servants of India Society and Sarvajanik Sabha though sometimes making pro-Hindu statements and founded by Hindu activists, cannot be considered Hindu activist groups. The Several other practicing Hindus participated and were martyred in the freedom movement. To such nationalists, religion was a personal matter and they didn't promote it but focused only on working with other freedom fighters for achieving freedom from imperialists.

Arya Samaj

Dayananda Saraswati ('Rashtrarishi'.)

"India can be free only when Hindus return to the pure Vedic Dharma and throw off the slavery of foreign religion and foreign rule."
- "Chapter 13", Satya-Prakash (1877) By Dayananada Saraswati

Dayananada Saraswati (born Mool Shankar Tiwari), titled by admirers as 'Rashtrarishi' (Nation's Seer) was the first vocal activist for Swaraj.

This group influenced freedom fighters Chaudhary Charan Singh, Pandit Lekh Ram, Swami Shraddhanand, Shyamji Krishna Varma, Veer Savarkar, Bhai Parmanand, Har Dayal, Madan Lal Dhingra, Ram Prasad Bismil, Justice Ranade, Mahatma Hansraj, Lajpat Rai, Yogmaya Neupane, and Vallabhbhai Jhaverbhai Patel (V.J. Patel or Sardar Patel) and others. A Sikh freedom fighter it influenced was Kishan Singh. It also influenced Bhagat Singh (former Sikh.)

"The only successful model of Swaraj in Indian history is Shivaji’s Hindavī Swarājya and the Peshwa empire."
- Lala Rai (1920-1928)

Lajpat Rai, titled by admirers as 'Rashtrabhushan' (Nation's Medal) and 'Lala Rai', became a member and also joined the Congress.

Bharat Dharma Mahamandala & Hindu Mahasabha

Mahaman Malaviya (right) with Mahatma Gandhi (left.)

"India will be free only when Hindus realise that they are a nation by themselves and organise politically, culturally, and militarily as Hindus."
- Veer Savarkar

The BDMM formed in 1902 by Pandit Din Dayalu Sharma and Mahaman Malaviya to consolidate (better organize) Sanatan Sabhas and arrange activities. Several Sanatan Sabhas were established from 1887-1900 all over India but the BDMM gave them all a common platform.

Later, its political wing, the HM, formed in 1915 under Mahaman Malaviya, and in its 1920s-1930s stages was highly political and supportive of the freedom struggle.

Congress congratulated BDMM with establishing the Banaras Hindu University (BHU), which would go on to become an extremely important a hub for the freedom movement.

Savarkar joined this organization in 1937, as he was banned from politics as a condition of his prison-release. He stated in 1937, "Hindus must organize politically to secure Swaraj."

He would seize the opportunity of WWII to enlist Hindus for become militarized to eventually overthrow the imperialists and have an independent India.

"The goal of complete independence is nothing but the revival of Hindavī Swarājya first established by Shivaji and expanded by the Peshwas."
- Veer Savarkar (1923-1938)

In 1991, the-then PM of India, Pamulaparthi Venkata Narasimha Rao (PVNR) said, "Malaviya was a freedom fighter, educationalist, and Congress stalwart—his legacy is secular and inclusive." He had also made other positive statements.

Indian League

Sisir Kumar Ghosh ('Father of Indian Nationalism'.)

"The Marathas under Shivaji exemplified unyielding resistance against Mughal tyranny, a valor that must now inspire us to reclaim our rights from British overlords who impose racial barriers and economic exploitation."
- Editorial in Hindoo Patriot (1870s-1880s) By Sisir Kumar Ghosh

While the group was Upanishad-inspired, it was a universal organization open to all and cannot be claimed to be of only Hindis but the Hindus of this group not only had members in the freedom movement, but those members proactively promulgated independence. This association was established by Sisir Kumar Ghosh, who grew up a critic of Hinduism but after a vision of Kali, became a devout Hindu. Ghosh was a big admirer of Shivaji and wanted Indians to emulate what he had to Mughals for doing the same to the British imperialists and described him as "the emancipator who broke the chains of foreign subjugation."

One of the leaders, Surendranath Banerjea, too used Shivaji as the example of a freedom fighter.

"Hinduism's ancient spirit of tolerance and justice must inspire all Indians—Hindus, Muslims, Christians—to demand equal political rights from the British, for India's freedom lies in our collective national awakening, not religious division."
- Association Resolution on Ilbert Bill Protest, The Bengalee newspaper (1877)

Its members created the Indian Association (1876) and Indian National Conference (1883), which merged into the Indian National Congress. The Indian National Conference was the first to demand self-government.

"This Conference, representing chiefly the Hindu community, declares that the political regeneration of India is the first and highest duty of every Hindu, and calls upon all Hindus to unite for the attainment of self-government."
- Official Resolution No. 3 (1883)

It actively participated in the Swadeshi movement to boycott British goods.

Dawn Society

"Just as Shivaji forged Hindavi Swarajya from Deccan resistance to Mughal invaders, we must build Swadeshi Swarajya through indigenous industries and education to expel British economic domination."
- Bipin Chandra Pal (1905-1906)

Bipin Chandra Pal of the group earned the title 'Father of Revolutionary Thoughts in India' and he was part of the political trio of 3 separate politicians, Lal-Bal-Pal, consisting of Lala Rai, Lokmanya Tilak, and himself, from 3 separate political groups.

Aurobindo Ghosh had given a similar statement as above. Dawn Society organizers at the June 1906 Shivaji Utsav in Kolkata too had made a similar reference.

"Hinduism is India's soul—revive it for freedom."
- Sister Nivedita

It was established by Satish Chandra Mukherjee in 1902 at Kolkata. Members included Rabindranath Tagore, Aurobindo Ghosh, Rajendra Prasad, Raja Subodh Chandra Mullick, Radha Kumud Mukherjee and Brajendra Kishore Roy Chowdhury.

It not only openly participated in Shivaji Jayanti and Ganesh Utsav, but used events like the latter for Swadeshi rallies. It performed bhajans. It also had Gita study classes wherein it encouraged the scripture's call for Karma Yoga but towards Swadeshi.

It also utilized Hindu symbols like Bharat Mata, the Aum for the Society's logo, and the lotus.

"Gita is our battle cry—not for caste, but nation."
- Aurobindo

Its newspaper was Dawn.

Deccan Education Society & Fergusson College

Deccan Education Society founders.

"Swaraj is my birthright, and I shall have it...[This is] the same Swaraj that Shivaji and Baji Rao I had established in the Maratha Empire—a model of Hindavi Swarajya against tyranny."
- Lokmanya Tilak in lecture at Fergusson College and Kesari editorials (1890s-1910s)
"We shall teach the best of Hindu thought—the Upanishads, the Gita—but only as literature and ethics, never as religious dogma; our students will be Hindus, Muslims, Christians, and Parsis sitting together."
- G.G. Agarkar, First Principal of Fergusson College (1885)

The DES was formed in 1884 by Lokmanya Tilak, Gopal Ganesh Agarkar, and Vishnushastri Chiplunkar and others. Its prime focus was utilizing Western-tyle education to uplift the-then generation of children and train them in to become freedom fighters. So it established the Fergusson College (named after the-then Governor of the Bombay Presidency) in Pune. Tilak posthumously earned the title as 'Father of the Indian Unrest'.

It advocated assertive nationalism, mass mobilization, Swadeshi (boycott of British goods), and Swaraj.

Savarkar studied here, and being influenced by Tilak, he too sought independence for India. India's PM PVNR, who would later participate in protests against the Hyderabad Nizam, studied here. Vishwanath Pratap Singh too. K.C. Kelkar and Acharya J.B. Kripalani are noteworthy.

Tilak would revive Shivaji Jayanti and Ganesh Chaturthi as platforms for anti-imperialist speeches, turning religious events into freedom activist opportunities.

In 1905 its students protested against the Bengal Partition and organized boycotts too.

Tilak would mentor and create revolutionaries that would contribute to the independence movement. He said in a 1901 letter to Govindrao Apte, "Vinayak is my spiritual son—he will surpass me in revolution."

Gurudev Seva Sangh & Gurukunj Ashram

Tukdoji Maharaj ('Rashtrasant') in the centre.

"Shivaji Maharaj’s Swarajya was Dharma-rajya (righteous rule). That is the real Swarajya we have to bring back again. When the British leave, true Swarajya will come."
- "Chapter 47" (verse on national unity), Gram-Geeta (1946-47) By Tukdoji Maharaj

Tukdoji Maharaj (born Mankidev Banduji Ingale), established the Gurukunj Ashram in 1936, then the Gurudev Seva Sangh in 1942. After independence the Sangh would become the All India Shri Gurudev Seva Mandal. This organization sought a 'dharma-rajya'.

Shivaji was this saint's number 1 hero, and in speeches for Quit India at Vidarbha villages, Jungle Satyagraha, and Sevagram Ashram he likened Shivaji defeating Mughal imperialists to modern the-then freedom freedom fighters against British imperialists. He even composed a bhajan, which he sang 1942-45, with the lyrics, "Victory to Shivaji Maharaj, victory to Hindavi Swarajya; let British rule end, let Mother India be free." His main centre, the Mohan-Kheda Ashram, had attendants from mainly the Gond and other tribal communities, and he had said, "I am a Gond-Koitur, I am a tribal, but Shivaji Maharaj’s Swarajya is also my Swarajya."

From 1935 onwards, bhajan mandal (hymn society) networks had for secret meetings, satyagraha training, and Quit India mobilization, and eventually numbered over 500 village-level groups in Vidarbha by 1942.

"Hindu dharma is the soul of Bharat—its rivers of knowledge flow to unite all in selfless service. For freedom, Hindus must embody this dharma, building villages as temples of unity."
- Gramgeeta (1940s), Gurudev Seva Sangh publication

In 1941, Tukdoji participated in satyagraha, and partook in the Quit India movement. He was arrested in 1942 and was imprisoned in Nagpur and Raipur Central Jails.

The ashram was a base for Quit India rallies in 1942, and British police raided it during Tukdoji’s arrest. Gandhi visited in 1945, praising it as a “temple of service.”

He earned the title 'Rashtrasant' (National Saint.) His other alias was Tukaram Vaidya.

Prarthana Samaj

Dr. K.B. Antrolikar.

"The Marathas under Shivaji and the Peshwas proved that Indians are capable of the highest form of self-government. The British tell us we are unfit to rule ourselves — history answers them with the example of the Maratha Empire."
- Justice Ranade speech at the Deccan College in Pune (late 1880s) 

Shivaji was a major inspiration to Ranade for achieving independence the way the Chhatrapati did.

"We pray for India’s freedom, but our main work is religious and social reform within Hindu society. Swaraj without Dharma-rajya is useless."
- Dr. K.B. Antrolikar, President (1931)

This group supplied the manpower to Congress.

Ramakrishna Mission

Swami Akhandananda.

"Shivaji was one of the greatest national saviors who emancipated our society and our Hindu dharma...His Hindavi Swarajya united the fragmented Hindu kingdoms against oppression."
- Swami Vivekananda in speech at Chicago, U.S. (1890s-1902)

Swami Vivekananda, titled by admirers as 'Rashtraguru' (Nation's Mentor) and 'Father of Indian Socialism', was Bose's primary spiritual and nationalist inspiration. He read Vivekananda's works as a teenager and joined the organization briefly. Vivekananda's call for "man-making," muscular Hinduism, and national regeneration through strength deeply shaped Bose's view that India needed physical courage and martial spirit. Bose later said, "Vivekananda was the first prophet of Indian nationalism."

"Political freedom without Hindu revival is useless. Swaraj must be based on Dharma; otherwise it will be slavery under a new name."
- Swami Akhandananda in speech at Belur Math (1934)

M.N. Roy, founder of the Communist Party of India too praised this organization's Ramakrishna and Vivekananda.

Sanatan Sabha

"The only successful model of Swaraj in Indian history is Shivaji's Hindavi Swarajya and the Peshwa Empire."
- Lala Rai (1895)

It formed in the 1890s.

"The only way to save Hindu Dharma and obtain Swaraj is for Hindus to organise politically as Hindus and fight for Hindu Raj."
- Punjab Sanatan Sabha (1895)

Hindavi legacy in 1946 RIN Mutiny

Although religious sloganeering was banned in the In the Royal Indian Navy (RIN) Mutiny [to avoid conflict of focus on fighting imperialism] symbolism of Hindu warriors were definitely visible. Phrases proclaiming loyalty to Nana Sahib, Rani Lakshmi Bai, Tantya Tope, Mangal Pandey, as well as Anushilan Samiti's member Khudiram Bose and the INA's Netaji were used.

The RIN mutineers proclaimed themselves as the naval wing of the INA (the organization established by Savarkar's pupil R.B. Bose), even renamed the Central Strike Committee the 'Naval Wing Central Command of the Azad Hind Government'. They even used the INA oath (not the British one) when administering new recruits on the ships. The mutineers hoisted the INA flag with the springing tiger. HMIS Talwar’s February 19 broadcast called itself the 'Azad Hind Radio'.

Controversy over HM and RSS

Savarkar began noticeable anti-imperialist actions by first burning foreign clothes at Nasik in 1899. At age 16 on Ganesh Utsav in 1899 he founded the Mitra Mela, India's first secret revolutionary society to fight British rule in 1857-style armed revolts. The secret ritual of members was a sword puja and blood oath on Shivaji's portrait.

"Mitra Mela is a secret revolutionary society—Savarkar brothers are leaders."
- CID Report, Nasik (1900)

In 1900 he created a bomb manual. In 1901 he led anti-partition agitation in Pune (Pakistan's creation was supported among Muslims.) In 1902's Shivaji Utsav, he gave armed revolution speeches. In 1904 the Mitra Mela became the Abhinav Bharat Society.

"V.D. Savarkar, Fergusson College student, is most dangerous—already praised as 'Young Shivaji' by Marathi press."
- CID Report, Nasik (1900)

In 1902 Kal newspaper wrote of him as, "Future leader of revolution." As Savarkar departed for London in 1903, Nasik's Pratod newspaper wrote, "Savarkar will shake the Empire."

Savarkar was heralded a revolutionary hero when he was sentenced to life for partaking in assassinations of imperialist officers, even in secular newspapers, such as Maharashtra-based Kesari, The Bombay Chronicle, and The Mahratta, Bengal-based ones like Amrita Bazar Patrika, Tamil-Nadu-based ones like The Hindu, and Gujarat-based ones like Young India and Harijan. After Savarkar focused on organizing Hindus upon released from prison, some of these newspapers, like Gandhian Harijan and Young India became critical of him.

In hindsight, evaluating the situation that Savarkar chose to organize Hindus looks fair because Muslims had their own Muslim League. Not only that, but this group of Muslims kept expecting more appeasement from Hindus via Gandhi. This same double standard was criticized by martyr Bhagat Singh, who was hanged under order of execution in prison by imperialists. He was critical of Savarkar and his Hindu Mahasabha, Jinnah and his Muslim League, and Gandhi and his Congress. Still, he acknowledged that Hindus nationalists were only reacting to Islamist abuse of Hindu tolerance: "Congress is soft on Muslim League’s separatism and Hindu Mahasabha’s reaction. Their secularism is cowardice — it lets communalists grow." Bose too acknowledged that Savarkar's response is reactionary and not the starter.

Savarkar's mentorship of R.B. Bose and S.C. Bose

Rash Behari Bose (left) pictured with Rabindranath Tagore (centre.)
Rash's wife Toshiko and daughter Tosiko are pictured between the 2.

Rash Behari Bose (centre) pictured with Subhas Chandra Bose (left) at Singapore.

"I have fought all my life to revive the Hindavī Swarājya of Shivaji and the Peshwas — nothing less than that will satisfy me." - Senapati Bapat (1940s)

While S.C. Bose criticized Savarkar for participating in pro-Hindu politics via the Hindu Mahasabha, Bose did tribute Savarkar for advice to join IIL and INA with Japanese military training, and also praised Savarkar for recruiting so many soldiers for the British military that benefitted Indians being militarized (for joining INA or fighting British.) The Hindu Mahasabha that Savarkar was a politician of had an offshore branch founded by R.B. Bose, who had later founded the IIL and INA. This pro-Hindu R.B. Bose became the military mentor of S.C. Bose, though focused purely on liberation of India without advising on how to deal with Islamic separatism. R.B. Bose was inspired by Savarkar to use violence against imperialist forces, and he had read Savarkar's The Indian War of Independence, 1857. This book framed the 1857 warfare not as mere random flareups or even a 'mutiny' but a planned war of liberation. R.B. Bose wrote to A.M. Nair in the 1940s, "Savarkar is my guru in revolution. His book lit the fire in me." In a 1942 Tokyo speech he declared, "It was Savarkar who taught us that 1857 was not a sepoy mutiny but India's First War of Independence...and that we must continue that war with bombs and bullets." He learned from Savarkar's materials which were distributed at India House in London, England, how to make bombs. Hemchandra Das (of Anushilan Samiti) and Pandurang Mahadev Bapat (alias 'Senapati') learned bomb-making techniques at Paris from a Russian on direct instructions of Savarkar.

Judging by Savarkar's actions, without him the same fervour to fight imperialism militarily would not have spread to the extent it did, as not only did Savarkar's assassinations inspire other Indians to do so but his advice for S.C. Bose to train under the Japanese and fight the British imperialist forces would not have happened. The Ghadar Mutiny also would not have transpired.

Support to RIN mutineers and INA soldiers

Azad Hind Radio declared, "Quit India failed—INA trials forced Britain to leave in 1947."

In November 5, 1945 the INA trials began by hearings of Prem Sehgal, Shah Nawaz, and Gurbaksh Dhillon. On the 12th, declared INA Day, the riots of Kolkata and Mumbai began. In January 1946 10 more trials occurred. It is noteworthy that the U.S. and U.S.S.R. condemned the trials.

From 18-25 February 1946, the-then Royal Indian Navy (RIN) staged a revolt by Mumbai (then Bombay) and this struggle spread to other cities in the Subcontinent, such as Koltaka (then Calcutta) and Karachi, as well as to other colonial ports outside of India, such as Bahrain and Hong Kong. Although bloodless, it against sent a message to the British imperialists that Indians simply don't want to be ruled by them and want independence. It involved 78 ships, 20 shore bases, and 20,000 sailors.

Savarkar had written in The Mahratta (1947), “The sailors of the RIN have done what the Congress could not do in decades—they have made the British tremble. This is the real meaning of Swaraj by any means.”

The Hindu Mahasabha in defending the mutineers had also said, “The RIN sailors—Hindus, Sikhs, and Muslims—have emulated the 1857 heroes…Their mutiny is a sacred fight for India’s freedom; we stand with these brave sons of Hindudom who turned against the Empire.”

During the court trials of mutineers and INA soldiers, Hindu Mahasabha (i.e., N.C. Chatterjee, L.B. Bhopatkar) members defended them by providing legal assistance and positive support in the press.

Savarkar proclaimed at Mumbai in November 1945, "INA men are Hindu warriors—their trial is British tyranny. We stand with them." At Pune in 1946, he said, "INA and RIN men are our soldiers—Hindu Mahasabha will feed, employ, and honour them." The Hindu Mahasabha resolution of December 1945 wrote, "Demand full pardon—INA fought for Swaraj." Mahasabha members rallied in 100+ cities to "Release INA heroes."

Golwalkar in 1945 demanded, "Swayamsewaks must support INA—attend rallies." He announced in 1946, "INA and RIN mutineers are national heroes—British must quit." Then in 1947 at an RSS shakha, "Every INA and RIN veteran is a Sangh soldier—we will rehabilitate them as our own." Swayamsewaks joined Mumbai strikes to support RIN mutineers. It had also provided prayers at shakhas for INA soldiers. Organiser equated INA with the 1857 war of independence.

A British CID Report (1946) wrote, "HM and RSS gave shelter, funds to 3,000+INA/RIN men in Bombay, Delhi." Nehru being scared of their influence had written to Sardar Patel in 1948, "RSS is absorbing INA veterans—dangerous trend." A British CID Report report also wrote, "HM and RSS fully backed INA trials protests—mobilized 1 lakh+ in Maharashtra, Punjab."

In 1945, the INA Defense Fund was setup and over ₹1 lakh was collected, including the ₹10,000 that Savarkar personally donated. In 1946, RSS swayamsewaks smuggled food to HMAS Talwar mutineers. IN 1945-46, 100+ shakhas in Maharashtra, U.P. provided food and clothing at INA relief camps. The Hindu Mahasabha had provided legal aid to Captain Shah Nawaz Khan (Muslim) and provided him a job in Bhopal state. Afterwards RSS provided Leading Seaman M.S. Khan (Muslim) of the RIN a job at Nagpur mill. Savarkar personally provided a ₹5,000 grant to Colonel Sehgal. In 1947-48, RSS' Seva Bharati wing even placed 2,000+ INA/RIN men in mills and/or schools. From 1947-50, 500+ INA veterans were provided jobs in HM-run schools and/or cooperatives. In the 1950s, Hindu Mahasabha demanded spearheaded a pensions campaign wherein it demanded fighter pensions for INA soldiers. In the 1950s, RSS formed the Poorna Swaraj Sainik Dal (Complete Self-Rule Soldier Council) wing to provide pensions and housing for veterans.

RSS even built the INA Martyrs' Memorial at Nagpur.

Savarkar had written in his book that Hindu and Sikh sepoys used the British imperialists’ weapons against them and called for doing the same during WWII. This strategy had worked as demonstrated by uprisings of the INA (many British Indian Army soldiers defected to it) and the RIN, and even before them there were British officials that warned against training Indians as they feared it would lead to them revolting against British rule again. Modern historians have pointed this out.

While Veer Savarkar had already begun recruiting soldiers in 1939 to fight Axis Powers, Sardar Patel began in 1940. While from 1939 to a part of 1940 Patel strongly opposed recruitment, he later admittedly saw Savarkar's logic as useful for India's future; "Join the army—get trained, get armed. This is our chance to build India's future military." Patel first began recruiting from Bardoli and villages of Gujarat in 1941. By 1942 he even openly encouraged Congress workers to flood the army with Indian youth. (Patel and Savarkar raised the largest volunteer army in history.) The difference was that Patel recruited from all provinces whereas Savarkar from Hindu-majority ones. It is officially a Guinness World Record.

Savarkar at a Nagpur speech in 1941 stated, "2.5 lakh Hindus have joined—this is Hindu power. Britain's war is our training ground."

Savarkar in 1909	Savarkar in 1937	Savarkar in WWII era	Patel's acknowledgement	British admissions
“Hindus and Sikhs, brothers in blood and battle, forgot their differences…The sepoy mutiny became a national uprising…Thousands of Hindu and Sikh soldiers laid down their lives for Swaraj, turning British bayonets against their oppressors.”	"The era of the secret societies and bombs is over. We fight through open politics and military service."	“Hinduise all politics and militarise Hindudom! The Sikhs and Hindus must join the forces in millions…to learn the arts of war… When the time comes, as in 1857, they will turn their guns on the foreigner and secure Swaraj.”	"Savarkar was right on one count—we must have our men in the army in overwhelming numbers." - Sardar Patel (1942) "We opposed recruitment in 1939 out of principle, but now with Japan at our borders, we must support it for the greater national interest—to build an army that will one day be ours, as Savarkar has long argued." - Patel (1942) "Sardar admitted that the Hindu Mahasabha policy of recruitment has proved strategically correct." - G.D. Birla	"INA trials made the Indian Army unreliable—we cannot hold India." - Field Marshal Auchinleck, 1946 "The INA sentiment in the Army was the chief reason for leaving." - U.K. PM Clement Attlee, 1946

Liberation of princely-states and other colonies

It was Savarkar in August 15, 1947 who wrote for the Indian government to force accession or required annexation upon princely states (Bhopal, Hyderabad, Junagadh) that were ruled by Muslims who did not want to accede to the Indian Union and instead would choose Pakistan. He said in August, "Muslim rulers of Hindu-majority states like Junagadh and Hyderabad must accede to India or face liberation by force." He had said in 1948, "Junagadh and Hyderabad prove: Hindu blood and soil cannot be surrendered to Muslim rulers. Force is dharma when persuasion fails." Golwalkar had said in 1948, "Where the Hindu majority is suppressed by a Muslim ruler, the Indian state has a duty to intervene."

Savarkar said in 1947, "Kashmir must be India's-by the Maharaja's will, by Hindu blood, and by eternal dharma." Golwalkar followed in August 17. Patel delayed the decision because he even in independence India took Mountbatten's advice to exhaust diplomacy (letters, negotiations.) The accession agreed by Maharaja Hari Singh occurred October 26 but Pakistan-sent raiders had invaded his territory. The actual invasion of Kashmir by Indian Army occurred November 9.

On August 17, RSS' Organiser published, "Junagadh's Nawab cannot defy 80% Hindu population. India must act decisively." September 13, Savarkar declared in a speech in Mumbai, "Junagadh is Hindu land. If the Nawab joins Pakistan, India must invade." Patel followed by his statement to the press at New Delhi on September 15, "We cannot accept Junagadh's accession to Pakistan. The Government of India will take appropriate action." On November 9 the Indian Army liberated Junagadh.

On August, Hindu Rashtra published, "Hyderabad's Nizam rules over 85% Hindus. He must be join India or be removed." Golwalkar wrote, "Hyderabad's Hundus are under Razakar terror. India must intervene." Patel followed in August 21, 1948 by a statement in the Constituent Assembly, "If Hyderabad does not accede, we will be forced to take police action." India launched Operation Polo invasion in September 13, 1948.

It is noteworthy that the Muslim-ruled princely states whose rulers supported the British in the 1857 War of Independence also were pro-Pakistan and the kingdoms becoming incorporated into the Union of India was delayed as a result. These princely states were Balasinor (Gujarat), Bhopal (M.P.), Hyderabad (A.P., Karnataka, Maharashtra, and Telangana), Jafarabad (Gujarat), Jaora (M.P.), Junagadh (Gujarat), Palanpur (Gujarat), Rampur (U.P.), Sachins (Gujarat), and Tonk (Rajasthan.) Of the princely states which became a part of Pakistan, all were pro-British in the 1857 War; Bhawalpur (Panjab), Kalat (Balochistan), and Khairpur (Sindh.)

Other post-liberation support of freedom fighters

Acharya Vinoba had met Golwalkar in 1951 at Meerut, U.P. He requested RSS volunteers for Bhoodan land collection, to which Golwakar decreed, "Bhoodan is national service—every swayamsewak must participate." As a result, thousands of swayamsewaks fanned out in U.P., M.P., and Bihar (then included Jharkhand too), RSS shakhas were used as collection centres for documentation and transport. This resulted in 1.5 lakh acres in RSS-strong areas. It is noteworthy that RSS weekly Organiser paper declared the Bhoodan as "Hindu social duty."

Summary of criticisms

Person	Group	Criticism	Rebuttal
Savarkar	Hindu Mahasabha	'Savarkar did nothing in the freedom movement.'	Savarkar's influence was international and monumentous, not only by his own actions of having participated in assassinations of imperialist officers and ways to disturb British Raj in India, but personally training and having given instructions of bomb-making.
Savarkar	Hindu Mahasabha	'Savarkar did nothing for the freedom movement after being released from jail.'	After his release, which included the condition that he couldn't join politics until 1937, not wanting to have the HM banned, he focused on organizing Hindus, which would be beneficial for recognizing common threats (British Raj) and finding way to challenge them non-military for the moment and militarily when the time is right. S.C. Bose and his mentor R.B. Bose credit Savarkar for his precious advice to them. R.B. viewed Savarkar as his greatest mentor.
Savarkar	Hindu Mahasabha	'Savarkar begged for mercy to escape jail, making him a coward.'	Savarkar's mercy petitions allowed him to escape for contributing to the freedom movement, such as by organizing Hindus to eliminate prejudices among themselves for uniting them to strike the British Raj. Lala's The Tribune and later speech and Lokmanya's Kesari wrote that they were a clever strategy to strike the imperialist forces later. Madame Bhikaji Cama, Shyamji Krishna Varma and S.C. Bose defended Savarkar's release, albeit by mercy petitions. Savarkar's pupil R.B.'s letter to him and speech in Tokyo supported the petitions for the same reasons. Lala by 1927 grew disappointed of Savarkar, but realized that same year Savarkar was correct to unite Hindus and in 1928 even declared to his sacrifices and those of people like him will not be in vain because Hindus will honour them with fighting for swaraj.
Savarkar	Hindu Mahasabha	'Partition was Savarkar's idea and wouldn't have happened without him.'	Partition was already a theory openly declared by Muslims. Savarkar only stated that he was fine with partition for Muslims to create a Pakistan only if Hindus then create a Hindu-centric Hindustan. In essence, this was a threat to Muslim supremacists that if they create an Islamofascist nation then Hindus will cease their Gandhi-like openness and create a pro-Hindu nation. Savarkar personally fought against Pakistan's creation, beginning with leading mass nationwide petitions. He held nonviolent conferences like the 1938 Nagpur session and the 1940 Lahore protest against the demand for Pakistan's creation. Examples of Muslim politicians in support of a separate Islamic nation before Savarkar even mentioned the two-nation theory were Sir Syed Ahmad Khan, Allama Muhammad Iqbal (Muslim League President) in 1930, Syed Zafarul Hasan between 1930-1931, Choudhry Rahmat Ali in 1933, Abul Kasem Fazlul Huq (Bengal League leader) between 1935-1936, and Sir Muhammad Iqbal in 1937. Bhagat Singh even wrote about the Muslim League's demand for Pakistan in 1930. While everyone acknowledges that Jinnah and Muslim League were the primary cause of Pakistan, many freedom fighters agreed that Congress were the secondary cause because it only enabled Muslim demands. Communists like Bose, Socialists like Jaya Prakash Narayan, Narendra Dev, and Ram Mohan Lohia blamed Congress' appeasement. While Bhagat Singh died before the two-nation theory was accepted, he criticized Congress' appeasement of Muslims. Minoo Masani of the Swatantra Party did the same., and others like Acharya Vinoba. Congress members like Rajendra Prasad and Purushottam Tandon admitted Congress went too far to appease Muslims. As Sardar Patel blamed Nehru's appeasement responsible for creating Pakistan, Nehru admitted "over-accommodation." Patel later proclaimed at an RSS meeting that he doesn't want to appease any community, be it Hindu or Muslim. He also made it clear that Muslims must accept Indian secularism and ask for no privileges. It is noteworthy that Savarkar too pointed out the Cabinet Mission of 1946 as Congress appeasement of Muslims.
Savarkar	Hindu Mahasabha	'Savarkar's name or title shouldn't be Veer.'	Many Indians keep nicknames, and Lajpat Rai was 'Lala' while Chakravarti Rajagopalachari was 'Rajaji'. Savarkar wrote The Indian War of Independence, 1857, and the warfare included an insurgency instigated in Chhattisgarh by Veer Narayan Singh. 'Veer' is a legitimate first name. He was referred to as 'brave' by multiple freedom fighters, including Gandhi. He was also personally addressed as Veer Savarkar by freedom fighters including S.C. Bose.
Savarkar, Golwalkar	Hindu Mahasabha, RSS	'They did not participate in the Quit India movement.'	Savarkar opposed the movement on the basis that Indians wouldn't become soldiers to fight in WWII. He wanted Hindus to become militarized to overthrow the British later. The Hindu Mahasabha already had members that were war veterans, such as Savarkar's brother Ganesh, B.B. Tholkar, B.S. Moonje, and L.V. Paranjpe, and wanted an army to eventually fight British rule. Golwalkar's policy for the RSS was, "Swayamsewaks who are inclined to participate in the national struggle should do so as individual citizens, without involving the Sangh organization." Thousands of RSS members joined underground networks, distributed pro-movement pamphlets, and sheltered to Aruna Asaf Ali (Muslim) and Jaya Prakash Narayan, who were being hunted by imperialist forces. RSS underground networks in Delhi also helped Acharya Kripalani evade arrest in 1942. RSS members also contributed in bomb-making and railway sabotage. S.C. Bose, while an ally of the Japanese, believed the timing was wrong and would replace British imperialist rule in India with a Japanese one. He wanted to be a involved in the war wherein India is invaded from the Burmese border and British imperialists are fought. Communist Party of India also decide to not partake in the movement, as it supported fellow communists of the U.S.S.R., which was under attack by Nazi Germany. It must be noted, however, that there were HM and RSS members who participated in Quit India. The most noteworthy example is Hemu Kalani of Sindh, who was sentenced to death and went to the gallows smiling with his Bhagavad Gita in hand.
Savarkar, Golwalkar	Hindu Mahasabha, RSS	'They did not participate in the freedom celebrations.'	HM and RSS, as well as INA and CPI boycotted the festivities, as they were dissatisfied with the outcome of the struggle (partition) and having dominion status (having Britain's Viceroy as Head of State) instead of outright independence.

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